DCCN

Unit-1
Types of Connec ons
Here are some of the commonly men oned types:

1. **Point-to-Point Connec on**: A point-to-point connec on

provides a dedicated link between two devices. The en re capacity of
the link is reserved for transmission between those two devices. It
can use a physical wire or cable, as well as other op ons like
microwave or satellite links.

2. **Mul point Connec on**: A mul point (or mul drop)

connec on is one in which more than two devices are connected to
the same link. It allows mul ple devices to share the same
communica on channel. In a mul point connec on, data is
transmi ed from one device to mul ple devices or vice versa.

3. **Dial-Up Connec on**: A dial-up connec on is established

between a computer and an ISP (Internet Service Provider) server
using a modem. It uses a telephone line to connect to the internet
and requires dialing a phone number on the computer. Dial-up
connec ons are slower and less commonly used these days.

4. **Broadband Connec on**: Broadband connec ons provide high-

speed or broadband internet access. There are different types of
broadband connec ons, including DSL (Digital Subscriber Line), cable
internet, fiber op c, and fixed wireless. These connec ons offer
faster speeds compared to dial-up connec ons.

5. **Wireless Connec on**: Wireless connec ons use wireless

technology to connect devices to a network or the internet. This
includes technologies like Wi-Fi, cellular networks, and satellite
internet. Wireless connec ons provide flexibility and convenience for
connec ng devices without the need for physical cables.

6. **Peer-to-Peer Connec on**: In a peer-to-peer environment, each

computer directly sends and receives data to each device without a
central server controlling file access or printer sharing. It is commonly
used in small networks or home networks.

7. **Network Shared Connec on**: In a network shared

environment, each computer sends data via a centrally controlled
computer, o en called a server or print server. The server controls
the prin ng of all print jobs and manages file access and sharing.

Applica ons of Network:

Here are some applica ons of networks in data communica on:

1. **Internet**: The Internet is a global network of interconnected

computers and is one of the most widely used applica ons of data
communica on networks. It allows users to access and share
informa on, communicate through email, par cipate in social media,
and conduct various online ac vi es.
2. **Intranets and Extranets**: Intranets are private networks within
organiza ons that use internet protocols and technologies to
securely share informa on and resources among employees.
Extranets extend the concept of intranets to include external par es
such as suppliers, customers, or partners, enabling collabora on and
informa on sharing.

3. **Email and Messaging**: Networks enable the transmission of

emails and instant messages, allowing individuals and organiza ons
to communicate quickly and efficiently. Email and messaging services
rely on network infrastructure to deliver messages across different
devices and loca ons.

4. **File Sharing**: Networks facilitate file sharing, allowing users to

transfer files between computers or devices. This includes sharing
documents, images, videos, and other types of files over local area
networks (LANs) or the internet.

5. **Video Conferencing**: Networks enable real- me video and

audio communica on between individuals or groups located in
different geographical loca ons. Video conferencing applica ons
u lize network connec ons to transmit audio and video data,
enabling remote collabora on, mee ngs, and virtual classrooms.

6. **Virtual Private Networks (VPNs)**: VPNs provide secure

communica on over public networks, such as the internet. They
create a private network connec on by encryp ng data and rou ng it
through a secure tunnel, ensuring privacy and confiden ality for
remote users accessing corporate networks or sensi ve informa on.

7. **E-commerce**: Networks are essen al for conduc ng online

transac ons and e-commerce ac vi es. They enable secure payment
processing, online shopping, and electronic funds transfer, allowing
businesses and consumers to engage in commercial transac ons over
the internet.

8. **Remote Access**: Networks enable remote access to resources

and systems, allowing users to connect to their work or home
networks from remote loca ons. This enables remote work,
telecommu ng, and access to centralized resources.

Unit -2
OSI Model :

Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is a conceptual

framework that divides network communications functions into
seven layers. Sending data over a network is complex because
various hardware and software technologies must work
cohesively across geographical and political boundaries.

TCP:

TCP meaning Transmission Control Protocol, is a

communications standard for delivering data and messages
through networks. TCP is a basic standard that defines the
rules of the internet and is a common protocol used to deliver
data in digital network communications.
UDP :

User Datagram Protocol (UDP) refers to a protocol used for

communication throughout the internet. It is specifically chosen
for time-sensitive applications like gaming, playing videos, or
Domain Name System (DNS) lookups.

(Layered tasks and Layers in the OSI model is almost same

have a look at that.)

Unit -3
Transmission Impairment :
Transmission impairments refer to the degrada on or altera on of
signals as they travel through a transmission medium in data
communica on. These impairments can affect both analog and
digital signals and can lead to signal quality degrada on, bit errors, or
changes in signal amplitude or shape. The main causes of
transmission impairments are a enua on, distor on, and noise.

1. **A enua on**: A enua on refers to the loss of signal strength

or energy as it travels through a transmission medium. The signal
strength decreases with increasing distance, resul ng in a weaker
signal at the receiving end. Amplifiers are used to compensate for
this loss and amplify the a enuated signal to its original strength.

2. **Distor on**: Distor on occurs when the transmi ed signal

changes its form or shape during transmission. This can be caused by
various factors such as interference, reflec ons, or non-lineari es in
the transmission medium. Distor on can lead to signal degrada on
and affect the accuracy of the received signal.

3. **Noise**: Noise refers to unwanted random signals that interfere

with the transmi ed signal. It can be caused by external sources such
as electromagne c interference (EMI), crosstalk, or impulse noise
from lightning or power lines. Noise can disrupt the integrity of the
signal and introduce errors or distor ons.

These transmission impairments can impact the quality and reliability

of data communica on. To mi gate these impairments, various
techniques and technologies are used, such as error correc on
codes, equaliza on, signal amplifica on, and noise reduc on
techniques.

Unit-4

Pulse Code Modula on (PCM) and Delta Modula on (DM)

Pulse Code Modula on (PCM) and Delta Modula on (DM) are both
techniques used in analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog signal
conversion in data communica on. While PCM converts analog
signals into digital form using a series of binary numbers, DM uses a
1-bit data stream to represent the difference between successive
samples.

**Pulse Code Modula on (PCM)**:

PCM is a digital modula on technique used to convert analog signals
into a binary sequence (1s and 0s). It involves the following steps:
1. **Sampling**: The analog signal is sampled at regular intervals to
obtain discrete samples.
2. **Quan za on**: Each sample is quan zed, meaning it is assigned
a specific digital value that represents its amplitude.
3. **Encoding**: The quan zed samples are encoded into binary
code words, typically using a fixed number of bits.
4. **Transmission**: The binary code words are transmi ed over a
digital communica on channel.
5. **Decoding**: At the receiver end, the binary code words are
decoded back into quan zed samples.
6. **Reconstruc on**: The quan zed samples are reconstructed into
an analog signal.

PCM provides a high signal-to-noise ra o and is widely used in

applica ons such as voice communica on, audio recording, and
digital telephony. It offers accurate representa on of the original
analog signal but requires a higher bandwidth for transmission
compared to other modula on techniques.

**Delta Modula on (DM)**:

Delta modula on is a simplified form of differen al pulse code
modula on (DPCM) where the difference between successive
samples is encoded into a 1-bit data stream. Instead of transmi ng a
coded representa on of each sample, DM transmits a single bit
indica ng whether the current sample is higher or lower than the
previous one.

DM involves the following steps:

1. **Comparison**: Each sample is compared to the previous sample
to determine if it is higher or lower.
2. **Encoding**: A 1-bit code is transmi ed to represent the
direc on of the difference (up or down).
3. **Reconstruc on**: At the receiver end, the 1-bit codes are used
to reconstruct the approximate analog signal.

Delta modula on is a simpler technique compared to PCM and

requires less bandwidth for transmission. However, it may introduce
quan za on noise and is more suscep ble to errors and distor on.
DM is commonly used in applica ons where high-quality signal
reproduc on is not cri cal, such as low-bit-rate voice communica on
and simple data transmission.

Mul -Level and Mul transi on in Data Communica ons

**Mul -Level Modula on**:

Mul -level modula on refers to the transmission of mul ple bits per
symbol by using more than two signal levels. In tradi onal
modula on schemes like Amplitude Shi Keying (ASK), Frequency
Shi Keying (FSK), and Phase Shi Keying (PSK), only two levels are
used to represent binary data (0s and 1s). However, in mul -level
modula on, more than two levels are employed, enabling the
transmission of mul ple bits per symbol.

For example, in 4-level modula on, also known as Quadrature

Amplitude Modula on (QAM), four different signal levels are used to
represent two bits per symbol. Similarly, in 8-level modula on, eight
signal levels are used to represent three bits per symbol. By
increasing the number of signal levels, mul -level modula on allows
for higher data rates within a given bandwidth.

Mul -level modula on techniques are widely used in various

applica ons, including digital communica on systems, wireless
networks, and digital broadcas ng. They provide increased data
throughput and improved spectral efficiency compared to tradi onal
binary modula on schemes.

**Mul transi on Encoding**:

Mul transi on encoding is a technique used in line coding, which is
the process of conver ng digital data into a digital signal for
transmission. Mul transi on encoding schemes aim to minimize the
number of consecu ve zeros or ones in the transmi ed signal to
maintain synchroniza on and reduce the presence of DC
components.

One example of mul transi on encoding is the Mul line

Transmission-3 (MLT-3) scheme. MLT-3 uses three voltage levels (+V,
0, and -V) and three transi on rules to move between these levels. If
the next bit is 0, there is no transi on. If the next bit is 1 and the
current level is not 0, the next level is 0. If the next bit is 1 and the
current level is 0, the next level is the opposite of the last nonzero
level.

Mul transi on encoding techniques, such as MLT-3, are employed in

Ethernet physical layer standards like 100BASE-TX to achieve reliable
data transmission with reduced electromagne c interference and
improved bandwidth u liza on.

(Have a look on Line coding)

Unit 5

Amplitude Modula on (AM) and Phase Modula on (PM):

**Amplitude Modula on (AM)**:
Amplitude Modula on is a modula on technique where the
amplitude of the carrier wave is varied in propor on to the
instantaneous amplitude of the modula ng signal. The modula ng
signal, typically an audio signal, is used to encode informa on onto
the carrier wave. The key characteris cs of AM include:
1. **Amplitude Varia on**: In AM, the amplitude of the carrier wave
is modulated, resul ng in varia ons in the signal's strength.
2. **Constant Frequency**: The frequency of the carrier wave
remains constant throughout the modula on process.
3. **Sidebands**: AM generates two sidebands, located above and
below the carrier frequency, which contain the modula ng signal
informa on.
4. **Simple Implementa on**: AM is rela vely simple to implement
and is widely used in applica ons such as broadcast radio.

**Phase Modula on (PM)**:

Phase Modula on is a modula on technique where the phase of the
carrier wave is varied in accordance with the instantaneous
amplitude of the modula ng signal. The key characteris cs of PM
include:

1. **Phase Varia on**: PM modulates the phase of the carrier wave,

resul ng in changes in the signal's phase.
2. **Constant Amplitude**: The amplitude of the carrier wave
remains constant during the modula on process.
3. **Frequency Shi **: PM can cause a frequency shi in the carrier
wave, known as frequency modula on, as the phase changes.
4. **Used in Digital Communica on**: PM is widely used in digital
communica on systems, including wireless communica on and
digital broadcas ng.

(Don’t forgot Modula on diagrams)

 Unit-6

Circuit Switching and Packet Switching

Circuit Switching and Packet Switching are two different methods

used in data communica on networks for transmi ng informa on.
They differ in how they establish and maintain connec ons, handle
data transmission, and u lize network resources.

**Circuit Switching**:
Circuit Switching is a tradi onal method used in telecommunica ons
networks. It involves establishing a dedicated communica on path
between the sender and receiver before data transmission begins.
The key characteris cs of circuit switching include:

1. **Dedicated Connec on**: A dedicated physical path is

established between the sender and receiver for the en re dura on
of the communica on session.
2. **Fixed Bandwidth**: The allocated bandwidth remains constant
throughout the communica on session, regardless of the actual data
transmission rate.
3. **Connec on-Oriented**: Circuit switching requires the setup,
maintenance, and teardown of a connec on before and a er data
transmission.
4. **Suitable for Real-Time Applica ons**: Circuit switching is
commonly used for real- me applica ons like voice and video
communica on, where a con nuous and predictable connec on is
required.
**Packet Switching**:
Packet Switching is a more modern and widely used method in data
communica on networks, including the internet. It involves breaking
data into smaller units called packets and transmi ng them
independently over the network. The key characteris cs of packet
switching include:

1. **Connec onless**: Packet switching does not require the

establishment of a dedicated connec on before data transmission.
Each packet is treated independently and can take different paths to
reach the des na on.
2. **Variable Bandwidth**: The available bandwidth is shared among
mul ple users and can vary dynamically based on network condi ons
and traffic load.
3. **Packet Header**: Each packet contains a header that includes
source and des na on addresses, allowing routers to forward
packets to the correct des na on.
4. **Efficient Resource U liza on**: Packet switching allows for
more efficient u liza on of network resources as bandwidth is
shared among mul ple users and packets can take different routes.

Unit 7
Error detec on and error correc on:
**Error Detec on**:
Error detec on is the process of iden fying whether errors have
occurred during data transmission. It involves adding extra bits to the
transmi ed data to enable the receiver to check for errors. Some
commonly used error detec on techniques include:

- **Parity Check**: Parity check is a simple error detec on method

that involves adding an extra bit to the transmi ed data. The parity
bit is set to either 0 or 1 to ensure that the total number of bits
(including the parity bit) is even (even parity) or odd (odd parity). At
the receiver end, the received parity is checked against the expected
parity. If they do not match, an error is detected.

- **Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)**: CRC is a more robust error

detec on technique that uses polynomial division. A CRC generator
polynomial is chosen, and the sender performs a mathema cal
calcula on on the data using this polynomial to generate a CRC code.
The CRC code is appended to the data and transmi ed. At the
receiver end, the received data and CRC code are divided by the
same polynomial. If the remainder is non-zero, an error is detected.

Error detec on techniques allow the receiver to iden fy the

presence of errors in the received data. However, they do not provide
the ability to correct the errors.

**Error Correc on**:

Error correc on is the process of not only detec ng errors but also
correc ng them. Error correc on techniques use addi onal
redundant informa on to recover the original data. One commonly
used error correc on technique is:
- **Forward Error Correc on (FEC)**: FEC is an error correc on
method that adds redundant bits to the transmi ed data. These
redundant bits contain addi onal informa on that allows the
receiver to correct errors without the need for retransmission. FEC
techniques use error-correc ng codes, such as Hamming codes or
Reed-Solomon codes, to encode the data with redundancy. The
receiver uses the redundant informa on to detect and correct errors.

Unit- 8

Here are some commonly used protocols and techniques:

**HDLC (High-Level Data Link Control)**:

HDLC is a synchronous data link layer protocol used for point-to-point
and mul point communica on. It provides reliable and efficient data
transmission by framing data into packets and adding control
informa on. HDLC is widely used in telecommunica ons networks
and is the basis for other protocols like SDLC (Synchronous Data Link
Control) and LAPB (Link Access Procedure, Balanced).

**ALOHA**:
ALOHA is a random access protocol used in wireless networks. It
allows devices to transmit data whenever they have data to send,
without checking for channel availability. If collisions occur, devices
wait for a random me before retransmi ng. ALOHA is simple but
has lower efficiency compared to other protocols.

**CSMA (Carrier Sense Mul ple Access)**:

CSMA is a protocol used in shared media networks, such as Ethernet.
Devices using CSMA listen to the channel before transmi ng. If the
channel is idle, they can transmit. However, collisions can occur if
mul ple devices transmit simultaneously.

**CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Mul ple Access with Collision

Detec on)**:
CSMA/CD is a protocol used in Ethernet networks. It is an
improvement over CSMA that includes collision detec on. If a
collision is detected during transmission, devices stop transmi ng
and wait for a random backoff me before retransmi ng. CSMA/CD
helps reduce collisions and improve network efficiency.

**CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Mul ple Access with Collision

Avoidance)**:
CSMA/CA is a protocol commonly used in wireless networks, such as
Wi-Fi. It aims to avoid collisions by using a reserva on-based
approach. Devices first send a request to transmit (RTS) to reserve
the channel. If the RTS is acknowledged (ACK), the device can
transmit. CSMA/CA helps reduce collisions in wireless environments.

**FDMA (Frequency Division Mul ple Access)**:

FDMA is a mul ple access technique used in analog and digital
communica on systems. It divides the available frequency spectrum
into mul ple non-overlapping frequency bands. Each user is
allocated a specific frequency band for communica on. FDMA is
commonly used in cellular networks.

**TDMA (Time Division Mul ple Access)**:

TDMA is a mul ple access technique where the available me is
divided into me slots, and each user is allocated a specific me slot
for transmission. Users take turns transmi ng in their assigned me
slots. TDMA is used in various communica on systems, including
GSM (Global System for Mobile Communica ons).

**CDMA (Code Division Mul ple Access)**:

CDMA is a mul ple access technique where each user is assigned a
unique code to transmit data simultaneously over the same
frequency band. The receiver uses the same code to decode the
desired user's signal. CDMA allows for efficient use of the available
bandwidth and is used in systems like CDMA2000 and WCDMA.

Categories of connec ng devices:

Here are some categories of connec ng devices in data
communica on:
1. **Hubs**: Hubs connect mul ple devices in a network, opera ng
at the physical layer of the OSI model. They amplify and repeat
signals to extend the network's reach. Hubs are simple devices that
send data packets to all connected devices without performing
packet filtering or addressing func ons.

2. **Bridges**: Bridges operate at both the physical and data link

layers of the OSI model. They connect different LANs together and
regenerate received signals. Bridges make forwarding decisions
based on MAC addresses and can filter network traffic.

3. **Switches**: Switches are more advanced devices that operate at

the data link layer. They use MAC addresses to forward data packets
to specific devices within a network. Switches have buffers to hold
and process incoming frames, allowing for more efficient data
transmission.

4. **Routers**: Routers operate at the network layer of the OSI

model. They connect mul ple networks together and make
forwarding decisions based on IP addresses. Routers use rou ng
algorithms and protocols to determine the best path for data packets
to reach their des na ons.

5. **Gateways**: Gateways connect two or more autonomous

networks with different protocols, rou ng algorithms, and network
administra on procedures. They perform transla on func ons
between networking technologies and enable communica on
between networks with different characteris cs.
6. **Modems**: Modems are devices that convert digital signals into
analog signals for transmission over telephone lines or other
communica on mediums. They enable devices to connect to the
internet or other networks using different transmission technologies.

Unit 10
IPV4 and IPV6 :

**RARP (Reverse Address Resolu on Protocol)**:

- RARP is an older protocol that was used to obtain an IP address
based on a device's MAC address.
- It allowed diskless devices to request their IP addresses from a
RARP server on the network.
- RARP worked in a client-server model, where the client sent a RARP
request containing its MAC address, and the server responded with
the corresponding IP address.
- RARP was limited in scalability and required a RARP server on every
subnet.
- It has been largely replaced by BOOTP and DHCP.

**BOOTP (Bootstrap Protocol)**:

- BOOTP is an extension of RARP and provides addi onal
configura on informa on along with IP address assignment.
- It allows diskless devices to obtain IP addresses, server addresses,
and boot files.
- BOOTP operates in a client-server model, where the client sends a
BOOTP request to a BOOTP server, which responds with the
necessary configura on informa on.
- BOOTP requires manual configura on of IP addresses and other
parameters on the server.
- It has been largely replaced by DHCP.
**DHCP (Dynamic Host Configura on Protocol)**:
- DHCP is an extension of BOOTP and provides dynamic IP address
alloca on and automa c configura on of network parameters.
- It allows devices to obtain IP addresses, subnet masks, default
gateways, DNS server addresses, and other configura on
informa on.
- DHCP operates in a client-server model, where the client sends a
DHCP request to a DHCP server, which responds with the necessary
configura on informa on.
- DHCP supports dynamic IP address alloca on, allowing devices to
obtain temporary IP addresses from a pool of available addresses.
- It is widely used in modern networks for its flexibility and efficiency.
 Unit-12
**UDP Segment:**
- UDP (User Datagram Protocol) is a connec onless transport layer
protocol used for transmi ng data over a network.
- UDP segments, also known as datagrams, are the units of data that
are encapsulated by UDP for transmission.
- Each UDP segment consists of a header and a payload.
- The UDP header is 8 bytes in length and contains informa on such
as source port, des na on port, length, and checksum.
- The payload of the UDP segment contains the actual data being
transmi ed.

**UDP Checksum:**
- The UDP checksum is a field in the UDP header used for error
detec on.
- It helps ensure the integrity of the UDP segment during
transmission.
- The checksum is calculated by the sender and included in the UDP
header.
- Upon receiving a UDP segment, the recipient uses the checksum
value in the UDP header to verify the integrity of the received data.
- If the calculated checksum at the receiver's end does not match the
checksum in the header, it indicates that the data might have been
corrupted during transmission.
- In such cases, the receiver may choose to discard the corrupted
segment or take other appropriate ac ons based on the applica on's
requirements.
- The checksum calcula on is performed over the en re payload, as
well as certain fields from the IP header, using a pseudo-header.
- The pseudo-header includes informa on such as source and
des na on IP addresses, protocol number, and UDP length.

Unit-14
**RTP (Real- me Transport Protocol):**
- RTP is a network protocol used for delivering real- me audio and
video media over the internet, enabling Voice over IP (VoIP) and
other streaming applica ons.
- It works in conjunc on with a signaling protocol like SIP (Session
Ini a on Protocol) to set up connec ons and manage the
transmission of media.
- RTP is typically used with the User Datagram Protocol (UDP) for
faster delivery of data, although it can also use the Transmission
Control Protocol (TCP).
- It uses Synchroniza on Source (SSRC) values to keep track of
synchroniza on sources within an RTP session, ensuring that no two
sources have the same iden fier.
- RTP carries con nuous streams of audio or video packets across the
network from the transmi er to the receiver.
- It is commonly used in applica ons such as video conferencing,
streaming media, and real- me gaming.

**SIP (Session Ini a on Protocol):**

- SIP is a signaling protocol used to ini ate, modify, and terminate
communica on sessions over IP networks.
- It is responsible for the establishment, modifica on, and
termina on of VoIP calls, as well as other mul media forms of
communica on.
- SIP operates in a request/response transac on model, where each
transac on consists of a request that invokes a par cular method or
func on on the server and at least one response.
- SIP typically uses UDP on port 5060 for sending messages, with port
5061 used for a second line on a two-line ATA (Analog Telephone
Adapter).
- When se ng up a call, SIP includes parameters in the Session
Descrip on Protocol (SDP) that describe the audio or video format to
be used.
- Once both endpoints agree and are ready to start exchanging media
or data, RTP is used to actually exchange the packets.
- SIP is widely used in Voice over IP (VoIP) systems, instant messaging,
presence informa on, and other mul media applica ons.

Unit-15
SNMP and its applica ons:
SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol) is a protocol used for
managing and monitoring network devices and systems. It has
various applica ons in data communica ons. Here are some key
applica ons of SNMP:

**Network Monitoring and Management:**

- SNMP is widely used for network monitoring and management
tasks.
- It allows network administrators to collect data from network
devices, such as routers, switches, servers, and printers, to monitor
their performance and health.
- SNMP provides informa on about network bandwidth, CPU usage,
memory u liza on, and other performance metrics.
- Network monitoring tools use SNMP to fetch data from devices,
track performance trends, and generate alerts for anomalies.
- It enables administrators to configure threshold limits and receive
no fica ons when predefined condi ons are exceeded.

**Fault Detec on and Troubleshoo ng:**

- SNMP helps in detec ng faults and troubleshoo ng network issues.
- By monitoring SNMP traps, which are unsolicited messages sent by
network devices to indicate specific events or condi ons,
administrators can iden fy and address problems in real- me.
- SNMP traps can provide informa on about link failures, device
reboots, high CPU usage, and other cri cal events.

**Configura on and Firmware Management:**

- SNMP allows administrators to remotely configure network devices
and manage firmware updates.
- It supports write commands, such as changing configura on
se ngs or rese ng passwords, enabling administrators to make
changes to devices without physical access.
- SNMP can also retrieve informa on about device configura ons,
firmware versions, and other relevant details.
**Performance Op miza on:**
- SNMP helps op mize network performance by providing insights
into resource u liza on and traffic pa erns.
- Administrators can use SNMP data to iden fy bo lenecks, op mize
network configura ons, and allocate resources effec vely.
- It enables capacity planning by monitoring trends and predic ng
future resource requirements.

**Security Monitoring:**
- SNMP can be used to monitor security-related events and ac vi es
on network devices.
- It provides informa on about unauthorized access a empts,
firewall logs, and other security-related metrics.
- SNMP traps can be configured to alert administrators about
poten al security breaches or suspicious ac vi es.

I have skipped 3 units, Such as 9,11& 13.