Computer Networks

Question paper pattern

 Computer Networks:
* Advantages and Disadvantages
* Growth of internet
* Growth of CN

 Transmission:
* Guided and Unguided
* Various Transmission media or (any two)
* Note on Optical or Glass Fibers/Optical Transmission
* Note on Co-axial cables
* Note on UTP
* Data Transmission using RS232C interface
* Microwave transmission

 Communication Methods:
* Asynchronous communication
* 3 types of transmission modes of asynchronous communication
* Geosynchronous Satellites
* Satellite transmission

 Multiplexing:
* Time Division
* Frequency Division
* Different types of multiplexing
* Broadband and Baseband
* Wavelength division

 General:
* Standards of communication
* Effects of noise on communication
* Note on Modem

 Error Detection:
* ED using CRC
* Different techniques of ED/Short note on ED
* ER with checksum
* Parity check
* Note on transmission errors

 Technologies and Network Topologies:

* Different types of LAN topologies/Various topologies of LAN in detail
* Compare LAN, MAN & WAN/Compare LAN & WAN
* Types of Network Topologies
* Working of self-Healing token passing network
* Note on carrier sense on CSMA
* Working of Token ring
* Explain CSMA/CD used to access shared medium in LAN

 Hardware addressing and frame type identification:

* Note on frame headers and frame format
* Format of various physical addressing scheme
* How a LAN hardware uses address to filter packets?
* Note on Network Interface Hardware
* Explain how two LAN segments are connected by a bridge

 Extending LANs:
* Use of NIC/How NIC works
* Dijkstra’s short path algorithm
* Note on Broadcast and satellite systems
* Note on SONET
* Types of Delay
* Network Performance characteristics
* Explain/ Note on ISDN
* Any two services used to access ISDN
* Shortest path computation in graph
* Describe 2 DSL technologies
* Note on Connection btw NIC and Network
* Distance Vector algorithm
* Asymmetric digital subscriber Line technology

 Unit 4:
* Seven layers of ISO OSI Model/ISO OSI reference model
* UDP short note
* Note on TCP/IP protocols/ TCP/IP architecture/ TCP/IP model
*Explain Packet switching
* Need of Flooding
* Note on Telnet
*Note on DNS
* Note on ARP/ARP messages delivery
* CSMA/CD protocol
* WWW
* Dynamic and Static Routing

 IP:
* Compare IPv4 and IPv6
* Classes of IP addresses
* Note on TCP
* Features of IPv6
* Note on IPv4 datagram format
* Any three special IP addresses
* TCP services
ISDN, or Integrated Services Digital Network, is a telecommunications technology that
provides digital transmission of voice and data over traditional copper telephone lines. It
enables the simultaneous transmission of voice and data with superior quality compared to
analog telephone lines. ISDN has two main variations: BRI (Basic Rate Interface) and PRI
(Primary Rate Interface).
Here's a breakdown of the key points about ISDN, BRI, and PRI:
**Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN):**
- ISDN is a circuit-switched connection technology.
- It allows for the digitization of access to the telephone network, meaning it converts analog
signals (like your voice) into digital data for transmission.
- ISDN supports both switched and non-switched applications, meaning it can establish
connections on-demand or maintain continuous connections.
- It supports both voice and non-voice applications, making it versatile for various data and
communication needs.
- ISDN relies on 64 Kbps (kilobits per second) connections as the basic building blocks for
data transmission.
- The network infrastructure in ISDN is intelligent and capable of handling various types of
traffic.
- ISDN uses a layered protocol architecture, which organizes data transmission into distinct
layers, each with its specific function.
- It offers a variety of configurations to accommodate different usage scenarios.

**Basic Rate Interface (BRI):**

- BRI is a variation of ISDN intended primarily for home users and small businesses.
- It consists of two data channels (B channels), each capable of transmitting data at 64 Kbps,
and one signaling channel (D channel) with a capacity of 16 Kbps.
- The total bandwidth of BRI is 144 Kbps (2B + 1D).

**Primary Rate Interface (PRI):**

- PRI is used in larger business environments and offers more capacity than BRI.
- In the United States, PRI consists of 23 B channels and one D channel (23B+D). Each B
channel has a capacity of 64 Kbps, resulting in a total bandwidth of 1,536 Kbps (or 1.5
Mbps).
- In Europe, PRI includes 30 B channels and one D channel (30B+D), each with a capacity of
64 Kbps, for a total bandwidth of 1,984 Kbps (or nearly 2 Mbps).

In practical terms, BRI is suitable for small-scale applications like home offices, whereas PRI
is better suited for larger organizations with more extensive communication needs. Both BRI
and PRI offer the advantages of digital transmission, better call quality, and the ability to
handle voice and data simultaneously. ISDN was a significant advancement in
telecommunications when it was introduced, although it has largely been replaced by more
modern technologies like broadband internet connections and VoIP (Voice over Internet
Protocol) for voice and data transmission.

SONET, which stands for Synchronous Optical Network, is a standardized

technology for high-speed data transmission using optical fibers. Let's break
down the information provided and explain the key points:

**SONET Basics:**
- **Synchronous Network:** SONET is an example of a synchronous network, which means
it relies on synchronized clocks to ensure data is transmitted at precise intervals. This
synchronization allows for efficient multiplexing and demultiplexing of data.

- **Conversion to Optical Signal:** One of the primary purposes of SONET is to convert

electrical signals, which are susceptible to attenuation (loss of signal strength), into optical
signals. Optical signals can travel longer distances in optical fibers without significant signal
degradation.

- **Multiplexing:** SONET enables the simultaneous transmission of multiple digital data

streams over a single optical fiber. This is achieved through a process called multiplexing,
where several lower-speed signals are combined into a higher-speed signal.

- **Two Fiber Optic Strands:** In SONET, a typical fiber optic network consists of two fiber
optic strands—one for transmitting data (transmit) and the other for receiving data (receive).

- **High-Speed Uploads and Downloads:** SONET provides high-speed data transfer

capabilities, making it suitable for both high-speed uploads and downloads of data.

- **Stability:** SONET is known for its stability. It relies on synchronized clocks and precise
timing, ensuring that data transmission is highly reliable without the need for frequent clock
alignment.

- **Cost:** While SONET offers excellent performance and reliability, it can be costly to
implement due to the specialized equipment and infrastructure required.
- **Resistance to Delays:** SONET is resistant to delays in data transmission, making it
suitable for real-time applications.

- **Upper Level Protocols:** SONET can carry various upper-level protocols, including FDDI
(Fiber Distributed Data Interface), ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode), DS-3 (Digital Signal
3), and others. This flexibility allows it to support a wide range of applications.

**SONET Hierarchy:**
- SONET uses a hierarchical structure with different data rates. The base unit is OC-1 (Optical
Carrier 1), which is roughly equivalent to a T3 line in terms of bandwidth. Higher-speed
SONET levels include OC-3, OC-12, OC-24, OC-48, and so on, each offering progressively
higher data rates.

**SONET Elements:**
- SONET networks consist of various elements, including:
- **STS Multiplexer:** This device performs the multiplexing of signals, combining multiple
data streams into a single high-speed signal. It also converts electrical signals into optical
signals for transmission.

- **STS Demultiplexer:** The demultiplexer does the reverse of the multiplexer. It

separates the combined signal back into its original data streams and converts optical signals
into electrical signals.

- **Regenerator:** Regenerators act as signal repeaters. They receive optical signals,

amplify them, and then retransmit them. This regeneration helps maintain signal strength
over long distances.

- **Add/Drop Multiplexer:** This element allows for the insertion (addition) or removal
(drop) of signals into/from specific paths within the network. It's useful for directing data
traffic to specific routes.

**Types of Connections:**
- SONET defines three types of connections:
- **Section:** This refers to the portion of the network that connects two neighboring
devices.

- **Line:** The line is the portion of the network that connects two neighboring
multiplexers.

- **Path:** The path is the end-to-end portion of the network, connecting the source and
destination devices.

**Advantages of SONET:**
- SONET offers several advantages, including:
 - **Long-Distance Transmission:** It can transmit data over large distances, making it
suitable for long-haul communication networks.

- **Low Electromagnetic Interference:** Optical signals are immune to electromagnetic

interference, ensuring data integrity.

- **High Data Rates:** SONET provides high data rates, accommodating the needs of
modern high-bandwidth applications.

- **Large Bandwidth:** The SONET hierarchy offers a wide range of bandwidth options to
meet diverse network requirements.

In summary, SONET is a standardized technology that utilizes optical fibers for high-speed,
reliable, and long-distance data transmission. It offers a hierarchical structure, various
network elements, and flexibility to support different applications and data rates. However,
it is important to note that with the evolution of networking technologies, SONET has been
largely replaced by Ethernet-based solutions for many applications.

Distance Vector Routing (DVR) is a routing algorithm used in computer networks to

determine the best paths for data to travel between devices (packet switches) in the
network. It works by exchanging information about distances to various destinations among
neighboring devices. Let's break down how this algorithm works:

1. **Periodic Updates**: In Distance Vector Routing, each packet switch periodically sends
out a message called a Distance Vector Routing (DVR) message to all the other packet
switches it is directly connected to. This message contains information about the
destinations it knows about and the distances to those destinations.

2. **Message Contents**: The contents of a DVR message typically include entries like: "I
can reach destination X, and its current distance from me is Y." Essentially, the message lists
all the destinations the sender knows about and the estimated distance to each of those
destinations.

3. **Limited Scope**: Importantly, these DVR messages are not broadcast to all devices in
the network. Instead, they are exchanged only between directly connected packet switches
and their immediate neighbors. This means that only devices that are directly connected to
each other share this information.

4. **Updating Forwarding Tables**: When a packet switch (let's call it M) receives a DVR
message from one of its neighbors (let's call it N), it can use the information in the received
message in various ways to update its forwarding table, which is used to make decisions
about how to route data.
 - **Updating Distances**: M can compare the distances reported by N to the distances it
currently has in its own routing table. If N claims to have a shorter path to a certain
destination, M may update its routing table to use N as the next hop for that destination.

- **Periodic Updates**: The periodic exchange of DVR messages ensures that devices in
the network can continuously update their routing information. Over time, this helps
converge the network to more efficient routes.

- **Counting Hops**: Often, the "distance" mentioned in the DVR messages represents
the number of hops (i.e., the number of intermediate devices) to reach a destination. This
can help in finding routes with the fewest hops.

- **Loop Detection**: Distance Vector Routing algorithms also have mechanisms to detect
and prevent routing loops, which can occur when devices incorrectly believe they have the
shortest path to a destination.

Distance Vector Routing algorithms, such as the Routing Information Protocol (RIP), are
simple to understand and implement but can take time to converge in large networks. They
are less complex than other routing algorithms like Link State Routing (e.g., OSPF) but may
be less efficient in terms of converging to optimal routes. Nonetheless, they are still used in
some network environments where simplicity and low resource usage are priorities.

Shortest Path First (SPF) routing is a way to figure out the best routes for data to travel in a
computer network. It's like finding the quickest way to get from one place to another on a
map, but for data moving through a network of computers.

Here's a simpler explanation:

1. **Computing Shortest Paths**: Imagine you have a map of your network where each
computer or device is like a point on the map, and the connections between them are like
roads. SPF routing uses a method called Dijkstra's algorithm to find the shortest (quickest)
path from one point (or computer) to all the other points (or computers) on this map.
2. **Assigning Weights**: Now, when we say "shortest," it doesn't necessarily mean the
path with the fewest connections or hops. Instead, we can assign different "weights" to the
roads (connections) on the map. These weights can mean different things. For example:

- **Total Weight**: We can add up the weights of all the roads on a path to find the total
weight of that path. The path with the lowest total weight is the shortest path.

- **Link Capacity**: Sometimes, we might make the weights based on how fast a road
(connection) can carry data. Faster roads get lower weights, meaning they are more
desirable for data to travel on.

- **Expected Delay**: We can also use weights to show how much delay a road might
have. Shorter delays get lower weights.

- **Discouraging Certain Routes**: Sometimes, network managers might give high weights
to some roads to discourage data from using them. It's like saying, "Don't take this road
unless you really have to."

3. **Using the Shortest Paths**: Once we use Dijkstra's algorithm to figure out the shortest
paths, we can extract information about which road (or connection) to take next at each
point (or computer) to follow the shortest path. This "next-hop" information tells us where
to send data to get it closer to its destination.

4. **Putting it in Routing Tables**: To make things work smoothly in the network, this next-
hop information is put into what's called routing tables. These tables help the computers or
devices in the network make quick decisions about where to send data so that it reaches its
destination using the shortest path.

In a nutshell, SPF routing is all about finding the quickest routes for data in a network by
assigning weights to the connections and then using a smart algorithm to calculate the best
paths. It's like your GPS for data in a computer network, ensuring that data gets where it
needs to go efficiently.