Linear Algebra I Final

Linear Algebra I Module for Chemist Students
CHAPTER ONE
VECTORS
Unit outcomes
After the completion of this unit, you will be able to:
 define vector in space;
 understand the basic ideas of vector algebra;
 represent a vector by a directed straight line;
 write a vector in terms of component vectors;
 write a vector in terms of component unit vectors;
 obtain the directional cosines of vector;
 calculate the scalar and vector product of two vectors;
 determine the angle between two vectors;
 calculate the distance between line and plane and
 explain the equation of line and plane.
Introduction
Certain Physical quantities such as mass, area, density, volume, time, temperature….etc, that
possess only magnitude are called scalars. On the other hand, there are physical quantities such
as force, displacement, velocity, acceleration, momentum, weight… etc that has both magnitude
and direction. Such quantities are called vectors.
The concept of a vector is essential for the whole course. It provides the foundation and
geometric motivation for everything that follows. Hence, the properties of vectors, both algebraic
and geometric, will be discussed in this unit. We shall study structures with two operations, an
addition and a scalar multiplication, that are subject to some simple conditions. We will reflect
more on the conditions later, but on first reading notice how reasonable they are.
By: Bule Hora University Mathematics Department Page 1

1.1 Definition of Points in n-space

Definition1.1: A point is the most fundamental object in geometry. Geometrically it can be
represented by a dot and named by a capital letter. A point represents position only; it has zero
size (that is, zero length, zero width, and zero height).
We know that, once a unit length is selected, a number „x‟ can be used to represent a point on a
line. A pair of numbers can be used to represent a point in the plane. A triple of numbers
can be used to represent a point in space. The following pictures illustrate these
representations:
Fig. 1.1: Illustration of point
As we see from the above figure, a single number represent a point in 1-space (A), a couple
represents a point in 2-space and a triple represents a point in 3-space (C). Although we
cannot draw a picture to go further, we can say that a quadruple of numbers or
represent a point in 4-sapce. A quintuple would be a point in 5-space, then would
come a sextuple, septuple, octuple…etc. for example, let (2, 3, -4) be a point in 3-space, then 2 is
the first coordinate, 3 is the 2nd coordinates and (- 4) is the third coordinate of the point in 3-
space.
Example 1.1: is a point in 2-spaces and is a point in 3-spaces.
Next we will see the definition of a point in n-space.
Definition 1.2: (A point in n-space): A point in n-space is n-tuple ( ) of
numbers. Where n is a positive integer. The numbers are called the coordinates
of the point X.

The set of all points in n-spaces is represented by . Up to now we have seen that the
definition and representation of points in 1, 2, 3… and n-space.
Now subsequently let us see, how to add, subtract… points in n-space
Definition 1.3: If and are points in the same

space , and , then
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
4. Scalar Multiplication:
are always true.
Example 1.2: a. In the plane, if A = (1, 2) and B = (-3, 5), then

A + B = (1, 2) + (-3, 5)
= (1 + (-3), 2+5)
= (-2, 7).
b. In 3-space, if A = (1, 7, 3) and B = (0, 9, -2), then
A + B = (1, 7, 3) + (0, 9, -2)
= (1+0, 7 + 9, 3+(-2)) = (1, 16, 1).
Activity 1.1: 1. Let A=(-5,2,7,3) and B = (8,7,2,9) be a point in 4-apsce, then find:
i. A – B ii. A + B iii.
2). Let then
a. b.
1.2. Vectors in n-space, Geometric interpretation in 2 and 3- spaces

Every pair of distinct points A and B in determines a directed line segment with initial point
at A and terminal point at B. We call such a directed line segment is a vector and it is denoted by
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ . The length of the line segment is the magnitude of the vector. Although ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ has zero length,

and strictly speaking, no direction, it is convenient to view it as a vector. It is called a zero or a

null vector. It is often denoted by ⃗ .
Two vectors ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is said to be equal (or equivalence), if ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ , have the same
magnitude and direction.
Notice that the definition of equality of two vectors does not require that the vectors have the
same initial and terminal points. Rather it suggests that we can move vectors freely provided we
make no change in magnitude and direction.
Activity 1.2.1
Let be the coordinate representation of A and let ) be that of B. Let be the point
– If O is the origin, is ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ in the direction of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ? Is length of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ equal to the
length of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ? Is ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ?
Fig.1.2 Illustration of vectors

If your answer for the above questions is yes, then we can conclude that any vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
in the plane is a vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ with initial point at the origin. This is the only vector whose initial
point is the origin and – , which is equal to⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ . Moreover, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is uniquely
determined by its terminal point P. If be a point, then we shall write be a
vector and refer to it as the coordinate representation of relative to the chosen coordinate
system. In view of this, we shall call (x, y) either a point or a vector, depending on the
interpretation which we have in mind. So if ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ , then we can write – . In view
of this two vectors ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ are equal (or equivalence) if – – .

Example 1.2.1: If and , then ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ .

As numbers can be added, subtracted and multiplies, vectors can be combined in the following
ways.
Let and be two vectors and t be any real number. Then the sum,
difference and scalar multiples of two vectors are given by:
.
– And
.
The geometric interpretation of the above vector operations is that is a vector obtained by
placing the initial point of on the terminal point of .
If , then is a vector in the direction of . What about if ? A and are said to
have opposite direction.( see figure a and b)
tA
for t > 0 Fig. a for t< 0 Fig. b
Fig.1.3: Illustration of vector operation

We can extend the above notions of two vectors in but the geometric interpretations for
are difficult. Hence we focus on algebraic aspects of vectors. If and
B= are vectors in and if is any real number, then:
i) A+B=( , , …, ), and
ii) .
Definition 1.2.1: and are said to be parallel vectors iff one is the scalar multiples of the
other for some real number or . In other words, A and B are parallel iff
one is a scalar multiple of the other. Using the arrow notation ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ are parallel if and only
if – – – – for some real number .
Activity 1.2.2:
1) Let Find two vectors and which are parallel to A. Are and also
parallel to each other?
2) Let Is ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ parallel to ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ?

Using the above definitions and applying the associative and commutative properties of real
numbers, one can prove the following theorem.
Theorem 1.2.1 Let A, B and C be any members of , and let m and n be any real
numbers. Then
a) m(nA)  (mn) A
Associativity
b) ( A  B)  C  A  ( B  C )
c) A  B  B  A Commutative
d) (m  n) A  mA  nA
Distributive property
e) m( A  B)  mA  mB
f) 0. A  O
g) A  O  A
Proof: Let A = ,B= and C = be vectors in Rn and m,

n be in R, then:
a) m(nA) = m(n ))
= m( )
= (m )
= (mn) )
= (mn)A
b) [A + B] + C = [( )+( )] + ( )
=[ ]+( )
=[ ]
=
= ( ) [ , , ]
= ( ) [( )+( )]
=A [B + C]
c) =
= ( , , …, )
= ( , , …, )
= +
= B + A.

Similarly, prove the other.Example1.2.2: A boat captain wants to travel due south at 40 knots. If
the current is moving northwest at 16 knots, in what direction and magnitude should he works
the engine?
Fig.1.4
Solution: We have where u corresponds to the engine‘s vector and
corresponds to the velocity of the current We have and
8 2 √ j
Hence: – – 8 2 8 2 8 2 – 8 2 .
The magnitude is √ √ √ = 52.5.
 40  8 2 
The direction is arctan   = -1.35 radians.

 8 2 
Exercise 1.2.1:
1) Given three vectors A = (3, 2, 4), B = (-2, 3, 4) and C = (1,6, 9), find
a) A + B c) 3A + B – 4C
b) 21A – 4B d) A – 2B + 22C
2) Determine whether and can be found to satisfy the vector equations
a)
b)

The Distance Formula

The distance formula is derived from the three dimensional version of the Pythagorean theorem,
which is displayed below,
z x2  y2  z 2
x2  y2  z 2
x
The distance between two pointsP1 andP2 is given by:
√ = ||P1P2||
1.3 Scalar product, the norm of a vector, orthogonal projection,

and direction cosines
1.3.1 Scalar product and the norm of a vector
Let and be two vectors. The scalar product of A and
B is the number A . B defined by:
is called Scalar product.
Note: The scalar product is also called a dot product or inner product.
Example 1.3.1
1) Given and , then
2) i. j  O , where and
The scalar product satisfies many of the laws that hold for real numbers. The basic ones are:
a) A.B  B. A
b) t ( A.B)  (tA).B  A.(tB)
c) ( A  B).C  A.C  B.C
d) If is the zero vector, then A.A  0 , and otherwise A.A  0

Proof: Let and be two vectors and t be any scalar

number. Then
a) A.B = .
=
= , since multiplication is commutative
= . =B.A
Therefore A . B = B . A
b) t(A . B) = t( . )
= t( )
=( )
= .
= .
=[ ].
= .[ ]
=[ ]. = .[ ]
Therefore t(A . B) = [ ]. = .[ ]
Activity 1.3.1: In similar fashion proof c and d in the above scalar properties.
Example 1.3.2: Given and , and ) be vectors ,
then
a) A.B = . (4.3 + 3.1 + -2.4) = 12 + 3 - 8 = 7
b) 3(A.B) = 3(7) = 21
c) (A+B).C = [ + ]. )
= [ ]. )
= . )
=
= 14 – 8 + 4
= 10
Activity 1.3.2: From example 1.3.2, find A.A, B.B, and C.C. Are all positive values? Justify
your answer.
Exercise 1.3.1: Given the vectors A . Evaluate each
of the following:
a)

The length, or norm or magnitude of a vector is denoted by can be

expressed interms of the scalar product in the following way:
‖ ‖ . That is
Thus, the norm of the vector A is expressed as:
a12  a 22  ...  an2 .
Example 1.3.3: If , then ‖ ‖ √ √ √

Note:1. If the norm of a vector is 1, then it is called a unit vector.
2.‖ ‖ (Show!)
Example 1.3.4:If ( ), then ‖ ‖ √( ) ( ) ( ) √ =1.

√ √ √ √ √ √
Any non-zero vector can be represented by providing its magnitude and a unit vector along its
direction. Let ̂ be a unit vector in the direction of A. Then ̂ ‖ ‖
Example 1.3.5: Given a vector Find a unit vector in the direction of A.
Solution: ‖ ‖ √ √ √ , then the unit vector in the
direction of A is: ̂ ‖ ‖
.
Activity 1.3.3:
1) Given three vectors ), find the unit vector in
the direction of the following vectors:
a) A + B – C b) A + 3B - 2C c) 4A - 4B + C
2) The vectors are unit vectors in the direction of
positive x, y and z axis, respectively. Find a unit vector in the direction of
Note:
1) Let be two n-tuples of vectors. We define the distance between A and B to be
‖ ‖ √
2) Let A be any vector and , then‖ ‖ ‖ ‖ and‖ ‖ ‖ ‖
The following theorem gives us a geometric interpretation for the scalar product.
Theorem 1.3.1: Let and
be non-zero vectors and let  be
the angle between the vectors A and B (0    ) . Then A.B  A B cos

Fig.1.6 shows dot product

Proof: Consider a triangle formed by A, B and A-B
‖ ‖ ‖ ‖ ‖ ‖ ‖ ‖‖ ‖ (Why?)
‖ ‖‖ ‖
After cancellation, we get, ‖ ‖‖ ‖
Therefore the dot product between two vectors is given by:
‖ ‖‖ ‖
Example 1.3.6: Find the cosine of the angle between the vectors A = (4,1,6) and B = (3, 0,2).
Solution :To find the cosine angle between two vectors, we need to find the dot product and
length of two vectors in the following way.
A.B = (4,1, 6). (3, 0, 2)= 4.3 + 1.0 + 6.2 = 12 + 0 + 12 = 24,
‖ ‖ √ √ √ and
‖ ‖ √ √ √ .
‖ ‖‖ ‖
=( ) √
0.914
√
Therefore = cos-1(0.914) 23.94

Activity 1.3.4:
1) Given two non-zero vectors A and B, how do you find the angle between them? Take, for
example, and find the angle between them.
2) Find the value of ‗g‘ for which the between the vectors and is .
Note:

1) Two non-zero vectors are said to be orthogonal (Perpendicular) if the angle between them is
2
2) Two non-zero vectors A and B are said to be orthogonal (Perpendicular) if A.B = 0.
Activity 1.3.5:
1) Which of the following pairs of vectors are perpendicular to each other?
a.
b. and

c. and
d.  
2) Suppose , what can you deduce about A, B and C?
Exercise 1.3.2:
1. Show that‖ ‖ ‖ ‖ if and only if
2. Let be non-zero vectors such that i  j . Let be
numbers such that, . Show that for all i = 1,2, 3, …, r.
The following are two of the important inequalities
Theorem 1.3.2 Let A and B be vectors. Then
a) A.B  A B (Schwarz inequality)
b) A  B  A  B (Triangle inequality)
Proof: a) If one of A or B is a zero vector then both sides of the inequality are equal to 0.
Suppose both A and B are non-zero. Then from A.B  A B cos , we have
A.B  A B | cos | which implies A.B  A B (Why?)
 V.V , so similarly, we have

2
b) From the fact that V
A B  ( A  B) . ( A  B)
2
 A. A  2 A.B  B.B
 A  2 A.B  B
2 2
 A  2 A.B  B
2 2
( why ?)
 A 2 A B  B
2 2
( why ?)
  A  B  , By taking the square roots,
2
Therefore A  B  A  B
Remark: The inequalities of Theorem 1.3.2 hold true also for any vectors A and B in Rn.
We now define the component of a vector in the direction of another vector.
Let A and B be two non-zero vectors. And
Let be the angle between them.
Fig. 1.7 projection of vectors
Then from figure the terminal point of B drop perpendicular to the line containing A. The
vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ has magnitude ‖⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ‖ ‖ ‖ , , and its direction is either the same
as that of A or opposite to it depending on whether is acute or obtuse. Since ‖ ‖

is a unit

vector in the direction of A and since ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ has magnitude ‖ ‖ and is in the direction of A
or opposite to A, we can write
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ‖ ‖ Or⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (‖ ) (why?)
‖ ‖ ‖
This vector is called the projection of along and is denoted by: .
That is, (‖ ‖
)
We call ‖ ‖
,
Note: 1) is parallel to A. That is , for some .

2) is orthogonal (perpendicular) to A.
Example 1.3.7: Let and 2,  3, 1 , then
(‖ ‖
) ( ) ( ) and
(‖ ‖
) ( ) =( )
Activity 1.3.6: One application of projections of vector arises in the definition of the work done
by a force on a moving body. Find another application.
Suppose . Then the direction cosines of the
vector u are denoted by: ‖ ‖ ‖ ‖ ‖ ‖
,
Fig. 1.8
Where the direction angles are angles which are make a vector with the positive ,
and -axes respectively.
Remark:
Example 1.3.8: Let Find the direction cosines of u.
Solution: Since ‖ ‖ √ √ √ √
Thus the direction cosines are: ‖ ‖

, ‖ ‖
, and ‖ ‖
.
√ √ √
Activity 1.3.5: Show that: .

1.4 The Vector product

The second type of product of two vectors is the cross product. Unlike the dot product, the cross
product of two vectors is a vector.
Definition 1.4.1:The cross product (or vector product) A x B of two vectors
and is defined by
A x B =( – – ) OR
To calculate the cross product more easily without having to remember the formula, we using the
following ―determinant‖ form.
i j k  Standard unit vectors in row 1

A  B  a1 a2 a3  Components of left vector a in row 2
b1 b2 b3  Components of left vector b in row 2
We calculate the 3 3 determinant as follows: (note the alternation in sign)
i j k i j k i j k i j k
A  B  a1 a2 a3  a1 a2 a3  a1 a2 a3  a1 a2 a3
b1 b2 b3 b1 b2 b3 b1 b2 b3 b1 b2 b3
a2 a3 a a3 a a2
 i  j 1  k 1
b2 b3 b1 b3 b1 b2
 i (a2b 3 a3b2 )  (a1b3  a3b1 ) j  k (a1b2  a2b1 )
and .Then,
AxB= – –
Activity 1.4.1: Find B x A.
The following are some of the basic properties of cross product
Theorem 1.4.1 For vectors A, B and C and scalars t  ,
1. A x B = -(B x A)
2. A x A = O
3. tA x B = t(A x B) = A x (tB), t
4. ‖ ‖ ‖ ‖ ‖ ‖

5. C. (A x B) = B. (C x A) = A. (B x C)
6. (A + B) x C = (A x C) + (B x C)
7. C x (A + B) = (C x A) + (C x B)
8. and (that is, is perpendicular to both A and B.)
9. –
Proof: The following is the proof for 1, 2 and 8. The rest are left as an exercise for your practice.
1) From the definition of cross product,
– – . For B x A, we
interchange A and B to obtain
–
= – –
= - (A x B)
2) –
– , since multiplication is
commutative.
Hence A x A = (0, 0, 0)
8) Setting C = A in 5 yields
A . (A x B) = B . (A x A)
= B.0 (why?)
=0
By setting C = B in 5,
B .(A x B) = A . (B x B)
= A.0=0
This shows that for non-zero vectors A and B, the cross product is orthogonal to both A
and B.
Activity 1.4.2: Are the usual commutative and associative laws valid? i.e. for any vectors A, B and
C in , is A x B = B x A? Justify your answer. Is A x (B x C) = (A x B) x C?
Exercise 1.4.1: Let A = B= and C = . Find
a. b. c. – d. e.
From 4) of theorem 1.4.1, we derive an important formula for the norm of the cross product.
1) ‖ ‖ ‖ ‖ ‖ ‖
=‖ ‖ ‖ ‖ ‖ ‖ ‖ ‖ ( is the angle between A and B)
=‖ ‖ ‖ ‖ , by taking out the common factoring

=‖ ‖ ‖ ‖ and
‖ ‖ ‖ ‖‖ ‖ . By squaring both sides and (for     sin is non- negative)
Activity 1.4.3:
1) For the unit vectors i, j and k , find i  j , j  k and k  i . What is j  i ?
2) If A and B are parallel, what is A  B?
3) If A and B are orthogonal, What is ‖ ‖?
Exercise 1.4.1:
1) Find a unit vector perpendicular to both A = and B =
2) Prove that (A – B)x(A + B) = 2(AxB).
1.5 Application on area and volume

Let a and b be two vectors and let consider a parallelogram which is constructed by vectors a and
b. Then,
a) Area of a parallelogram (cross product)
Consider the parallelogram formed by the vectors a and b.
Fig. 1.9 Area of a parallelogram

‖ ‖
‖ ‖
‖ ‖ ‖ ‖
But we know that the area A of a parallelogram is given by
‖ ‖‖ ‖ ‖ ‖‖ ‖
But we know that ‖ ‖‖ ‖ ‖ ‖ Therefore the area of a parallelogram formed by the
vectors a and b is given by
‖ ‖ is the area of the Parallelogram.

The direction of a x b is a right angle to the parallelogram that follows the right hand rule.
To find the volume of the parallelepiped spanned by three vectors u, v, and w, we find the triple
product: i.e. The triple product has an interesting application in geometry.
Consider the parallelepiped with edges a, b, and c. We know that ‖ ‖ ‖ ‖‖ ‖
Area of the parallelogram defined by a and b.
Thus ‖ ‖
Fig.1.10 Illustration of volume

We know that the volume V of parallelepiped is given by
‖ ‖ , But
‖ ‖
‖ ‖‖ ‖ ,
=‖ ‖‖ ‖
= ‖ ‖‖ ‖
=
The norm of the triple product is the volume of the parallelepiped with as edge vectors
= Volume.
This can be found by computing the determinant of the three vectors:
| | .
Example 1.5.1:
1) Find the area of the parallelogram which is formed by the two vectors and
.
2) Find the volume of the parallelepiped spanned by the vectors
and
Solution: 1) The area of the parallelogram is given by:
‖ ‖ ‖ ‖ ‖ ‖ √ √ .
2) The volume of the parallelepiped spanned by the three vectors is
| ( )|

=
Exercise1.5.1: Find the area of the triangle having vertices at
, and .
1.6 Lines and planes

1.6.1 Lines in 3D Space
Definition 1.6.1: A line is any set of the form{ } where B is assumed to be a
non-zero vector and A is a fixed point on the line.
Consider the line L pass through the point P  ( x0 , y 0 , z 0 ) and parallel to the vector v = <a, b, c >
z
Q  ( x, y , z )
P  ( x0 , y 0 , z 0 )
L v = <a, b,c>
Fig.1.11 Illustration of line in 3D
As we see from figure, let Q = (x, y, z) be any other point on the line ‗L‘, then we have vector

PQ which is parallel to v. i.e PQ = P – Q = (x, y, z) – (x0, y0, z0)
= <x – x0, y – y0, z – z0>

Now, PQ  x  x0 , y  y0 , z  z0  is parallel to can be written as:

PQ = , where t is a scalar.

Thus PQ  x  x0 , y  y0 , z  z0  =
Rewriting this equation gives  x, y, z    x0 , y 0 , z 0  t  a, b, c 
 x, y, z  x0 , y0 , z0   t  a, b, c 
Then setting r =  x, y, z  , r0   x0 , y 0 , z 0  , and v = < a, b, c >, we get:

( 1)

If we take the vector equation  x, y, z  x0 , y0 , z 0   t  a, b, c  and rewrite the right
hand side of this equation as one vector, we obtain

 x, y, z  x0  ta, y0  tb, z 0  tc 
From the above vector equation of line, we derive the parametric equations of a line. That is
x  x0  ta,
y  y 0  tb, is called the parametric equations of a line L in 3D space (2)
z  z 0  tc
where ( x0 , y 0 , z 0 ) is a point passing through the line and v = < a, b, c > is a vector that the line
is parallel to. The vector v = < a, b, c > is called the direction vector for the line L and its
components a, b, and c are called the direction numbers. Suppose that a  0, b  0, c  0 , if we
solve the parametric equation with respect to the variable t, we get:
x  x0 y  y0 z  z0
t , t , t and it is called symmetric equations of a line.
a b c
The symmetric equations of a line L in 3D space can re-write as:
x  x0 y  y 0 z  z 0
  (3)
a b c
As we see from the above discussion to write the equation of a line in 3D space, we need to have
a point on the line and a parallel vector to the line.
Example 1.6.1.1: Find the vector, parametric, and symmetric equations for the line through the
point (1, 0, -3) and parallel to the vector .
Solution: To find the equation of a line in 3D space, we must have at least one point on the line
and a parallel vector. Let v ,  x0 , y 0 , z 0  =( and <x, y, z>
be any point on the given line, then using vector equation (1) above, we can write the vector
equation of the line as  x  1, y  0, z  3  t  2,4,5 
And from equation (2) we give the parametric equation of the line by
x  1  2t ,
y  4t ,
z  3  5t
If we solve the parametric equation for with respect to t, we get
x 1 y z3
  is called the symmetric equation of a line.
2 4 5
Example 1.6.1.2: Find the parametric and symmetric equations of the line through the points
(1, 2, 0) and (-5, 4, 2)

Solution: To write the vector equation of a line, we need to have a vector parallel, so let
P = (1, 2, 0) and Q = (-5, 4, 2), then the parallel vector v is given by

v  PQ   5  1, 4  2, 2  0    6, 2, 2  Suppose that be any point on the given line and
< x, y, z > is a point that the line pass through it.
Now the parametric equations of a line are given by
x  x0  ta,
y  y 0  tb, .
z  z 0  tc
We can use either point (1, 2, 0) or (-5, 4, 2) to be the first point on the line ( x0 , y 0 , z 0 ) . So
we choose the point ( x0 , y0 , z 0 )  (1,2,0) . The terms a, b, and c are the components of our
parallel vector given by v = <a, b, c > = <-6, 2, 2 >. Thus, the parametric equation of our line is
given by
x  1  t (6), x  1  6t ,
y  2  t (2), OR y  2  2t,
z  0  t (2) z  2t
If we solve each parametric equation for t. we get symmetric equation
x 1 y2 z
t , t , t
6 2 2
Setting these equations equal gives the symmetric equations
x 1 y  2 z
 
6 2 2
It is important to note that the equations of lines in 3D space are not unique. In Example 2, for
instance, had we used the point Q = (-5, 4, 2) to represent the equation of the line with the parallel
vector v = <-6, 2, 2 >, the parametric equations becomes
x  5  6t , y  4  2t, z  2  2t

1.6.2 Planes in 3D Space

Consider the plane containing the point P  ( x0 , y 0 , z 0 ) and normal vector,
perpendicular to the plane..
z n = < a, b, c >
P  ( x0 , y 0 , z 0 )
Q  ( x, y , z )
x
Fig.1.12 Illustration of plane in 3D

The plane consists of all points Q = (x, y, z) for which the vector PQ is orthogonal to the normal

vector n = <a, b, c >. Since PQ and n are orthogonal, we re-write as:

n  PQ  0
 a, b, c    x  x0 , y  y0 , z  z0  0
a( x  x0 )  b( y  y0 )  c( z  z0 )  0 , which is the standard equation of a plane. If we expand
this equation we obtain the following equation:

ax  by  cz  ax0  by0  cz 0  0

Constant d
If we putting d   ax0  by0  cz 0 , we get the general form of the equation of a plane in 3D
space. i.e
ax  by  cz  d  0 .
Therefore the standard equation of a plane in 3D space is given by:
a( x  x0 )  b( y  y0 )  c( z  z0 )  0 , where ( x0 , y 0 , z 0 ) is a point on the plane and
is a normal vector (orthogonal) to the plane). And if we expanded standard

equation of a plane in 3D space, we obtain the general equation of a plane of the form:
ax  by  cz  d  0
In general: To write the equation of a plane in 3D space, we need a point on the plane and a
vector normal (orthogonal) to the plane.

Example 1.6.2.1: Find an equation of the plane containing the point with normal vector
Solution: The standard equation of a plane is 4(x-1)+5(y-2)+6(z-3)=0., or by simplification

the general equation of a plane:
Example 1.6.2.2: Find the plane containing the three points and
Solution: First, we'll need to find a vector normal to the plane (any one). Notice that two vectors
lying in the plane are⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
A vector orthogonal to both is the cross product
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | |
| | | | | |
So, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is normal vector orthogonal to the plane: it is the normal vector a ( we are
looking for. The equation for the plane with this normal vector and containing ) is then
) or
1.6.2.1 Intersecting Planes

Suppose we are given two intersecting planes with angle  between them.
n2
n1
 Plane 1 
Fig.1.13 Intersection of plane

Let n1 and n2 be normal vectors to these planes. Then
n1  n2
cos  , then from above figure we have the following fact,
| n1 | | n2 |


1) Perpendicular if n1  n2  0 , then the angle between two plane is   .
2
2) Parallel if n2  cn1 , where c is a scalar.
Notes:
1) Given the general equation of a plane ax  by  cz  d  0 , then the normal vector is
n = <a, b, c >.
2) The intersection of two planes is a line.
Example 1.6.2.1.1: Determine whether the planes x  3 y  6 z  4 and 5 x  y  z  4 are
orthogonal, parallel, or neither. Find the angle of intersection and the set of parametric equations
for the line of intersection of the plane.
Solution: Form the equation of the plane x  3 y  6 z  4 , the normal vector is n1   1,3,6 
and similarly for the plane 5 x  y  z  4 , the normal vector is n2   5,1,1  . Then the two
planes are orthogonal if only if their corresponding normal vectors are orthogonal, that is
n1  n2  0 . Thus
n1  n2  1,3,6    5,1,1  (1)(5)  (3)(1)  (6)(1)  5  3  6  4  0
Hence, the planes are not orthogonal. If the planes are parallel, then their corresponding normal
vectors must be parallel. So that there exist a real number k, where n2 = k n1 or k n1 = n2 and if
we substituting the value of n1 and n2 in to our equation we get:

k  1,3,6    5,1,1  or  k ,3k ,6k    5,1,1  . Equating components gives the
1 1
equations k  5, - 3k  1, 6k  -1 , which implies k  5, k   and k  - . Since the values
3 6
of k are not the same for each component to make the vector n2 a scalar multiple of the vector n1
, so the planes are not parallel. Thus, the planes must intersect in a straight line at a given angle.
To find this angle, we use the equation,
n1  n2
cos 
| n1 | | n2 |
For this formula, we have the following:
n1  n2  1,3,6    5,1,1  (1)(5)  (3)(1)  (6)(1)  5  3  6  4
| n1 | (1) 2  (3) 2  (6) 2  1  9  36  46
| n2 | (5) 2  (1) 2  (1) 2  25  1  1  27

4
Thus, cos  ,then if we solve for  we have
46 27
 4 
  cos1    1.68 radians  96.50 .
 46 27 
Finally to find the equation of intersection line between the two planes, we need a point on the
line and a parallel vector. But first we need to find a point on the line, by considering the case
where the line touches the x-y plane, that is, where z = 0. If we take the two equations of the
plane
x  3y  6z  4
5 x  y  z  4 and substitute z = 0, we obtain the system of equations

x  3y  4 (1)
5x  y  4 (2)
Taking the first equation and multiplying by -5 gives
 5 x  15 y  20 5x  y  4
16
Adding the two equations gives 16y = -16 or y    1 . Substituting y  1 back into
16
equation (1) gives x  3(1)  4 or x  3  4 . Solving for x gives x = 4-3 = 1. Thus, the point on
the plane is (1, -1, 0). To find a parallel vector for the line, we use the fact that since the line is
on both planes, it must be orthogonal to both normal vectors n1 and n2 . Since the cross product
n1  n2 gives a vector orthogonal to both n1 and n2 , n1  n2 will be a parallel vector for the line.
Thus, we say that
i j k
3 6 1 6 1 -3
v  n1  n2  1  3 6  i j k
1 1 5 1 5 1
5 1 1
 i (3  6)  j (1  30)  k (1  15)
 3i  31 j  16k
Hence, using the point (1, -1, 0) and the parallel vector v  3i  31 j  16k , we find the
parametric equations of the line are
x  1  3t , y  1  31t , z  16t
1.6.2.2 Distance between points and a plane

Suppose we are given a point Q not in a plane and a point P on the plane and our goal is to find the
shortest distance between the point Q and the plane.


By projecting the vector PQ onto the normal vector n (calculating the scalar projection

compn PQ ), we can find the distance D. n Q

| PQ n |

Distance Between Qandtheplane  D  | compn PQ | P
|n|
Example 1.6.2.2.1: Find the distance between the point (1, 2, 3) and plane 2 x  y  z  4
Solution: Since we are given the point Q = (1, 2, 3), we need to find a point on the plane

2 x  y  z  4 in order to find the vector PQ . We can simply do this by setting y = 0 and z = 0
in the plane equation and solving for x. Thus we have
2x  y  z  4
2x  0  0  4
2x  4
4
x 2
2
 
Thus P = (2, 0, 0) and the vector PQ is PQ  1  2,2  0,3  0  1,2,3  .
Hence, using the fact that the normal vector for the plane is n  2,1,1  , we have

Distance Between | PQ n | | 1,2,3    2,1,1  | 2  2  3 | | 1 | 1
    
Q and the plane |n| (2) 2  (1) 2  (1) 2 4 11 6 6
1
Thus, the distance is .
6
Activity 1.6:
1) Find the parametric and symmetric equations of the line through in the
direction of
2) Find the parametric and symmetric equations of the line through and
3) Find the equation of the plane through the points and

Unit Summary
 A vector is a physical quantity that has both magnitude and direction in space, as opposed
to a scalar, with has no direction.
 In two dimensions a vector can be represented either by its two components or by its
magnitude and direction .the two ways of describing a vector can be related by
trigonometry.
 Vector addition means adding the components of two vectors to form the components of
a new vector. In graphically terms, this corresponds to drawing the vectors as two arrows
laid tip-to-tail and drawing the sum vector from the tail to the first vector to the tip of the
second one. Vector subtraction is performed by negating the vector to be subtracted and
the adding.
 Multiplying a vector by a scalar means multiplying each of its components by a scalar to
create a new vector. Division by the a scalar is defined similarly.
Basic concept Dot product Cross product
Magnitude Definition Definition
√ | |
Unit vector
Area of parallelogram=
Angle between two vector
Area of triangle=
Note
is acute angle are parallel
is obtuse angle
orthogonal (or
perpendicular)

Line Plane
1.Vector form with
Where point on the plane=( )
Equation 2.Parametric form Normal vector N=
3.Symmetric form
Where point on the line=( )

V=
1.Between two lines 1.Between two planes

where
Where u is vector parallel to line l1 is normal vector to plane one.

Angle
V is vector parallel to line l2 is normal vector to plane two.
2.between a line and aplane
where
V is vector parallel to a line

N is normal vector to plane

1.from a point to a line 1.from a point to a plane

| ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
where where
|√ |
V is vector parallel to a line is normal vector to plane
P is point of a line (x,y,z) is point to the plane
Q is point of a line 2.between two parallel planes
2.between two a skewed line

|√ |
| ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |
where
N=UXV
U is vector parallel to line l1
V is vector parallel to line l2
P is point of a line l1
Q is point of a line l2

Miscellaneous Exercise
1) Let A = (0, 1, 5) ,B = √ ). Find the angle between A and B.
2) Which of the following vectors are parallel or perpendicular to (1, 1, -1)?
a) (2, 2, -2) d) (1, 0, 1)
 1 1 1 
b) (2, -2, 0) e)  , , 
 2 2 2
c) (-2, 2, 2) f)
3) a) Find all vectors that are orthogonal to E1 = (1, 0, 0)
b) Find all vectors that are orthogonal to both E1 and E3 = (0, 0, 1)
c) Find all vectors that are orthogonal to E1, E2 and E3 = (0, 0, 1)
4) Find a non-zero vector orthogonal to (1, 2, -1)
5) Find a unit vector in the direction of (3, -1, 2, 4)
 1 1 1   1 1 2   1 1 
6) Let U1   , ,  , U 2   , ,  , U3   , ,0 
 3 3 3  6 6 6  2 2 
a) Show that each u1, u2, u3 is orthogonal to the other two and that each is a unit vector
b) Find the projection of E1 on each of u1, u2, u3
c) Find the projection of A = (a1, a2, a3) on u1.
7) Find a real number  such that the vectors A = (  ,-3,1) and B = (  ,  ,2) are
perpendicular.
8) Find two vectors each of norm 1 that are perpendicular to the vector A = (3,2).
9) If U and Vare perpendicular unit vectors, show that U  V = 2
10) Vectors A and B make an angle of  =  6. If A = 3 , and B = 1,then calculate
the angle between the vectors A+B and B-A.
11) Find the cosine of the angle between the vectors A = (4,1,6) and B= (3,0,2).
12) Find the projection of vector A= (-7,1,3) on to vector B = (5,0,1)
13) Prove that a triangle inscribed in a circle and has a diameter for a side must be a right-
angled triangle.
14) Give three vectors A,B and C such that A+B+C = 0.
15) If A = 3, B = 1 and C = 4, evaluate A.B+B.C+A. C.
16) Let A,B and C be three non-zero vectors. If A.B = A.C is it necessarily true that B = C?
Justify!
17) Prove that the points A.B and C are collinear if and only if
OC  a OA  b OB where a+b = 1

18) If A = 4, B = 2 and C = 6, find the norm of the vector A+B+C.

19) In the following cases compute (A x B).C
a) A = (1, 2, 0) B = (-3, 1, 0), C = (4, 9, -3)
b) A = (-3, 1, -2) B = (2, 0, 4), C = (1, 1, 1)
20) Prove that two non-zero vectors A and B are perpendicular if and only if A  A  tB for
every number t.
21) If A + B + C = 0. Show that A x B = B x C = C x A
22) Find a formula for the area of a parallelogram whose vertices, in order, are P, Q, R & S.
23) Show that A  B A  B  A  B

2 2
24) Find parametric equations of lines through

a) (-5, -6, 8) and (1, 3, 7) b. (10, 3, 1) and (6, -2, -3)
25) Find equation of a plane through points (0, 1, 0), (0, -1, -1) and (1, 2, 1)
26) Find a point of intersection of the lines {p:p = (1, -5, 2) + t(-1, 1, 0)} and {p:p = (3, -3, 1)
+ t(4, 0, -1)}
27) Prove that the line {p:p = (1, 3, -1) + t(0, 3, 5)} lies entirely in the plane
{(x, y, z): 2x – 5y + 3z = -16}
28) Find the intersection point of the lines {p:p = (-2, 4, 6) + t(1, 2, 3)} and
{p:p = (-2, 1, 6) + t(3, 2, 1)}. Find equation of the plane containing the two lines.
29) Find all points of intersection of the line {p:p = t(1, -3, 6)} and the plane {p:x + 3y + z = 2}
30) Find a line through the point po = (-5, 2, 1) and normal to the plane {(x, y, z): x = y}.
31) Let  be a line given by A + tB and let P be a point on  different from A. For point Q
not on  , show that the distance d of Q form the line  is given
B x PQ
by: d 
B

CHAPTER TWO
VECTOR SPACES
2.1 The axioms of a vector space

Definition 2.1.1: Let K be a set of numbers. We shall say that K is field if it satisfies the
following conditions:
a) If are elements of K then and are also elements of K.
b) If is an element of K, then – is also an element of K. Furthermore, if  , then
is also an element of K.
c) and are elements of K.
Example 2.1.1: The set of all real numbers and the set of all complex numbers are fields.
Activity 2.1.1: Are (The set of all integers) and (the set of all rational numbers fields?
Remark: The essential thing about a field is that its elements can be added and multiplied and
the results are also elements of the field. Moreover, every element can be divided by
a non-zero element.
Definition 2.1.2: A vector space V over a field K is a set of objects which can be added and
can be multiplied by elements of K. It satisfies the following properties.
V1) For any  and  , we have
 and 
V2) For any  ,
V3) There is an element of V, denoted by O (called the zero element), such that
for all elements of V.
V4) For  , there exists –  such that
V5) For  , we have
V6) For u  and  ,
V7) For  and  and

V8) For  , .

Activity 2.1.2: What is the name given for each of the above properties?
Other properties of a vector space can be deduced from the above eight properties. For example,
the property can be proved as :
(by V8)
(by V7)
By adding – to both sides of , we have

2.2 Examples of different models of a vector space
1) Consider sets . Clearly, for and properties and hold.
The element of that satisfied is The other 5 properties can be easily
verified. Hence is a vector space over .
2) Let and K = . For any  , we have  . But for  , au is not
always in . For example for and ,  .
Hence is not vector space over . Thus when dealing with vector spaces, we shall always
specify the field over which we take the vector space.
3) Let F be the set of all functions form to , for any f and g in F, is a function from
to defined by For  is in F.
The zero element of F is the zero function for all 
By verifying the other properties, we can see that F is a vector space over .
The algebraic properties of elements of an arbitrary vector space are very similar to those of
elements of . Consequently, we call elements of a vector space as vectors.
Activity 2.2.1: Which of the following are vector spaces?
a)
b)
c)
d)
2.3 Subspaces, Linear Combinations and generators
Definition 2.3.1: Suppose V is a vector space over k and W is a subset of V. If, under the
addition and scalar multiplication that is defined on V, W is also a vector space then we call W a
subspace of V.
Using this definition and the axioms of a vector space, we can easily prove the following:
A subset W of a vector space V is called a subspace of V if:

i) W is closed under addition. That is, if  , then 

ii) W is closed under scalar multiplication. That is, if  and  , then 
iii) W contains the additive identity .
Then as W  V, properties – are satisfied for the elements of W.
Hence W itself is a vector space over k. We call W a subspace of V.
Example 2.3.1: Consider {  }.
H is a subset of the vector space over . To show that H is a subspace of V, it is enough to
show the above three properties hold in H.
Let and be in H. Then and .
and
Which shows .
For and .
Hence  . Now, the element of is . Hence is in H.
 is a subspace of .
Activity 2.3.1: Take any vector in . Let W be the set of all vectors in where .
Discuss whether W is a subspace of or not.
Definition 2.3.2: Let be elements of a vector space V over k. Let
be elements of k. Then an expression of the form is
called a linear combination of .
Example 2.3.2: The sum is a linear combination of

and As this sum is equal to we say that is a linear combination of the three
ordered pairs.
Activity 2.3.2:Take two elements and of Let W be the set of all linear combinations
of & . Show that W is a subspace of W is called the subspace generated by and
.Generalize i) by showing that a set w generated by elements of a vector space V
is a subspace.
2.4. Linear dependence and independence of vectors
Definition 2.4.1: Let V be a vector space over k. Elements of V are said to be
linearly independent if and only if the following condition is satisfied: whenever
are in k such that then for all . If the
above condition does not hold, the vectors are called linearly dependent. In other words

are linearly dependent if and only if there are numbers where

for at least one non-zero .
Example 2.4.1: Consider and
i)  ,- and –
 and
Hence and are linearly independent.
ii) (0,0,0) = –
 – .

Take and , we get
As the constants are not all equal to zero, v1 and v3 are linearly dependent.
Activity 2.4.1: Show that are also linearly dependent.
Remark: If vectors are linearly dependent, at least one of them can be written as a linear
combination of the others.
Activity 2.4.2: Show that are linearly independent
vectors in .
2.5 Bases and dimension of a vector space
Definition 2.5.1: If elements of a vector space V are linearly independent and
generate V, then the set { } is called a basis of V. we shall also say that the
elements constitute or form a basis of V.
Example 2.5.1:
1) Show that and form a basis of
Solution: we have to show that
i) and are linearly independent
ii) They generate i.e every element of can be written as a linear combination
of and .
i) 
 –

 are linearly independent
ii) 


x
 – …………………………….… (*)
2
And thus .
Therefore, given any we can find and given by (*) and (x, y) can be written
as a linear combination of and as
(x, y) =  x  2 y  (0,  1)   x  (2, 1)

 2  2
4  6 4
For example, (4, 3) =   (0,1)    (2,1) Or (4, 3) = -(0, -1) + 2(2, 1)
 2  2
Note that { } is also a basis of . Hence a vector space can have two or more basis.
Find other bases of .
2) Show that and form a basis of .
Solution: and are linearly independent but they do not generate .
There are no numbers and a2 for which
Hence { } is not a basis of

The vectors are linearly independent and every
element of can be written as
=
Hence {e1, e2, e3} is a basis of

Note that the set of elements is
a basis of . It is called a standard basis.
Let { } be a basis of V. since B generates V, any u in V can be represented as
. Since the are linearly independent, such a representation is
unique. We call the coordinate vector of u with respect to the basis B, and we
call the ith coordinate.
Example 2.5.2
1) In 1) of example 3.3.1 The coordinate vector of ) with respect to the basis
{ } But with respect to the standard basis it is .
Find coordinates of in some other basis of .
2) Consider the set V of all polynomial functions  which are of degree less than or
equal to 2.

Every element of V has the form , where 

V is a vector space over (show).
Clearly, are in V and
(0 is the zero function)
 for all

Which shows are linearly independent
for all


Thus and e3 generate V.
{ } is a basis of V and the coordinate vector of an element
.
The coordinate vector of –
Activity 2.5.1: Show that the polynomials
– – .
– and
form a basis of a vector space V defined in 2) of example 2.5.2. What is the coordinate of
– with respect to the basis { }
{ } and { } are bases of and
each has three elements. Can you find a basis of having two elements? four elements?
The main result of this section is that any two bases of a vector space have the same number of
elements. To prove this, we use the following theorem.
Theorem 2.5.1: Let V be a vector space over the field K. Let { } be a basis of V. If
are elements of V, where , then
are linearly dependent.
Proof (reading assignment)
Theorem 2.5.2: Let V be a vector space and suppose that one basis B has n elements, and
another basis W has m elements. Them
Proof: As B is a basis, is impossible. Otherwise by theorem 3.4.1, W will be a linearly
dependent set. Which contradicts the fact that W is a basis. Similarly, as W is a basis, n > m is
also impossible. Hence

Definition 2.5.2: Let V be a vector space having a basis consisting of n elements. We shall say
that n is the dimension of V. It is denoted by dim V.
Remarks: 1) If { } then V doesn‘t have a basis, and we shall say that dim v is zero.
2) The zero vector space or a vector space which has a basis consisting of
a finite number of elements, is called finite dimensional. Other vector
spaces are called infinite dimensional.
Example 2.5.3:
1) over has dimension 3. In general over has dimension n.
2) over has dimension . In fact, {1} is a basis of , because and any
number has a unique expression .
Definition 2.5.3: The set of elements { } of a vector space V is said to be a maximal
set of linearly independent elements if are linearly independent and if given any
element w of V, the elements are linearly dependent.
Example 2.5.4: In { } is a maximal set of linearly independent
elements.
We now give criteria which allow us to tell when elements of a vector space constitute a basis.
Theorem 2.5.3: Let V be a vector space and{ } be a maximal set of linearly
independent elements of V. Then { } is a basis of V.
Proof: It suffices to show that generate V. (Why?) Let .
Then are linearly dependent (why?).
Hence there exist numbers not all such that
In particular . (why?
Therefore, by solving for ,
.
This proves that w is a linear combination of .

Theorem 2.5.4: Let dim , and let be linearly independent elements of .
Then { } is a basis of v.
Proof: According to theorem 3.4.1, { } is a maximum set of linearly independent
elements of V. Hence it is a basis by theorem 2.5.3
Corollary 2.5.1: Let W be a subspace of V. If dim W = dimV, then V = W
Proof: Exercise

2.6. Direct sum and direct product of subspaces

Let V be a vector space over the field K. Let U, W be subspaces of V. We define the sum
of U and W to be the subset of V consisting of all sums with and . We denote
this sum by U +W and it is a subspace of V. Indeed, if and then
.
If , then .
Finally, This proves that is a subspace.
Definition 2.6.1: A vector space V is a direct sum of U and W if for every element v in V there
exist unique elements and w such that .
Theorem 2.6.1: Let V be a vector space over the field K, and let U, W be subspaces. If
, and if { }, then V is the direct sum of U and W.
Proof: Left for you as an Exercise!
Note: When V is the direct sum of subspaces U, W we write:
.
Theorem 2.6.2: Let V be a finite dimensional vector space over the field K. Let W be a
subspace. Then there exists a subspace U such that V is the direct sum of W and U.
Proof: Left as an Exercise!
Theorem 2.6.3: If V is a finite dimensional vector space over the field K, and is the direct sum
of subspaces U, W then
.
Proof: Exercise
Remark: We can also define V as a direct sum of more than two subspaces. Let
be subspaces of V. We shall say that V is their direct sum if every element of can
be expressed in a unique way as a sum
v  w1  w2  .......  wr .
With ,for .
Suppose now that U, W are arbitrarily vector spaces over the field K(i.e. not necessarily
subspaces of some vector space). We let UxW be the set of all pairs (u, w) whose first
component is an element u of U and whose second component is an element w of W. We define
the addition of such pairs component wise, namely, if and
,then we define .
If , we define the product by
.

It is then immediately verified that is a vector space, called the direct product of U and
W.
Note: If is a positive integer, written as a sum of two positive integers , , then we see
that is the direct product and
Example 2.6.1: Let { },and { }.
Show that V is the direct sum of W and U.
Solution: Since V, U and W are vector spaces, and in addition to that U and W are subspaces of
V. The sum of U and W is:
{ } .
Thus; . The intersection of U and W is: U { }.
Therefore, V is the direct sum of W and U.

Activity 2.6.1:
1) Let, { }, and { }. Show that V is
the direct sum of W and U.
2) Let, { },and { }. Show that V is the
direct sum of W and U.
3) Let, ,( ) -, and W ,( ) -.
Show whether V is the direct sum of W and U or not.

4) Let, { } ,and { }.
Show whether V is the direct sum of W and U or not.
Exercise 2.1
1) Let k be the set of all numbers which can be written in the form √ , where are
rational numbers. Show that is a field.
2) Show that the following sets form subspaces
a) The set of all in such that .
b) The set of all in such that – .
c) The set of all in such that .
d) The set of all in such that and .
3) If U and W are subspaces of a vector space V, show that and are subspaces.
4) Decide whether the following vectors are linearly independent or not (on )
a) 
b)
c)
5) Find the coordinates of X with respect to the vectors A, B and C

a)
b)
6) Prove: The vectors and in the plane are linearly dependent if and only if
– .
7) Find a basis and the dimension of the subspace of generated by
{ }
8) Let W be the space generated by the polynomials – , and
– – . Find a basis and the dimension of W.
9) Let {  – } {  }.
Find a basis and dimension of : a) V b) W c) V
10) What is the dimension of the space of matrices? Give a basis for this space. Answer the
same question for the space of matrices.
11) Find the dimensions of the following
a) The space of matrices all of whose elements are 0 except possibly the diagonal
elements.
b) The space of upper triangular matrices
c) The space of symmetric matrices
d) The space of diagonal matrices
12) Let V be a subspace of . What are the possible dimensions for V? Show that if
 , then either { } or V is a straight line passing through the origin, or V is a plane
passing through the origin.

Unit Summary
A vector space V over a field K is any set of objects with two operations, addition and
multiplication by scalars; satisfying the following conditions for all objects u, v and w in V
and for all scalars in a field F.
i) V is closed under addition that is, u + v is an element of V,
ii) Addition is associative that is, (u + v) + w =u + (v +w),
iii) Addition is commutative that is, u + v = v +u,
iv) There exists an element of V denoted by 0 such that 0 + u = u = u + 0, 0 is called the
zero element of V,
v) For each u an element of V, there exists an element – u of V such that u + −u = 0, −u is
called the additive inverse of u,
vi) u is an element in V,
vii) (u +v) = u + v,
viii) = ,
xi) (a +b)u = au + bu,
ix) 1u = u1 = u, where 1 is the unity in F.
Let V be a vector space and W be a subset of V. Then W is said to be a subspace of V if for
every element u, v of W and a scalar in F
i) u + v in W
ii) au in W
iii) The zero element O of V is also the zero element of W.
Let be vectors in and be real numbers. Then
is called the linear combination of the vectors
. are called coefficients of the linear combination.
Let S = { } be a set of vectors in . Then the set of all linear combinations of
is called the span of S or the set generated by S.
Let V be a vector space and let be elements of V. We say that
are linearly dependent if there exists numbers not all equal to zero such that
. = 0 Otherwise are linearly independent.
Let { } be a set of vectors in a vector space V. Then { } is
said to be a basis of Vif the following conditions are satisfied.
i) arelinearly independent.
ii) V= The span of { } that is every element of V is a linear combination of

the vectors .
The number of elements of the basis for a vector space is called the dimension of the
vector space.
Let V be a vector space of dimension n, and let linearly independent
elements of V. Then form a basis for V.
Let V be a vector space over the field F, and let U, W be subspaces of V. If U + W = V,
and if U n W = {O} then V is the direct sum of U and W

CHAPTER THREE
MATRICES
Unit outcomes
After the completion of this chapter, you will be able to:
 define matrices and give examples by themselves ;
 know the role operation on the matrices and their properties;
 distinguish types of matrices;
 identify a system of linear equations (or linear system) and describe its solution set;
 write down the coefficient matrix and augmented matrix of a linear system;
 use elementary row operations to reduce matrices to echelon forms; and
 make use of echelon forms in finding the solution sets of linear systems; performing
inverses of nonsingular square matrices.
Introduction
The concept of matrices has had its origin in various types of linear problems. The most
important of which concerns the nature of solutions of any given system of linear equations.
Matrices are also useful in organizing and manipulating large amounts of data. Today, the
subject of matrices is one of the most important and powerful tools in Mathematics which has
found applications to a very large number of disciplines such as Engineering, Business and
Economics, statistics etc.
3.1 Definition of a matrix
Definition 3.1.1: Matrix is a rectangular arrangement of mxn numbers (real or complex) in to
‗m‘ horizontal rows and ‗n‘ vertical columns enclosed by a pair of brackets [ ], ( ).
 a11 a12 ... a1n 
a a22 ... a2 n 
 21
 . . . 
is a matrix.
 . . . 
 
 . . . 
am1 am 2 ... amn 

It is called an m  n (read ―m by n‖) matrix or a matrix of order m x n. Parentheses ( ) are
also commonly used to enclose numbers constituting matrices.

 We can abbreviate a matrix A, by writing ( ) Before we go any further, we need
to familiarize ourselves with some terms that are associated with matrices.
 The numbers in a matrix are called the entries or the elements of the matrix. For the entry
a ij , the first subscript i specify the row and the second subscript j the column in which the
entry appears. That is, a ij is an element of matrix A which is located in the i th row and j th
column of the matrix A. Whenever we talk about a matrix, we need to know the order of the
matrix.
The order of a matrix is the number of rows and columns it has. When we say a matrix is a 3 by
4 matrix, we are saying that it has 3 rows and 4 columns. The rows are always mentioned first
and the columns second. This means that a 3  4 matrix does not have the same order as a 4  3
matrix. It must be noted that even though an m  n matrix contains mn elements, the entire
matrix should be considered as a single entity. In keeping with this point of view, matrices are
denoted by single capital letters such as A, B, C and so on.
Remark: By the size of a matrix or the dimension of a matrix we mean the order of the matrix.
1 5 2 
Example 3.1.1: Let A    . A matrix with size can be written as
0 3 6 
[ ] and a general matrix is denoted by
( )
Exercise 3.1.1: Let ( )
a) Find
b) What is the size of matrix A?
Example 3.1.2: Form a 4 by 5 matrix, B, such that bij = i+ j.

Solution: Since the number of rows is specified first, this matrix has four rows and five columns.
1  1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5
2  1 22 23 24 2  5
b11 b12 
 
b13 b14 b15
b b
B   21 22
b23 b24 b25  3  1 3 2 33 3 4 3  5
b31 b32 b33 b34 b35   
 4  1 42 43 44 4  5
 
b41 b42 b43 b44 b45
2 3 4 5 6
3 4 5 6 7
= .
4 5 6 7 8
 
5 6 7 8 9
Activity 3.1.1: Form a 4 by 3 matrix, B, such that a) bij  i  j b) bij  (1) i  j
Remark:
1) A vector is a matrix having either one row or one column.
2) A matrix consisting of a single row (a1, a2, a3, …, an) is called a row vector. Hence a row
matrix is a matrix.
3) A matrix consisting of a single column ( ) is called a column vector. Hence a column
matrix is an
Definition 3.1.2(Equality of matrices): Two matrices A and B are said to be equal, written
A = B, if they are of the same order and if all corresponding entries are equal.
Example 3.1.3:
5 1 0  2  3 1 0  9
1)     but 9 2    . Why?
2 3 4   2 3 2  2 2
x  y 6 1 6
2) Given the matrix equation 
   3 8 . Find x and y.
 x y 8   
x y 1
Solution: By the definition of equality of matrices,
x y  3
Solving gives x = 2 and y = -1.

Exercise 3.1.2: Find the values of x, y, z and w which satisfy the matrix equation
 x  y 2 x  z   1 5  x  3 2 y  x 0  7
a) 2 x  y 3z  w   0 13 b.     
     z  1 4 w  6 3 2 w 
3. 2 Operations of Matrix
3.2.1 Addition of Matrices

Definition 3.2.1.1: Let A and B be two matrices of the same order. Then the addition of A and
B, denoted by A + B, is the matrix obtained by adding corresponding entries of A and B.
Thus, if A  (aij )mn and B  (bij ) mn , then A  B  (aij  bij )mn .
Remark: Notice that we can add two matrices if and only if they are of the same order. If they
are, we say they are conformable for addition. Also, the order of the sum of two matrices is
same as that of the two original matrices.
Example 3.2.1.1: Consider the matrices
( ) ( ) ( ), then find
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ),
but we can‘t find A + C and B + C. Because they are undefined matrices, since they have
different size.
Exercise 3.2.1.1: Given the matrices A, B, and C below
 1 2 4   2 -1 3   4 
A =  2 3 1 
 B =  2 4 2  C =  2  Find, if possible.
 5 0 3   3 6 1   3 
a) A + B b) B + C
Note: If A is any matrix, the negative of A, denoted by –A, is the matrix obtained by replacing
each entry in A by its negative. For example, if

 2  1  2 1 
A   5 4 , then  A    5  4
 6 0   6 0 
3.2.2. Properties of Addition of Matrices

In this section, we will learn about properties of matrices.
Theorem:
1) Matrix addition is commutative: If A and B are two matrices of the same order:
A+B=B+A
2) Matrix addition and associative: If A, B and C are three matrices of the same order:
(A + B) + C = A + (B + C)
3) Existence of additive identity: If 0 is the zero matrix of the same order as that of the
matrix A, then A + 0 = 0 + A.
4) Existence of additive inverse: If A is any matrix and –A is its opposite matrix, then
A + (-A) = 0 = (-A) + A
Note: The zero matrixes play the same role in matrix addition as the number zero does in
Addition of numbers.
3.2.3 Subtraction of Matrices

Definition 3.2.2.1: Let A and B be two matrices of the same order. Then by A – B, we mean
A + (–B). In other words, to find A – B, we subtract each entry of B from the corresponding
entry of A.
Example 3.2.2.1: ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )

3.2.4 Scalar multiplication of matrices

Definition 3.2.4.1: If A is any matrix and k is any scalar, then the product kA is the matrix
obtained by multiplying each entry of A by k. i.e. if ( ) and k be any real number,
then ( )
Example 3.2.4.1: let ( ). Then
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
Exercise 3.2.4.1: Consider * + * + * +
then find 5A, 3B and .
2 3 8

Example 3.2.4.2: Solve x    y    2 
1 5 11
Solution: The given matrix equation gives
2 x  3 y  16 2 x  3 y  16
 x   5 y   22   x  5 y   22 , By equality of matrices we have
         
2 x  3 y  16
, After evaluating we get the values x = 2 and y = -4
x  5 y  22
Theorem 3.2.4.1:(Properties of scalar multiplications)
1) If A and B are two matrices of the same order and if k is a scalar, then
k(A + B) = kA + kB
2) If k1 and k2 are two matrices of the same order if A is matrix, then:
(k1 + k2)A = k1A + k2A
3) If k1 and k2 are two matrices of the same order if A is matrix, then:
(k1k2)A = k1(k2A) = k2(k1A

3.2.5 Matrix Multiplication

Definition3.2.5.1: Let A and B two matrices. The product AB is defined only if the number of
columns of matrix A is equal to the number of rows of matrix B.
If A is an matrix and B is an matrix, then the product AB is an matrix whose
entities are determined as follows. To find the entry in row ‗ i‘ and column ‗j‘ of AB single out
row i from A and column j from matrix B. Multiply the corresponding entities from the row and
column together, and then add up the resulting products.
Thus, the entry in row i and column j of AB is given by
Note: Let ( ) and ( ) . We define the product AB by
To determine whether a product of two matrices is defined is to write down the size of the first
factor and, to the right of it, write down the size of the second factor as shown below. If, the
inside numbers are the same, then the product is defined. The outside numbers then give the size
of the product.
Example 3.2.5.1:
1) Consider the matrices
* + [ ] , then find AB.
Solution: Since A is a matrix and B is a matrix, the product AB is a matrix. To

determine, for example, the entry in row 2 and column 3 of AB, we single out row 2 from A and
column 3 from B. Then, as illustrated below, we multiply corresponding entries together and add
up these products.

The entry in row 1 and column 4 of AB is computed as follows:
The computations for the remaining entries are
2) Let ( ) ( )
In particular, if A is a 1 m matrix and B is a m 1 matrix, i.e.,
[ ] [ ]
But BA is a m m matrix
[ ][ ] [ ]
So AB  BA in general.
Note:
 Multiplication of matrices is associative.
 Matrix multiplication is distributive with respect to addition.
 Matrix multiplication is not commutative.
3) Consider ( ) ( )

( ) ( )
Theorem3.2.5.1: Let A be m x n matrix, B be an m x r and let k be a scalar. Then

1) k(AB) = (kA)B = A(kB)
2) 0A = 0, A0 = 0
3.2.6 Matrix Multiplication by Columns and by Rows

Sometimes it may be desirable to find a particular row or particular column of a matrix
product AB without computing the entire product. The following results are useful for that
purpose. [ ]
[ ] .
Example 3.2.6.1: Consider the following matrices
* + [ ]
The second column of matrix AB can be obtained by the computation
* + [ ] * +
⏟
⏟
The first row of matrix AB can be obtained by the computation
[
⏟ ] [ ] [ ]
In general, if denote the row matrix of A and denote the column

matrix of B, then it follows that
[ ] [ ] [AB computed column by column]
[ ] [ ] [AB computed row by row]
Note: We summarize matrix multiplication as follows:

In order for product AB to exist, the number of columns of A, must equal the number of rows
of B. If matrix A is of dimension m  n and B of dimension n  p, the product AB will have the
dimension m  p. Let A  (aij ) be an m  n matrix and B  (b jk ) be an n  p matrix. Then the
product AB is the m  p matrix defined by AB  (cik ), where

n
cik  ai1 b1k  ai 2 b2 k  ...  ainbnk   aij b jk , I = 1,2,…,m and k = 1,2,…,p
j 1
Thus, the product AB is the m  p matrix, where each entry cik of AB is obtained by
multiplying corresponding entries of the ith row of A by those of the kth column of B and then
finding the sum of the results.
Remark: For real numbers, a multiplied by itself n times can be written as an. Similarly, a
square matrix A multiplied by itself n times can be written as An. Therefore, A2
means AA, A3 means AAA and so on.
Exercise3.2.6.1
1) If a matrix A is 3x5 and the product AB is 3x7, then what is the order of B?
2) How many rows does X have if XY is a 2x6 matrix?
1 2 3  4 5 6  1  2 1
3) If 
A   1 0 2  , B   1 0 1 and C   1 2 3 . Find each of the
 
 1  3  1  2 1 2  1  2 2
following
i) A+B
ii) 2B – 3C
iii) A+B–C
iv) A – 2B + 3C
v) 2A – C
 5 2 2 4 1 3
4) Let A  , B  , C  Find the following:
 1 3 6 1  7 2
i) AB ii) BC iii) (AB)C iv) A(BC)
4  1  4 
5) If A  4 0  4  , compute A2. Is it equal to I3, where I3 is the identity matrix
3  1  3
of order 3?
3.2.7 The Transpose of a matrix

t
Definition3.2.7.1: Let A be an‘ m x n‟ matrix. The transpose of A, denoted by A' or A , is the
n  m matrix obtained from A by interchanging the rows and columns of A. Thus the first row of
A is the first column of At, the second row of A is the second column of At and so on.

If ( ) ( )
Example 3.2.7.1
 2 3
 
1) If ( ) then A t
  4 1
 6 4
 
2) If ( ) ( )
Activity3.2.7.1 : Find a 3x3 matrix A for which A = At.

Theorem 3.2.7.1: Let A and B be matrices and k be a scalar. Then
i) =A
ii)
iii)
iv) Let A and B matrices that can be multiplied. Then (AB)T = AT BT

3.3 Types of matrices: square, identity, Scalar, diagonal

, triangular, symmetric and skew symmetric matrices
Definitions 3.3.1:
1) Row Matrix: A matrix that has exactly one row is called a row matrix. For Example: the
matrix A  5 2  1 4 is a row matrix of order 1 4 .
2) Column Matrix: A matrix consisting of a single column is called a column matrix. For
3
example, the matrix B  1 is a 3 1 column matrix.
4 
3) Zero or Null Matrix: A matrix whose entries are all 0 is called a zero or null matrix. It is
0 0 0 0
usually denoted by 0m n or more simply by 0. For example, 0    is a 2 4
0 0 0 0
zero matrix,
4) Square Matrix: An m  n matrix is said to be a square matrix of order n if m = n. That is,
if it has the same number of columns as rows.
Example 3.3.1:
 3 4 6 
2  1
A=  2 1 3  and B= 
5 6 
are square matrices of order 3 and 2 respectively.
 5 2  1 
In a square matrix A  aij  of order n, the entries a11, a22 , ..., ann which lie on the diagonal
extending from the left upper corner to the lower right corner are called the main diagonal
3 2 4 
entries, or more simply the main diagonal. Thus, in the matrix C = 1 6 0  the entries
5 1 8 
c11  3, c22  6 and c33  8 constitute the main diagonal.

5) Diagonal Matrix: An n × n matrix A is said to be a diagonal matrix if all its entries not on
the main diagonal are zeros. Thus a square matrix A  aij  is diagonal if aij  0 for i  j .
( ) is diagonal matrix of order n.

5 0 0
B  0 0 0 is a diagonal matrix
0 0 7
Notation: A diagonal matrix A of order n with diagonal elements a11 , a22 , ..., ann is denoted
by A  diag (a11 , a22 , ..., ann )

What about for i = j?
6) A diagonal matrix in which all diagonal elements are equal is called a scalar matrix.
2 0 0 
Example 3.3.2: Let ( ) and 0 2 0  are a scalar matrices.
0 0 2
Note: ( ) is a scalar matrix, if 2
7) Identity Matrix or Unit Matrix: A square matrix is said to be identity matrix or unit
matrix, if all its main diagonal entries are 1‘s and all other entries are 0‘s. In other words, a
diagonal matrix whose all main diagonal elements are equal to 1 is called an identity or unit
matrix. An identity matrix of order n is denoted by ‗In‘ or more simply by I.
1 0 0
  1 0
Example 3.3.3 I  0 1 0 is identity matrix of order 3. I 2    is identity matrix of
 0 1 
0 0 1
order 2.
8) Triangular Matrix: A square matrix is said to be
i. An upper triangular matrix if all entries below the main diagonal are zeros.
ii. Lower triangular matrix if all entries above the main diagonal are zeros.
5 0 0 0
2 4 8  1 0 
Example 3.3.4 0 1 2  and 
3 0
are upper and lower triangular matrices,
6 1 2 0
0 0  3  
 2  4 8 6
respectively.
i.e A square matrix ( ) of order n is called an upper triangular matrix if
and A square matrix ( ) of order n is called a lower triangular matrix if

Example 3.3.5: consider
Note: A triangular matrix is a matrix which is either upper triangular or lower triangular.
9) A square matrix A  (aij ) is said to be symmetric if At  A , or equivalently, if a ij  a ji
for each i and j.

Example 3.3.6: The following matrices are symmetric matrices, since each is equal to its own
transpose. (verify)
2 1 5 
 
* + [ ] [ ] D   1 0  3
5  3 6 
 
Note: for a symmetric matrix the elements that are at equal distance from the main diagonal
are equal.
Exercise 3.3.1.
a 3 4 8
 
c 3 9 
1) For A  
b
is to be a symmetric matrix, what numbers should the letters a to j
d e f 10 
 
g j 
 h i
represent?
2) A) Does a symmetric matrix have to be square?
B) Are all square matrices symmetric?
10) A square matrix A is said to be skew symmetric if .

Example 3.3.7 [ ], then At = [ ], which implies .
Remark: aii  aii  2aii  0 or a ii  0 . Hence elements of main diagonal of a skew-

symmetric matrix are all zero.
 0 5 7 0  5  7
  t  
Example 3.3.8 For A    5 0 3  , A   5 0  3    A . So, A is skew-symmetric.
 7  3 0 7 3 0 
  
Note: let A be any square matrix. Then
i) is symmetric
ii) is skew symmetric
iii) A can be written as a sum of a symmetric and a skew symmetric matrices.
iv)
Example 3.3.9 Identify the following matrices as symmetric and skew symmetric.
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
3.3.1 Trace of square matrix
Definition 3.3.1.1 If A is a square matrix, then the trace of A denoted by tr(A) is defined as the
sum of the diagonal elements of A. i.e, ∑ ( )
Example 3.3.1.1: Consider
[ ] And
( )

Activity 3.3.1.1: Let T = [ ], then find .
Remark: The trace of A is undefined if A is not a square matrix.
3.3.2 Properties of the trace

Let A and B be square matrices that are conformable for addition and multiplication. Then
1) Matrix addition is commutative. That is, if A and B are two matrices of the same order,
then .
2) Matrix addition is associative. That is, if A, B and C are three matrices of the same order,
then .
3) Existence of additive identity. That is, if 0 is the zero matrix of the same order as that of
the matrix A, then .
4) Existence of additive inverse. That is, if A is any matrix, then
Exercise 3.3.1.1
1) a) Form a 4 by 5 matrix, B, such that bij = i*j, where * represents multiplication.
b) What is BT? c) . Is B symmetric? Why or why not?

3  1 0   2 4 3 
2) Given A  2 4 5  and B =  5 1 7  . Verify that
   
1 3 6   2 3 8 
i) ( A  B) t  At  B t , ii) ( AB ) t  B t A t iii) (2 A) t  2 At
1 1 1
3) Let A    , is A t A is symmetric?
1 2 3
3.4 Elementary row and column operations
In section we will see the definition and properties of Elementary row and column operations.
Definition 3.4.1: The following operation are called elementary row operations on matrix
1) Interchanging any two rows (or columns). It can be represented by
2) Multiplying a row (or column) by a non-zero scalar. It is called scaling. It is represented
by .
3) Replacing one row (the row) or column (the column) by the sum of itself and a
multiple of (k times) another row or column.
Definition 3.4.2: A matrix A is said to be row (column) equivalent to a matrix B if B can be

obtained by applying a finite sequence of elementary row (column) operations to A.
Note: Elementary row operations produce same results when operated either on a system or on
its augmented matrix form.
Example 3.4.1:
1) The following four matrices are row equivalent.
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
 B is obtained from A by
 C is obtained from B by
 D is obtained from C by
2) Show that A is row equivalent to B.
. / ( )
Solution: Since B is obtained from A by performing the following Elementary row operation,
then A is row equivalent to B.
Definition3.4.3 A matrix obtained from an identity (unit) matrix by applying a single elementary
operation is called an elementary matrix.
Example 3.4.2:
1) The following are elementary matrices * + [ ] [ ]
2) The matrix ( ) is an elementary matrix obtained by
 A nonzero row (or column) in a matrix means a row (or column) that contains at least one
non-zero entry.
 A leading entry of a row refers to the left most nonzero entry (in a non-zero row).

3.5 Row reduced echelon form of a matrix

In this topic we will discuss what by meant Row reduced echelon form of a matrix.
3.5.1 Row Echelon Form
Definition: A matrix is said to be in echelon (row echelon) forms if it satisfies the following
three properties.
a) All nonzero rows are above any rows of all zeros.
b) Each leading entry of a row is in a column to the right of the leading entry of the row above
it.
c) All entries in a column below a leading entry are zero.
Example 3.5.1.1: The following matrices are in row echelon form.
 
2  3 2 1 1 0 0 29
A) 0 1  4 8 , 0 1 0 16 
 5  
0 0 0  0 0 1 1 
 2
B) ( ) ( ) ( ) be are row echelon form.
3.5.2 Reduced Row Echelon Form

Definition 3.5.2.1: If a matrix in echelon form satisfies the following additional condition then it
is called in reduced echelon form (or row reduced echelon form)
i) The leading entry in each non zero row is 1.
ii) Each leading 1 is the only nonzero entry in its column.
Example 3.5.2.1:
1) The following matrices are in reduced row echelon form
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Remark:
1. A matrix in row-echelon form has zeros below each leading 1, where as a matrix in
reduced row-echelon form has zeros both above and below each leading 1.

2) Each matrix is row equivalent to one and only one row reduced echelon matrix. But a
matrix can be row equivalent to more than one echelon matrices.
3) If matrix A is row equivalent to an echelon matrix U, we call U an echelon form of A. If U
is in reduced echelon form, we call U the reduced echelon form of A.
2) Determine which of the following matrices are in row reduced echelon form and which
others are in row echelon form (but not in reduced echelon form)
1 0 1 0
1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0
a) 0 1 0 0 0 0  1 1
b)   c) 
0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0 0 0  
0 0 0 0
0 2 3 4 5 1 0 5 0 8 3
0 0 3 4 5 0 1 4 1 0 6
d)  e) 
0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 1 0
   
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Exercise 3.5.2.1: Reduce the following Matrices in to row reduced echelon form.
A) ( )
B) ( )
3.6 Rank of a matrix using elementary row(column) operations

Definition 3.6.1: Let A be an m x n matrix and U be an echelon or the reduced echelon form of
A. The rank of A is denoted by Rank (A) and is defined as the number of non-zero row of U.
Example 3.6.1:
1) let ( ) .Then find rank(A).

Solution: Reduce A to row-echelon form
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
Now U = ( ) is a row echelon form of A and since the number of non zero row of
U is 2, then the Rank (A) = 2
2) Find the rank of each of the following matrices.
( ) ( )
Solution:
( ) ( ) ( )
Since ( )is row-echelon form and the number of non zero row it is 3, then,
rank (A) = 3. Do it B in similar fashion.
Exercise 3.6.1: Find the row reduced echelon form of each of the following matrices and
determine the rank.
1 3 0 0 3
1 3 5 7  0  1  2  1 3 0
0
a). 2 4 6 8 c).  2 4 5  5 3
 0 1 0
b).
0 0 0 0 0
3 5 7 9    3  6  6 8 3
0 0 0 3 1
3.7 System of Linear equations

In this section we will present certain systematic methods for solving system of linear equations.
Definition 3.7.1: A linear equation in the variables x1, x2, ........, xn over the real field R is an
equation that can be written in the form a1 x1  a2 x2  ....  an xn  b (1)
Where b and the coefficients a1 , a2 ,..., an are any real numbers

Definition 3.7.2: A system of linear equations (or a linear system) is a collection of one or more
linear equations involving the same variables, say x1 , x 2 ,..., x n .
Now consider a system of m linear equations in n-unknowns x1 , x 2 ,..., x n :
a11 x1  a12 x2  ...  a1n xn  b1

a21 x1  a22 x2  ...  a2 n xn  b2
.
(2)
.
.
am1 x1  am 2 x2  ...  amn xn  bm
If b1  b2  ...  bm  0 , then the system of equation is called homogeneous. If bi  0 for some
i{1,2,3, . . ., m} then the system is called non homogeneous.

In matrix notation, the linear system (2) can be written as AX  B , where
 a11 a12 ... a1n   x1   b1 

a  x  b 
 21 a22 ... a2 n   2  2
A    , X    and B   
. . .
.  . .
     
 .  . .
am1 am 2 ... amn   xn  bm 
We call A coefficient matrix of the system (2).
The matrix ( | ) is called the augmented matrix for the system.
Example 3.7.1: For the non-homogeneous linear system

x1  3 x 2  x 3  2
x 2  2 x3  4
 2 x1  3 x 2  3 x 3  5
1 3  1 1 3  1 2

The matrix A   0  
1  2 is the coefficient matrix and  0 1  2 4 is the
 2  3  3  2  3  3 5
augmented matrix.

Are the coefficient matrix and the augmented matrix of a homogeneous linear system equal?
Why?
A system of linear equations has either
1) no solution, or
2) exactly one solution, or
3) Infinitely many solutions.
We say that a linear system is Consistent if it has either one solution or infinitely many
solutions; a system is inconsistent if it has no solution.
3.7.1 Solving a linear system
This is the process of finding the solutions of a linear system of equation. We first see the
technique of elimination (Gaussian elimination method) and then we add two more techniques,
matrix inversion method and Cramer‘s rule.
Gaussian-Jordan Elimination Method
The Gaussian elimination method is a standard method for solving linear systems. It applies to
any system, no matter whether m < n, m = n or m > n (where m and n are number of equations
and variables respectively). We know that equivalent linear systems have the same solutions.
Thus the basic strategy in this method is to replace a given system with an equivalent system,
which is easier to solve.
The basic operations that are used to produce an equivalent system of linear equations are the
following:
1) Replace one equation by the sum of itself and a multiple of another equation.
2) Interchange two equations
3) Multiply all the terms in an equation by a non-zero constant.
The above three basic operations listed above correspond to the three elementary row operations
on the augmented matrix. Thus to solve a linear system by elimination we first perform
appropriate row operations on the augmented matrix of the system to obtain the augmented
matrix of an equivalent linear system which is easier to solve and use back substitution on the
resulting new system. This method can also be used to answer questions about existence and
uniqueness of a solution whenever there is no need to solve the system completely.
In Gaussian elimination method we either transform the augmented matrix to an echelon matrix
or a reduced echelon matrix. That is we either find an echelon form or the reduced echelon
form of the augmented matrix of the system.

Example 3.7.1.1: If A = [ ] is the row reduced form of the augmented matrix of a
system linear equations then [ ]0 1 [ ] is the equivalent system of equation in
matrix form. The corresponding system of equation is

, which is the solution of the original system of linear equation.
An echelon form of the augmented matrix enables us to answer the following two fundamental
questions about solutions of a linear system. These are:
1. Is the system consistent; that is, does at least one solution exists?
2. If a solution exists, is it the only one; that is, is the solution unique?
Example 3.7.1.2:
1) Determine if the following system is consistent. If so how many solutions does it have?
x1  x2  x3  3
x1  5 x2  5 x3  2
2 x1  x2  x3  1
1  1 1 3 
Solution: The augmented matrix is A  1 5  5 2 Let us perform a finite sequence of
2 1  1 1
elementary row operations on the augmented matrix.
1  1 1 3  R   R  R 1  1 1 3
R3   2 R1 R3
A B  1 5  5 2     0 6  6  1 
2 1 2
    
2 1  1 1  2 1  1 1 
 
1  1 1 3 1
R3  2 R 2  R3 1  1 1 3 
0 6  6  1     0 6  6  1 
   9
0 3  3  5 0 0 0  
 2

The corresponding linear system of the last matrix is

x1  x 2  x 3  3
6 x 2  6 x 3  1 (*)
9
0 
2
9
But the last equation 0. x1  0. x 2  0. x 3  is never true. That is there are no values x1 , x 2 , x 3
2
that satisfy the new system (*). Since (*) and the original linear system have the same solution
set, the original system is inconsistent (has no solution).
Generally let be system of equation in matrix form with n variables.
1) If [ ] and hence has no solution.
2) If [ ] , and there exists a unique solution to the
System Ax = b.
3) If [ ] , and we have an infinite number of
Solutions to the system .
2) Using Gaussian elimination solve the linear system
2x  y  z  2
 2x  y  z  4
6x  3y  2z   9
Solution: The augmented matrix of the given system is

 2 1 1 2
A / b   2 1 1 4 

 6  3  2  9
Let us find an echelon form of the augmented matrix first. From this we can determine whether
the system is consistent or not. If it is consistent we go ahead to obtain the reduced echelon form
of [Ab], which enable us to describe explicitly all the solutions.
 2 1 1 2
R2 R1 R2 
2 1 1 2
R3 3R1 R3
 2 1 1 
4  0 0 2 
6   

 6  3  2  9 6  3  2  9

2  1 1 2  R 3  5 R 2  R 3  2  1 1 2 1
0 0 2  2

6   0 0 2 6   R 2 2 R 2

0 0  5  15 0 0 0 0
 1  1
 2  1 1 2 2  1 0  1 1 0
0 0 1 3 R 
1
 R1 2 R1 
 2 2
1  R 2 R1
3
 
  0 0 1 3   0 0 1

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0  0 0 0 0
 
The associated linear system to the reduced echelon form of [Ab] is
x  1
2
y  21
z  3
0  0
The third equation is 0x  0y  0z  0 . It is not an inconsistency, it is always true whatever

values we take for x, y, z. Then the system is consistent and if we assign any value  for y in the
first equation, we get x  1
2
 1
2
 . From the second we have z = 3.
Thus x  1
2
 1
2
 , y = and z = 3 is the solution of the given system, where  is any real
1
number, Then there are an infinite number of solutions, for example, x = 2 , y = 0, z = 3 x = 0,
y = 1, z = 3 and so on.
In vector form the general solution of the given system is of the form ( 21  12  ,  , 3) where 
 . What does this represents in  3 ?

3) solve the system using Gauss – Jordan elimination
2 +4 −3 =1
Solution :The augmented matrix is [ ]
Now let us determine the row echelon form of the augmented matrix.
To determine the row – echelon form add −2 times the first row to the second to obtain
[ ] [ ]
[ ] [ ]
[ ]

[ ]
* + is the row echelon form of the augmented matrix.
By performing additional elementary row operation we can obtained the row reduced echelon
form of the augmented matrix which is [ ].
Thus [ ]0 1 [ ] [ ]0 1 [ ]
The solution is the unique solution of the given system of linear equation
x1  x2  x4  1
4) Find the solution set of the system: x1  x2  x3  2 .
x 2  x3  x 4  0
Remark: A system of linear equation AX  B is consistent iff the ranks of the coefficient matrix
and the augmented matrix are equal.
Theorem 3.7.1: A homogenous system of equation with more unknowns than equations has
infinitely many solution
Exercise 3.7.1
1) Find the solution set of the following system:
2 x1  x 2  3x3  1
x1  3x 2  5 x3  2 x 4  11
x1  x 2  2 x3  2
a. c. 3x1  2 x 2  7 x3  5 x 4  0
4 x1  3x 2  x3  3
2 x1  x 2  x 4  7
x1  5 x3  3
x1  2 x 2  3x3  x4  0 x1  3x2  2 x3  5 x4  10
b. 3x1  x2  5 x3  x 4  0 d. 3x1  2 x2  5 x3  4 x4  5
2 x1  x 2  x 4  0 2 x1  x2  x3  5 x4  5

x yz 6
2) For what values of  and  the system: x  2 y  3z  10 , has
x  2 y  z  
i. No solution ii. Unique solution iii. Infinitely many solution
3) Find the augmented matrix for each of the following system of linear equations:
a) { c) {
b) { d) {
4) Find a system of linear equations corresponding to the augmented matrix:
a) [ ]
b) [ ]
c) * +
d) * +

5) A) Find a linear equation in the variables x and y that has a general solution
.
b). show that is also general solution of the equation in part (a).
6) Consider the system of equations
Show that for this system to be consistent, the constants must satisfy .
3.7.2 Solving Linear Systems by Matrix Inversion

If A is an invertible square matrix, then for each column matrix B, the system of equations
has exactly one solution, namely, .
Example: Consider the system of linear equations
Solution: In matrix form this system can be written as where
[ ] [ ] [ ]
The inverse of A is [ ], which is obtained by = adjA
Then the solution of the system is
[ ][ ] [ ]
Let us now summarize the different possible cases that may arise for the solution of the system
of equation .
1) If and hence has no solution.
2) If , and there exists a unique solution to the
system Ax = b.
3) If , and we have an infinite number of

solutions to the system .
3.7.3. Cramer‟s rule for solving system of linear equation

Consider the system of n equations with n variable
i.e. .
Suppose then the system has a unique solution and unique solution is give by
, Where is the same as the determinant D except that the
column of D has been replaced by the vector ( ).
Consider the linear system of two equations in two variables: Determinant of second order is
| |
For
| | | |
The solution is ,
Consider the following system of equation in three unknown
Then, . Where
| | | | | | | |

Example 3.7.3.1: Solve the following linear system using Cramer‘s rule
2
| | | |
Solution: .
| | | |
Remark: To solve a system of equations in unknowns by Cramer's rule, it is necessary to

evaluate determinants of matrices. For systems with more than three equations,
Gaussian elimination is far more efficient. However, Cramer's rule does give a formula for the
solution if the determinant of the coefficient matrix is nonzero.

Unit Summary
 This chapter introduces matrices as a way of representing data. Matrices will be used to
organize data as well as to solve for variables.
 The first section gives the definition of a matrix and its dimensions. It then explains how to
add and subtract matrices. Not all matrices can be added to or subtracted from all other
matrices, as this section explains. Matrices can be added and subtracted only if they have the
same dimensions.
 The second section explains two types of multiplication associated with matrices: scalar
multiplication—that is, multiplication by a constant—and multiplication of two matrices.
Matrix multiplication is associative, but not commutative.
 Just as there is an additive identity and a multiplicative identity for all real numbers (an
addition and a multiplication that does not change the number), there is an additive identity
and a multiplicative identity for all matrices. The next section deals with these two identities,
and introduces the identity matrix.
 The subsequent section introduces operations "within" a single matrix—elementary row
operations. There are three elementary row operations, and they are used to row reduce a
matrix. Row reduction is used in almost all calculations with matrices, so it is important to
understand this topic.
 The final section of this chapter explains the concept of the inverse of a matrix. Just as most
real numbers have a multiplicative inverse, most matrices also have multiplicative inverse—
that is, a matrix that, when multiplied by the original
 matrix, yields the identity. The inverse of a matrix can be found using the row reduction, and
this section explains how.
 Matrices are important in Algebra II, as we will see in the next chapter. They are used in
multiple ways to solve systems of equations. In addition, they are important in higher
algebra. A large portion of linear algebra, which you may study in college, deals entirely with
matrices. Matrices are also used by mathematicians, physicists, and biologists to organize
data and study complex phenomena; for example, matrices are used to study population
growth and determine when a population will stabilize.

 2 4   4 1 4  3 2 0 
1) Given A =   B=   C=   D = 3 1 E=  
1 3  2 0  3  1  1  2
Calculate the following and if not possible, put undefined:
a) A + B b) 3B c) AC d) AE e) AD f) B + D g) B – 2A
1 2 3  2 1  1
  2 4 0
2) Given A   , B  , C  1 0 and D   2 Evaluate the
 
 1 0 2   3 1 1    
 1 1  0
following: a) b). c) d)
 1 0 1   1 0 
2 A  3   A   
 1 1 
3) Find a 2x2 matrix A such that
 1 1 2 
Find a 2x2 matrix A  

 2   such that
4) 
  
 0 3 1
5) Prove that A  3 0 5  is a skew-symmetric matrix
 1 5 0 
 
6) Find the row reduced echelon form of each of the following matrices and determine the
rank.
1 3 0 0 3
1 3 5 7  0 0
a) 2 4 6 8
0 1 0
b) 
0 0 0 0 0
3 5 7 9  
0 0 0 3 1
1 0 1 0 0
0  1  2  1 3 0
1
d)  2 4 5  5 3
0 1 0
c) 
0 1 0 2 1
   3  6  6 8 3
0 0 0 1 1
7) Use Gaussian Elimination to solve the following system
a) –

2 x 3 y  z  10
b) x 3 z  6
5 x 2 y  13
c) x + y + z = 4
-2x - y + 3z = 1
y + 5z = 9
8) Find the inverses (if they exist) of:
i) * + ii) [ ]
9) Solve system of linear equation by using cramers rule
a.
10) Find the solution set of the following system:

2 x1  x 2  3x3  1
x1  3x 2  5 x3  2 x 4  11
x1  x 2  2 x3  2
a. c. 3x1  2 x 2  7 x3  5 x 4  0
4 x1  3x 2  x3  3
2 x1  x 2  x 4  7
x1  5 x3  3
x1  2 x 2  3x3  x4  0 x1  3x2  2 x3  5 x4  10
b. 3x1  x2  5 x3  x 4  0 d. 3x1  2 x2  5 x3  4 x4  5
2 x1  x 2  x 4  0 2 x1  x2  x3  5 x4  5
x yz 6
11) For what values of  and  the system: x  2 y  3z  10 , has
x  2 y  z  
i. No solution ii. Unique solution iii. Infinitely many solution
12) Let = the set of all mxn matrices. Is a vector space under matrix addition and
scalar multiplication?

CHAPTER FOUR
DETERMINANTS
Unit outcome:
At the end of this chapter, the students should be able to find
 determinant of a square matrix;
 inverse of a square matrix with the help of determinants;
 the solution for system of equations using determinants;
 rank of a matrix;
 eigenvalues and eigenvectors and
 area of a parallelogram and volume of a parallelepiped.
4.1 Definition of Determinants
We interrupt our discussion of matrices to introduce the concept of the determinant function.
Remember that a matrix is simply an ordered arrangement of elements; it is meaningless to
assign a single numerical value to a matrix.
However, if A is a square matrix, then the determinant function associates with A exactly one
numerical value called the determinant of A, that gives us valuable information about the
matrix. Denoting the determinant of A by or det A. we can think of the determinant function
as correspondence:
Square matrix determinant of A
In this case, the straight bars do NOT mean absolute value; they represent the determinant of the
matrix. We will see some of the uses of the determinant in the subsequent sections. For now, let's
find out how to compute the determinant of a matrix so that we can use it later.
Definition 4.1.1: (Determinant of order 1): Let [ ] be a square matrix of order , Then
determinant of A is defined as the number a11 itself. That is, .
Example4.1.1: .

Definition 4.1.2: (Determinant of order 2): Let * + be a matrix, then
.That is, the determinant of a matrix is obtained by taking

the product of the entries in the main diagonal and subtracting from it the product of the entries
in the other diagonal.
Example 4.1.2:
If = ( ) and =( ), then and
To define the determinant of a square matrix A of order we need the concepts of the
minor and the cofactor of an element.
Let | | be a determinant of order n. The minor of , is the determinant that is left by
deleting the row and the column. It is denoted by .
a11 a12 a13

For example, given the 3 x 3 determinant a21 a22 a23 . The minor of a11 is
a31 a32 a33
a 22 a 23 a 21 a 23
M 11  , the minor of a12 is M 12  , and so on.
a32 a33 a32 a33
Let A  aij be a determinant of order n. The cofactor of aij denoted Cij or Aij, is defined as
(1) i  j M ij , where i + j is the sum of the row number i and column number j in which the entry
 M ij , if i  j is even
lies. Thus C ij   . For example, the cofactor of a12 in the 3 x 3 determinant
 M ij , if i  j is odd
a11 a12 a13
a21 a23 a a
a21 a22 a23 is C12  (1)1 2   21 23
a31 a33 a31 a33
a31 a32 a33
 0 1 2
 
Example 4.1.3: Evaluate the cofactor of each of the entries of the matrix:  1 2 3 
3 1 1
 
Solution: C11 = -1, C21 = 1 , C31 = -1, C12 = 8, C13 = -5, C22 = -6, C32 = 2, C23 = 3, C33 = -1

Activity 4.1.1: Evaluate the cofactor of each of the entries of the given matrices:
2 3 4   2 0  1
   
a.  3 2 1  b.  5 1 0 
1 1  2 0 1 3 
   
Definition 4.1.3 :( Determinant of order n): If A is a square matrix of order n (n >2), then its
determinant may be calculated by multiplying the entries of any row (or column) by their
cofactors and summing the resulting products. That is,
Or .
Remark: It is a fact that determinant of a matrix is unique and does not depend on the row or
column chosen for its evaluation.
1 3 4
Example 4.1.4: Find the value of 0 2 5
2 6 3
Solution: Choose a given row or column. Let us arbitrarily select the first row. Then
1 3 4
2 5 0 5 0 2
0 2 5  (1)  ( 3 )( 1 ) 4 = 1(6  30)  3(0  10)  4(0  4)
6 3 2 3 2 6
2 6 3
= 22
If we had expanded along the first column, then
1 3 4
2 5 3 4
0 2 5  (1)  0  (2) , as before
6 3 2 5
2 6 3
1 2 0 1
3 1 4 1
Example 4.1.5: Find the value of A 
2 0 3 3
4 3 1 2
Solution: Expanding along first row, we have

A  a11C11  a12 C12  a13C13  a14 C14 = a11 M 11  a12 M 12  a13 M 13  a14 M 14

1 4 1 3 4 1 3 1 4
=(1) 0  3 3  2  2  3 3  0  (1) 2 0  3 = –
3 1 2 4 1 2 4 3 1
Activity 4.1.2: Compute the determinant of A if:

1 3 5 1 5 0
   
a. A  2 1 1 c. A   2 4  1
 3 4 2 0  2 0 
   
 5 7 2 2   3 0 0 0
   
 0 3 0  4  5 2 0 0
b. A   d. A  
5 8 0 3  8 3 1 0
   
 0    4 7 2 
 5 0 6   5
Note: 1) det I n  1 , where I n is an identity matrix of order n.

2) Determinant of a square matrix can be negative, positive or zero.
3) det A  The product of the diagonal elements, if A is a diagonal matrix or lower
triangular matrix or upper triangular matrix.
The following diagram called Sarrus‘ diagram, enables us to write the value of the determinant
of order 3 very conveniently. This technique does not hold for determinant of higher order.
Working Rule: Make the Sarrus‘ diagram by repeating the first two columns of the determinant
as shown below. Then multiply the elements joined by arrows. Assign the positive sign to an
expression if it is formed by a downward arrow and negative sign to an expression if it is formed
by an upward arrow.
Value: a11a 22 a33  a12 a 23 a31  a13 a 21a32  a31a 22 a13  a32 a 23 a11  a33 a 21a12 .i.e.
2 1 3
Example 4.1.6: Find the value of A  5 7 0 with the help of Sarrus‘ diagram
4 1 6

Solution: The Sarrus‘ diagram for the given determinant is to the right. Thus the value of the
determinant is
A  (2)(7)(6)  (1)(0)(4)  (3)(5)(1)  (4)(7)(3)  (1)(0)(2)  (6)(5)(1)  45
Exercise 4.1.1:
1) Evaluate the following determinants: a) | | b) | | c) | |
2) Let [ ]. Determine each of the following
a) the minor of b) the minor of c) the cofactor of

d) the cofactor of e) the cofactor of .
Definition 4.1.4: If A is an matrix, then
1) ∑ | | for any integer with or (Expand by row )
2) ∑ | | for any integer with or (Expand by column)
Example 4.1.7 Find if ( )
Solution: Let us use the first formula. Here we take , thus
∑ | |
= + +
=

Remark: For simplicity, to find the determinant of a matrix, We expand the determinant by
arrow or column that contains number zeros.
2 ) Find if ( )
Solution: Notice that the column contains more number of zeros. Thus, we expand the
determinant by the column. Hence, we use the formula,
Now, =∑
+ +
= 5(8 +2) =50
Remark: If a square matrix A is a triangular matrix (upper or lower), then is the product of
the diagonal entries of A.
3) Find and if A=( ) and B=( )
Solution: We can see that A and B are triangular square matrices. Thus their determinant is the
product of the main diagonal entries. Now, = (4)(2)(5)(6)=240 and = (3)(2)(1)=6
4.2. Properties of Determinants and uniqueness

We now state some useful properties of determinants. These properties help a good deal in the
evaluation of determinants. We use the notations and to denote respectively the row and
the column of a determinant.
Property 1: The value of a determinant remains unchanged if rows are changed into columns
and columns into rows. That is,
| | | | or .
Remark: In terms of matrices, if A is a square matrix, then .

Property 2: If any two rows (or columns) of a determinant are interchanged, the value of the
determinant so obtained is the negative of the value of the original determinant. That is,
a11 a12 a13 a11 a12 a13
a 21 a 22 a 23   a31 a32 a33 .
a31 a32 a33 a 21 a 22 a 23

Remark: The notation Ri  R j (Ci  C j ) is used to represent interchange of and row
(column).
Property 3: If any two rows (or columns) of a determinant are identical, the value of the
a1 b1 c1
determinant is zero. That is, a1 b1 c1  0 . R1 and R2 are identical
a2 b2 c2
Property 4: If each element of a row (or column) of a determinant is multiplied by a constant k,

the value of the determinant so obtained is k times the value of the original determinant. That is,
a11 a12 a13 a11 a12 a13

ka21 ka22 ka23  k a21 a22 a23
a31 a32 a33 a31 a32 a33
Remark: 1) The Ri  k Ri (Ci  k Ci ) is used to represent multiplication of each
element of th row (column) by the constant k.

2) det(kA)  k n det A , where k is any real number and A is an matrix.
Property 5: If to the elements of a row (or column) of a determinant are added k times the
elements of another row (or column), the value of the determinant so obtained is equal to the
value of the original determinant. That is,
a11 a12 a13 a11  ka31 a12  ka32 a13  ka33
a21 a22 a23  a21 a22 a23
a31 a32 a33 a31 a32 a33
Property 6: If each element of a row (or column) of a determinant is the sum of two elements,
the determinant can be expressed as the sum of two determinants. That is,
a11 a12 a13 a11 a12 a13 a11 a12 a13
a21 a22 a23  a21 a22 a23  a21 a22 a23
a31  b1 a32  b2 a33  b3 a31 a32 a33 b1 b2 b3
1 18 72
Example 4.2.1: Find the value of the determinant A  2 40 148
3 45 150

Solution: By applying various properties of determinants, we make maximum number of zeros

in a row or a column. We shall make maximum number of zeros in C 1. Performing the
R2  R2  2R1 R3  R3  2R1 (property 5),
1 18 72
4 4
A  0 4 4 = = 24 - 36 = -12
9 6
0 9 6
yz x y
Example 4.2.2: Show that z  x z x  ( x  y  z )( x  z )2
x y y z
yz x y
Solution: Let   z  x z x . Performing R1  R1  R2 , R1  R1  R3 , we get
x y y z
2( x  y  z ) x  y  z x yz 2 1 1
 zx z x = (x yz) z x z x
x y y z x y y z
Performing C1  C1  2C2 and C2  C2  C3 , we get
0 0 1
=  (x yz) xz zx x (Property 5)
x y yz z
= ( x  y  z )( x  z )2
Activity 4.2.1: Evaluate the following determinants by using the properties listed above:
1 3 1 2
3 1 43 2 4 6
2  5 1  2
a) 2 7 35 b) 7 9 11 c)
0 4 5 1
1 3 17 8 10 12
3 10  6 8

Product of two determinants

Theorem 4.2.1: The determinant of the product of two matrices of order n is the product of their
determinants. That is, AB  A B .
Example 4.2.3:
3 0  2 5  3 0 2 5
1) Let A    and B    , then AB  A B   (3)(3)  9
4 1 1 4  4 1 1 4
2) Let A and B be 3x3 matrix with and
Find
Solution: det(2 AB t )  2 3 det A det B t  8(2)(3)  48 , since .
4.3 Adjoint and Inverse of a matrix

Definition 4.3.1: Let be a square matrix of order n and let be the cofactor of .
Then the , denoted by , is defined as the transpose of the cofactor matrix
( ). That is , ( ) ( ) and (1) i  j M ij
 1 2 3
 
Example 4.3.1: Find adj A, if A   1 0 1
 4 3 2
Solution: We first find the cofactor of each entry. That is,
= Cofactor of (i. e cofactor of 1) = = -3
= Cofactor of (i. e cofactor of 2) = =6
= Cofactor of (i. e cofactor of -1) = =5
We have
 3 5 2
Thus, adj A   6  10  4 .

 3 5 2 
1 5 0
Activity 4.3.1: Find adj A if A  2 4  1

0  2 0 
Properties of the Adjoint of a matrix

1) If A is a square matrix of order n, then
, where is an identity matrix of order n.
2) If A is a square matrix of order , then .
3) If and are two square matrices of the same order, then
.
 2 1 3
Example 4.3.2: If A   2 0 1 , verify that
 4 5 6 
Solution: We have – .
Now ,
.
 5 9 1
Therefore, adj A   16 24 4 
 10  14  2
 2 1 3   5 9 1 4 0 0  1 0 0 
  
Hence A( adjA )   2 0 1  16 24 4  = 0 4 0   4 0 1 0   A I
    3
 4 5 6   10  14  2 0 0 4  0 0 1
Similarly, it can be proved that .

Definition 4.3.2: Let A be a square matrix of order n. Then a square matrices of order , if it
exists, is called an inverse of if . A matrix A having an inverse is called an

invertible matrix. It may easily be seen that if a matrix A is invertible, its inverse is unique.
The inverse of an invertible matrix A is denoted by .
Does every square matrix possess an inverse? To answer this let us consider the matrix
0 0
A  . If B is any square matrix of order , we find that .
0 0
We thus see that there cannot be any matrix B for which AB and BA both are equal to .
Therefore A is not invertible. Hence, we conclude that a square matrix may fail to have an
inverse. However, if A is a square matrix such that A  0 , then A is invertible and
. For, we know that .
1
( ) ( ) . Thus A is invertible and. A1  adjA
A
A square matrix A is said to be singular (not invertible) if , and it is called non-

singular(invertible) if .
6 7  1
Example 4.3.3: Find  if the matrix A  3  5  has no inverse.
9 11  
Solution: 6(2  55)  7(3  45)  (33  9 )  0
 2  2  8  0
(  2)(  4)  0
  2 or   4
3 1 2
Example 4.3.4: If A  2  3  1 , then A  3( 3  2 )  1( 2  1 )  2( 4  3 )  8

1 2 1 
Since A  0 , A is non-singular or invertible.
Activity 4.3.2: Find A-1.

2 0 0 
Further, if B  3  1 4  then B  0 and it is singular.
5  2 8 

1
Note: If A is an invertible matrix, then AA-1 = In and where .
det A
Properties of the inverse of a matrix
1. A square matrix is invertible if and only if it is non-singular.
2. The inverse of the inverse is the original matrix itself, i.e. .
3. The inverse of the transpose of a matrix is the transpose of its inverse, i.e.,
.
4. If A and B are two invertible matrices of the same order, then AB is also invertible and
moreover, .
4  2 1
Example 4.3.5: Find the inverse of the matrix A= 7 3 3 .
2 0 1
Solution: A  ( 4 )( 3 )  ( 2 )( 1 )  1( 6 )  8  0 . Thus exists and is given by
. To find , let denote the cofactor of the element in the row and
column of |A|. Thus

.
3 2  9 3 2  9
adj A    1 2  5
  1 1 1
adj A    1 2  5 . Hence A 
A 8
 6  4 16   6  4 16 
 1 4 0
a b 
Activity 4.3.3: 1. Find the inverse of A, if i) A    ii) A   1 2 2
c d   0 0 2
 3 4  2 8 
2. Find matrix A such that A  .
6 2 9 4 
3 AX  B X  A1B (True/False)

4.4 Cramer‟s Rule for solving system of linear equations (homogeneous and
non homogeneous)
Suppose we have to solve a system of linear equations in unknowns . Let be
the matrix obtained from A by replacing column by the vector and be the column
vector of matrix .
Now let be columns of the identity matrix and Ii(x) be the matrix obtained
from by replacing column by x.
If then by using matrix multiplication we have
[ ] [ ]
[ ]
By the multiplicative property of determinants,
The second determinant on the left is . (Make a cofactor expansion along the th row.) Hence
det Ai ( B )
Therefore if  then we xi  .
det A
This method for finding the solutions of linear equations in unknowns is known as Cramer‘s
Rule.
Example 4.4.1: Solve the following system of linear equations by Cramer‘s Rule.
Solution: Matrix form of the given system is Ax  B
 2 1 1   x1   6 
     
where A   1 4  2  x   x2  and B    4
3 0 1  x   7 
  3  
det Ai ( B)
By Cramer‘s Rule, xi  (i  1, 2, 3)
det A

2 1 1
det A  1 4  2  3
3 0 1
6 1 1 2 6 1
4 4 2 1 4 2
det A1 ( B) 7 0 1 6 det A2 ( B) 3 7 1 3
x1    2 , x2     1 and
det A 2 3 det A 2 3
2 1 6
1 4 4
det A3 ( B) 3 0 7 3
x3    1.
det A 2 3
Example 4.4.2:Solve the following system of linear equations by Cramer‘s Rule.
2 x1  x 2 7
 3x1  2 x3   8
x 2  2 x3   3
Solution: Matrix form of the given system is
 2 1 0  x1   7 
     
where A    3 0 1  x   x2  and b    8
 0 1 2 x    3
   3  
det Ai ( B )
By Cramer‘s Rule, xi  (i  1, 2, 3)
det A
2 1 0
det A   3 0 1  4
0 1 2

7 1 0 2 7 0
8 0 1 3 8 1
det A1 (b) 3 1 2 6 3 det A2 (b) 0 3 2 16
x1     , x2    4 and
det A 4 4 2 det A 4 4
2 1 7
3 0 8
det A3 (b) 0 1 3  14  7
x3     .
det A 4 4 2
Activity 4.4.1:
1. Use Cramer‘s rule to solve each of the following
a) b) – –
–
2. Consider the system of homogeneous linear equations in unknowns

Ax = 0. Discuss about the cases that we can use Cramer‘s Rule.
For the non-homogeneous system , if , then the Cramer‘s rule does not give any
information whether or not the system has a solution. However, in the case of homogeneous
system we have the following useful theorem.
Theorem 4.4.1: A system of homogenous linear equations in unknowns , has a
non-trivial solution det A  0 . If ,it has only the trivial solution
 6 7  1
 
Example 4.4.3: Let A   3  5  . Find the value(s) of  if Ax  0 has non-zero solution.
 9 11  
 
Solution: det A = 0
6 7 1
3  5 0
9 11 
6(2  55)  7(3  45)  (33  9 )  0
 2  2  8  0

(  2)(  4)  0 or   2,   4
4.5 The rank of a matrix by sub determinants

Let us consider a square matrix of order (i.e rows and columns). If there are at least
rows and columns which must be deleted in order to obtain a non vanishing determinant, then
the order of the highest ordered non vanishing determinant in is given by – and this
number is defined as the rank of .
We are now giving the definition of rank, in terms of determinant.
Definition 4.5.1: The rank of a matrix is equal to the order of the highest ordered non
vanishing determinant in A.
Remark: The rank of a matrix is the order of the largest sub square matrix whose determinant is
different from zero.
Note: If A is a non - singular matrix of order n, then the rank of is equal to .
1) Rank of A is unique.
2) Every matrix has a rank.
3) If A is a matrix of order m  n, then  m, n.

4) If then every minor of order etc is zero.
5) A is a matrix of order  . A is non singular 
6) Rank of .
7) A is a matrix of order m  n. If every order minor is zero then
8) A is matrix of order m  n. If there is a minor of order which is not

zero, then .
9) If A is a null matrix, then the rank of A is defined as zero. That is, if A is non-
zero matrix.
  1 2 0
 
Example 4.5.1: Obtain the rank of the matrix A=  3 7 1 
 5 9 3
 3  3
Solution: – – 
 A is non-singular and hence

  1  2  3
 
Example 4.5.2: Obtain the rank of the matrix B=  3 4 5 
4 6 
 5
Solution: – – – – … (*)
1  2
A minor of order 2 of B is  2  0 . So …(**)
3 4
 From (*) and (**);
  1 2 3
Example 4.5.3: Find the rank of the matrix A =  
  2 4 6  23
Solution: Since A is a 2x3 matrix, rank of  . But every determinant of order 2 in
A is zero. So rank of ... (*)
But A is a nonzero matrix  … (**)
 from (*) and (**)
1 0  4 5 
 
Example 4.5.4: Find the rank of the matrix A =  2  1 3 0 .
8 1 0  7 

Solution: The given matrix A is a 3x4 matrix. Therefore rank of A  3 … (*)
A non-vanishing determinant of order 3 in A is
1 0 4
2  1 3 = -43. So rank of A 3… (**)
8 1 0
Combining (*) and (**) we have rank of A = 3.
 1 1 1 2
 
Example 4.5.5: The 34 matrix A =  2  2 2 4  has a row that is a constant multiple of
 1 2 3 4
 
another row (i.e ).This matrix possesses four square sub matrices order
 1 1 1   1 1 2  1 1 2  1 1 2
       
3:  2  2 2  ,  2  2 4  ,  2 2 4  ,   2 2 4  .
 1 2 3  1 2 4  1 3 4  3 3 4
       

The determinant of each of these matrices is zero. Because, in each case the second row is a
constant multiple of the first row. Thus the rank of the matrix A cannot be equal to 3. That is
rank of . However, it is easy to find a 2 x 2 sub matrix of A whose determinant is
 2 4
different from zero. Take   its determinant is equal to  .
 3 4 
This indicates that
We will now describe the relation between determinant, rank and reduce echelon form of a
matrix A, in the case of homogeneous system of equation and nonhomogeneous
system of equation .
 Let A be an matrix, then the following are equivalent.
a. The system of equation has no solution
b. Rank(A)
c. A is not row equivalent to .
d.
e. A is singular
 Let A be an matrix, then the following are equivalent.
a. The system of equations has only a trivial solution
b. A is non-singular
c. Rank(A) = n
d.
e. A is row equivalent to
4.6. Determinant and volume

This is related to the idea of triple dot product.
If A is a 2x2 matrix, the area of the parallelogram determined by the columns of A is det A.
If A is a 3x3 matrix, the volume of the parallelepiped determined by the columns of A is det A.
4.7 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors of a matrix
Definition 4.7.1: Let A be an n x n matrix over a field K. A scalar  in K is said to be an
eigenvalue of A iff there is a non-zero vector X in such that
 … (*)

If  is an eigenvalue of A then any vector v in Kn satisfying (*) is called an eigenvector of A

corresponding to . (In our case K is the set of all real numbers)
Note: Intuitively, an eigenvector of A is a vector that remains unchanged or reversed in direction
when A operates on the vector space. If the corresponding value is 1, then it is unchanged in
magnitude also and it then said to be invariant under A.
1 6 6 3
Activity 4.7.1: Let A    , u    , and v    .
5 2  5  2
i) Are u and v eigenvectors of A?
ii) Show that 7 is an eigenvalue of A.
How to determine the Eigenvalues and corresponding Eigenvectors of a Matrix?
X is an eigenvector with eigenvalue  AX = X (A - In) X = 0 … (**)
a11   a12 . . a1n   x1  0 

 a x  0 
 21 a 22   ... . a 2 n   2  
 . . .  . .
or  .     
. .  . .
 
 . . .  . .
 a n1 an2 a nn       
 x n  0
X = 0 is the trivial solution of (**). Further solutions will exist iff A   I n  0.
Hence, solving the equation A   I n  0 gives the eigenvalue(s) of A.

For each eigenvalue , the corresponding eigenvector is found by substituting  back into the
equation A   I n X  0 .
Note: i) The polynomial A   I n is called the characteristic polynomial of A.
ii) The equation A   I n  0 is called the characteristic equation.
Example 4.7.1: Let A  1 6 . Find the eigenvalues and the corresponding eigenvectors of A.
 
5 2
1 6 1 0
Solution: A  I 2  0      0 1   0
5 2  
1  6
  0    3  28  0
2
5 2

   7 or    4
The corresponding eigenvectors can now be found as follow:
 1 6 1 0  x  0 
For  = 7: (A – 7I2)X = 0      7   y   0 
5  2 0 1     
6 6  x  0
   y  0  y  x
 5  5    
1
Hence, any vector of the type    , where  is any real number, is an eigenvector corresponding
1
to the eigenvalue 7.
 1 0 
For  = -4: (A + 4I2)X = 0   
6 1 x  0 
   4   y   0 
 5 2 0 1     
5 6 x  0 5
    y  0  y  6 x
5 6    
1
Hence, any vector of the type    5  , where  is any real number, is an eigenvector
 6 
corresponding to the eigenvalue –4.
Note: If X is an eigenvector with eigenvalue , X is also an eigenvector with the same
eigenvalue, where  is a non-zero scalar.
The following theorem summarizes our results so far.
Theorem 4.7.1: If A is an matrix, then the following statements are equivalent:
i)  is an eigenvalue of .
ii) There is a non-zero vector X Kn such that AX = X.
iii) The system of equations (A - I)X = 0 has non-trivial solutions.
iv)  is a solution of the characteristic equation det (A - I) in K.
 3 2 0
Example 4.7.2: Let A   2 3 0 . Find the eigenvalues and the corresponding
 
 0 0 5
eigenvectors of A.

3 2 0
Solution: Characteristic equation of A:  2 3   0  0
0 0 5
 (3 - ) (3 - ) (5 - ) - 4(5 - ) = 0
 [(3 -  )2 - 4] (5 - ) = 0
 (2 - 6 + 5) ( - 5) = 0
 ( - 1) ( - 5)2 = 0
So, eigenvalues of A are:  = 1 and  = 5.
To find the corresponding eigenvectors, we substitute the values of  in the equation
3   2 0   x 0
(A - I) X = 0. That is,   2 3 0   y   0 …(*)
    
 0 0 5     z  0
 2 2 0  x 0
For  = 1, (*) becomes:  2 2 0  y  0  x = y, z = 0
    
 0 0 4  z  0
Thus, the eigenvectors corresponding to eigenvalue 1 are vectors of the form:

 x  1
X=  x  = x 1 for any x in the set of real numbers.
0  0
  2  2 0  x 0 
For  = 5, (*) becomes:  2  2 0  y   0  x = -y
     
 0 0 0  z  0
Thus, eigenvectors of A corresponding to eigenvalues 5 are vectors of the form.
 x   x  0  1 0 
X   x    x   0   x  1  z 0 
         
 z   0   z   0  1

Exercise 4.7.1:Find the eigenvalues and the corresponding eigenvectors of the matrices:
2  3 1 
3 2   
a) A    b) A  1  2 1
 
3  2 1  3 2
1 1 1
 1 1  
c) A    d) A  0 2 1
 
 2 3 0 0 1
Theorem 4.7.2 Let A be an matrix. Then
1) If A is a triangular matrix, then the diagonal entries are eigenvalues of A.
2) A and has the same eigenvalues.
3) If K is a nonzero scalar, then the eigenvalues of KA are K times the eigenvalue of A.
4) If is an eigenvalue of a nonsingular matrix A, then is an eigenvalue of .
5) If P is matrix and nonsingular, then A and has the same eigenvalues.
6) Eigenvector corresponding to distinct eigenvalues are linearly independent.
7) The eigenvalue a real symmetric are all real.
8) The eigenvectors corresponding to two distinct eigenvalue of areal symmetric matrix are
orthogonal.
Proof:
1) For simplicity, We consider the following upper triangular matrices
A =( )
Let be the eigenvalue of the matrix ( ),then
| ( ) ( )| = 0 | |
= or = or =
Observe that the eigenvalues of A are the diagonal entries of A.
Let be the eigenvalue of A. then . Since = = and
it follows that is an eigenvalue of .

The rest left as an exercise for the reader.

Example 3.7.3
1) Find the eigenvalues of the following matrices.
a. ( ) b. ( )
2) Find the eigenvalue of the matrix ( ) if the eigenvalues of the matrix
( ) are .
Solution: Observe that the matrices in and respectively lower and upper triangular
matrices. Thus, the eigenvalues are 4, and -3,5,1 and -2 respectively. Since a matrix and its
transpose have the same eigenvalue and it follows that the eigenvalues of are
4.8 Diagonalization of symmetric matrix

Theorem 4.8.1: If A is an n  n symmetric matrix, then the eigenvectors of A associated with
distinct eigenvalues are orthogonal.
Proof:
 a1   b1 
a  b 
   2
Let x1    and x 2    be eigenvectors of A associated with distinct eigenvalues 1 and
2
 
   
a n  bn 
 2 , respectively, i.e.,
Ax1  1 x1 and Ax2  2 x2 .
Thus,
x1t Ax2  x1t  Ax2   x1t 2 x2  2 x1t x2
and
 
x1t Ax2  x1t At x2  x1t At x2   Ax1  x2  1 x1  x2  1 x1t x2 .
t t
Therefore, x1t Ax2  2 x1t x2  1 x1t x2 . Since 1  2 , x1t x2  0 .

 0 0  2
Example 4.8.1: Let A   0 2 0  .A is a symmetric matrix. The characteristic

 2 0 3 
equation is
 0 2
det(I  A)  0   2 0    2  4  1  0 .
2 0  3
The eigenvalues of A are  2, 4,  1 . The eigenvectors associated with these eigenvalues are
0  1  2
x1  1   2, x2   0    4, x3  0   1 .
   
0  2  1
Thus, x1 , x 2 , x3 are orthogonal.
Note: If A is an n  n symmetric matrix, then there exists an orthogonal matrix P such that
D  P1 AP  Pt AP
Where col1 ( P), col2 ( P),, coln ( P) are n linearly independent eigenvectors of A and the diagonal
elements of D are the eigenvalues of A associated with these eigenvectors.
0 2 2
 2 .
Example 4.8.2: Let A  2 0
2 2 0
Please find an orthogonal matrix P and a diagonal matrix D such that D  P t AP .

Solution: We need to find the orthonormal eigenvectors of A and the associated eigenvalues
first. The characteristic equation is

2 2
f ( )  det(I  A)   2   2    2   4  0 .
2
2 2 
Thus,   2,  2, 4.
1.As   2, solve for the homogeneous system

 2I  Ax  0 .
The eigenvectors are
 1  1
t  1   s  0 , t , s  R, t  0 or s  0.
 
 0   1 
 1  1
 v1   1  and v 2   0  are two eigenvectors of A. However, the two eigenvectors are not
 
 0   1 
orthogonal. We can obtain two orthonormal eigenvectors via Gram-Schmidt process. The
orthogonal eigenvectors are
 1
v  v1   1 
*
1
 0 
.
  1 / 2
v2  v1  
v2  v2    v1   1 / 2
*
v1  v1
 1 
Standardizing these two eigenvectors results in

 1 / 2 
v1*  
w1    1/ 2 
v1*  
 0 
.
 1 / 6 
v 2*  
w2    1 / 6 
v 2*  2/ 6 
 
2.As   4, solve for the homogeneous system
4I  Ax  0 .
1

The eigenvectors are: r 1, r  R, r  0 .
1

1
 v3  1 is an eigenvectors of A. Standardizing the eigenvector results in
1
1 / 3
v3  
w3   1 / 3 .
v3 1 /
 3

Thus,
 1 / 2  1/ 6 1/ 3
 
P  w1 w2 w3    1 / 2  1/ 6 1/ 3 ,
 0 2/ 6 1 / 3 

 2 0 0
D
 0 2 0
 ,and
D  P t AP .

 0 0 4

Note: For a set of vectors v1 , v 2 , , v n , we can find a set of orthogonal vectors
v1* , v2* ,, vn* via Gram-Schmidt process:

v1  v1
v2  v1 
v  v2    v1
*
v1  v1
2

vi  vi1  vi  vi2  vi  v2  vi  v1 
v  vi    vi 1    vi 2      v2    v1
*
vi 1  vi 1 vi  2  vi  2 v2  v2 v1  v1
i

vn  vn1  vn  vn2  vn  v2  vn  v1 
v  vn    vn1  
*
vn2      v2    v1
vn1  vn1 vn2  vn2 v2  v2 v1  v1
n

Unit Summary
Determinant of a square matrix is a scalar.
The determinant of a triangular matrix is the product of its main diagonal elements.
A matrix having zero rows or columns has a zero determinant.
If B is formed from A by multiplying row(or column) k by scalar , then .
If two rows (or columns) of A are the same, then = 0.
If each entry of row (or column) k of A is written as a sum , then
. Where each entry of is the same as A except row (or column) k of (i.e. ) and
each entry of is the same as A except row (or column) k of (i.e. ).
If A and B have the same size, then |AB |= |A ||B |.
If for some scalar , row (or column) k of A is times row (or column) i, then |A|=0.
If B is formed from A by interchanging two rows (or columns), then |B |=- |A |.
If B is formed from A by adding times row (or column) i to row (or column) k. Then |B |= |
A|.
|A |= .
If , then |B |= |A |, where n is the order of A (and B).
The absolute value of determinants is the volume of the parallelepiped determined by
the column vectors of the determinant.
If A is a square matrix such that |A | , then .
A square matrix A is said to be non-singular if it is invertible.

Let A be a non-singular n x n matrix of numbers. Then the unique solution of AX = B is
[ ] where , k = 1, 2, 3… n and A (k : B) is a matrix obtained
from A by replacing column k of A by B.

Let A be a square matrix of order n with real numbers entries. Then
i. is an Eigen value of A iff |A - |=0.
ii. If is an Eigen value of A, then any non-trivial solution of (A - ) is an
associated Eigen vector.
Let A be a square matrix of order n. Then rank (A) = n if and only if
An n x n A is said to be diagonalizable if there exists a matrix P such that ,
where D is diagonal matrix.

An matrix is diagonalizable if and only if has linearly independent Eigenvectors.

A matrix is orthogonally diagonalizable if and only if A is real and symmetric.
A square matrix A is said to be orthogonally diagonalizable if there exists an orthogonal non-
singular matrix P such that

CHAPTER FIVE
LINEAR TRANSFORMATIONS
Unit outcomes
After the completion of this unit, students will be able to:
 define linear transformation and its properties;
 know how to represent linear transformation and they can give examples by
themselves;
 explain the rank and nullity of linear transformations and their representation;
 define what by meant algebra of linear transformations and can write an examples;
 know matrix representation of linear transformations and their properties;
 define eigenvalues and eigenvectors of a linear transformation and their representations
and
 explain eigen space of a linear transformation and give examples by themselves.
Introduction
In this section, we shall begin the study of functions of the form f(X) = Y, where the independent
variable X is a vector in and the dependent variable Y is a vector in. We shall concentrate on a
special class of such functions called “linear transformations.” Linear transformations are
fundamental in the study of linear algebra and have many important applications in physics,
engineering, social sciences, and various branches of mathematics.
5.1 Definition of linear Transformations and examples
A linear transformation is a special type of function. Hence before the discussion about linear
maps, it is helpful to revise the concept of functions.
Activity 5.1.1: Recall about the meaning and properties of a function. Also try to recall about
related concepts like domain, range, one to one, on to, composition, and inverse.
Recall that a function (mapping) consists of the following:
i) A set , each of whose element is mapped

ii) A set , to which each element of x is mapped

iii) A rule (correspondence , which associates with each element of a single element
of .
A function (mapping) from to is written as  . If maps an element of in to
element of then we write , here is called the image of under and is called
pre-image of . Moreover, for any subset A of , the set of all images of elements of A is
denoted by f [A] and we call it the image of A under . On the other hand if is a subset of
the set of all elements of whose images are in B is denoted by [ ] and we call it the pre-
image of under . Using set notation the image of A and the pre-image of B under f can be
defined respectively as
[ ] {   } and
[ ] {   }.
Note: For any function f the mapping  , has the following points.
1) Domain of and range of [ ] is the image of set under
2) is one-to-one (injective) if and only if for any  ,
implies .
3) f is on to (surjective) if and only if for every in there exists an element in
such that: , i.e [ ] or range of .
4) We say that is invertible (has an inverse) if and only if there is a function from in to
such that
i) is the identity function on , i.e for all  .
ii) is the identity function on i.e for all  .
So, the function  is unique whenever it exists and we call it the inverse of It is
denoted by . Moreover from (i) and (ii) it follows that if and only if .
Observe that if there is a function  satisfying (i) then is one-to-one. Similarly if there
is a function  satisfying (ii) then is on to. What do you conclude from this? Further
one can easily verify that if  is one-to one and on to then there exists a unique function
 which satisfies (i) and (ii). Thus is invertible if and only if it is one-to-one and on to.

Activity 5.1.2:
1) Let [ and [ . Define a function  by:
.
a) show that is one-to-one
b) Show that is on to
c) Find the inverse of f
2) Let f :  be given by f
i) Is one-to-one? Verify!
ii) Is onto? Verify!
iii) Does have inverse? If so find its inverse.
As we have said above linear transformation is a special type of function. So what types of
criteria‘s (conditions) are must be satisfied, in order to say a function to be a linear
transformation? The following definition will enable us to give a complete answer for this
question.
Definition 5.1.1: Let and be vector space over the same field A function  is
called a linear transformation (or a linear mapping) of in to if it satisfies the following
conditions:
i) 
ii)    
Note:
1) Using condition (ii) of the definition, one can show that where and are
zero vectors in V and respectively.
(Since for any 
= (by (ii), and since  (The zero elements in the field ))
= (Why?).This proves that a linear mapping maps a zero vector in to zero vectors.
2) The two conditions in the definition are equivalent to
       .
Proof:(  ) Suppose the mapping  is a linear transformation. Then
   and  , now since   

    by (i)
=  by (ii).
Thus     ,    and  .
(  ) suppose that        and 
Then want to that is a linear transformation.
, (since 1 is the multiplicative identity in ).
= by (ii).
= ------------------------------------------------------- (1)
  ,( since 0 is the zero element of K).
=  , by (ii).
=  zero vector in W)
= --------------------------------------------------------------------- (2)
Therefore from equation (1) and (2) we see that T is a linear transformation   ,
 . In general using induction we can write as:
      or
 n  n n
T   i vi    iT (vi )   i T (vi ) , for any „n‟ vectors in V and for any „n‟
 i 1  i 1 i 1
scalars     in K whenever T:VW is a linear transformation.

3) A linear mapping T: VV is often called a linear operator on V. Now let us see some
examples of a linear transformation (or a linear mapping).
Example 5.1.1
1) Let V be a vector space over the field K. Then show that the mapping
I: V V given by  is a linear transformation.
Proof: Since V is a vector space over a field K, u + vV and uV, for all u,vV and  K.
Then since the mapping I: V V given by  , we have
i)
(since )
Thus I (u + v) = I(u) + I(v)
ii)   )
Hence  

Therefore, I is a linear transformation. We call I identity transformation.

2) Let T be a mapping from a vector space V over a field K into itself given by
 where is a zero vector in V. Then T is a linear transformation.
(Verify!). We call this linear transformation the zero transformation.
3) For any vector v = (v1, v2) in R2 , let T: R2R2 be defined by T(v1, v2) = (v1 - v2,v1 + 2v2).
Show that T is a linear transformation.
Solution: To show that the function T is a linear transformation, you must show that it
preserves vector addition and scalar multiplication. To do this, let v = (v1, v2) and u = (u1,u2)
be vectors in R2and let be any real number. Then, using the properties of vector addition and
scalar multiplication, we have the two statements below.
1) u +v = (u1, u2) + ( v1, v2) = (u1 + v1, u2 + v2). Then
T( u +v) = T[ (u1 + v1, u2 + v2)]
= ((u1 + v1)– (u2 + v2), (u1 + v1)+2 (u2+ v2)),
= ((u1 – u2) + (v1 – v2), (u1 + 2u2 ) + (v1+ 2v2)),
= ((u1 – u2, u1 + 2u2 ) + (v1 – v2 ,v1+ 2v2)),
= T(u) + T(v)
Hence
2) u =  (u1,u2) =  u1, u2) . Then we have
u) =  u1, u2)
=  u1 - u2,  u1 u2)
=  u1 - u2, u1 u2)
 )
Thus u) =  ). Therefore, T is a linear transformation.
4) Let  (where is the vector space of n x n matrices Over ) be given by
. Show that T is a linear transformation. To show this let  and
 Then using the properties of transpose of matrices we have,
And    Thus , by definition of T
=
Also
    Therefore, T is a linear transformation.

Most of the common functions studied in calculus are not linear transformations. In the
following example we see some functions which are not linear transformation.
5) Let consider the following
a) f(x) = sinx is not a linear transformation from R into R because, in general,
sin(x1 + x2) sinx1 + sinx2For instance, sin( + )
b) f(x) = x2 is not a linear transformation from R into R because, in general, (x1 + x2)2 x12
+ x22.For instance, (1 + 2)2 12 + 22
c) f(x) = x + 1is not a linear transformation from R into R because, f(x1 + x2) = x1 + x2 + 1.
Whereas ;
f(x1) + f( x2) = ( x1 + 1) + ( x2 + 1)
= x1 + x2 + 2
So f(x1 + x2) f(x1) + f( x2)
Remark: The function in Example in above (c) points out two uses of the term linear. In
calculus, f(x) = x + 1 is called a linear function because its graph is a line. It is not a linear
transformation from the vector space into however, because it preserves neither vector addition
nor scalar multiplication
6) Let a function T:  be given by Show that T a linear
transformation?
Solution: Let   Then
i)
=
= , (since „+‟ is commutative)
= , since
=
=
ii)   
=    
= 
=  Thus, T is a linear transformation.

7) Is the mapping  defined by ( x , y, z) a linear transformation?

Solution: No, because if we take  , then we have
= (3,1,3)  32  12  32
= 19
But, N(0, 1, 2) + N(3, 0, 1) = (0,1,2)  3, 0, 1
= 0 2  12  2 2  32  0 2  12
= 5  10
Since 19  5  10 , N ((0,1,2) + (3, 0, 1))  N (0,1,2) + N(3,0,1)

Thus N is not a linear transformation as N(u + v) = N(u) + N(v) must hold true
for all vectors u, v in 3.
Remark: To show that a mapping T from a vector space V in to W over the same field K is not a
linear transformation it suffices to show that there exists two vectors v1, v2 V such that
T(v1 + v2)  T(v1) + T(v2) or there exists scalar V such that T(v )  T( v ) .
Activity 5.1.3:
1) Show that the mapping  defined by – is a linear
transformation.
2) Is the mapping  defined by a linear transformation?
Justify your answer!
Let us add one more example. Recall that vectors in a vector space V over a
field K are linearly independent iff    (where
    implies   
Example 5.1.8: Let T be a linear transformation from a vector space V in to W over the same
field K. Prove that the vectors v1, v2, v3, …, vn V are linearly independent if
are linearly independent vectors in W.

Solution: Suppose are linearly independent vectors in W where

are vectors in V and T : V  W is a linear transformation. To prove that
are linearly independent. Let     such that
   Then
  
So    But, are
linearly independent. Hence    . Thus we have shown that
   implies    . Consequently
are linearly independent.
Exercise 5.1.1
1) Determine whether or not each of the following mappings is linear transformation.
a.  given by
b)  given by
c)  given by
d)  given by
e)  given by
2) Let M2 denote the vector space of 2  2 matrices over .
ab
Let T: M2 M2 be given by T    
a b 2c
    . Is Ta linear mapping? Justify your
c d    3a c  d 
answer!
3) Let V be the vector space of m  n matrices over . Let P be a fixed mm matrix and Q a
fixed n n matrix over . Show that the mapping L: V V defined by T(A) = PAQ is a
linear transformation.
4) Show that the mapping F: 2 defined by F(a, b) = |a – b| is not a linear transformation.
5) Let G : V  W be a linear transformation where V and W are vector spaces over the same
field K. Prove that if u1, u2, u3, …, un are linearly dependent vectors in V then G(u1), G(u2),
G(u3), …, G(un) are linearly dependent vectors in W.
6) Let U, V, and W be vector spaces over the same field K. If g: U  V and f : V W are
linear transformations show that fog is also a linear transformation from U in to W.

7) i) Let A = (a, b, c) be a fixed given vector in 3. Define T: 3 by T(X) = AX,
X  3. (Since AX is the scalar (dot) product of A and X). Show that T is a linear
transformation.
ii) Let A be as in (i) define T: 3 by T(X) = AX + 4. Show that T is not
a linear transformation.
8) Let V be the space of n x 1 matrices over  and let W be the space of m 1 matrices over .
Let A be a fixed m  n matrix over . Define T: V  W by T(X) = AX, X  V. Prove that
i) T is a linear transformation.
ii) T is a zero transformation if and only if A is the zero matrix.
9) Let V be the vector space of all n n matrices over  and let B a fixed n n matrix.
If T: V V is defined by T(A) = AB – BA then verify that T is a linear transformation.
10) Let V be a vector space over , and f: V , g: V  be two linear transformations. Let
F: V 2 be the mapping defined by F(v) = (f(v), g(v)). Show that F is a linear
transformation.
11) Let V, W be two vector spaces over the same field K and let F: V  W be a linear
transformation. Let U be the subset of V consisting of all elements u such that F(u) = O w.
Prove that U is a subspace of V.
12) Let F: 34 be a linear transformation. Let P be a point of 3 and A is a non zero
element of 3. Describe F[S], where S = {X 3| X = P + t A, t  IR }. (Distinguish the
cases when F(A) = 0 and F(A)  0).
5.1.1 Properties of Linear transformation

Recall that in the previous section, we have seen that if T: V  W is a linear transformation
from vector space V in to W over the same field K then
i) T(Ov) = Ow
 n  n
ii) T  i vi   T (v ) i i K and vi V, i = 1, 2, …, n.
 i 1  i 1
We now state two other basic properties in the following theorem. The proof is left for you as an
exercise.

Theorem 5.1.1: Let T be a linear transformation from a vector space V in to W over the
same field K. Then i) T(0) = 0
ii) 
ii) – – 
Our next theorem asserts that a linear transformation from a given finite dimensional vector
space V in to any vector space W is completely determined by its values on the elements of a
given basis of V.
Theorem 5.1.2: Let V and W be vector spaces over the field K. Let { } be a basis
of V. If { }is a set of arbitrary vectors in W, then there exists a unique linear
transformation F: V  W such that for j = 1, 2, …, n. To prove the theorem, we
need to:
a) Define a function F from V into W such that for all
b) Show F is a linear transformation
c) Show that F is unique.
Proof: Let V and W be vector spaces over the field K. Let { } be a basis of V and
{ } be any set of n-vectors in W. Since { }is a basis of V, for any
 there exist unique scalars  such that
n
v  a v
i 1
i i
a) Define F : V  W by i.e
n n
F( v)   a i w i , where v  a v i i
i 1 i 1

Every element v of V is mapped to only one element of W as the scalars ai‗s are unique. As W
n
is a vector space, every linear combination of vectors in W is also in W. So aiwi  W.
i 1
Thus F is a function from V in to W. Moreover, since
for any , we have
So for each
b) We show that F is a linear transformation,
i.e and    and 
To do this, let   . Then
n n
x   x i vi and y  yv i i for some unique scalars in K.
i 1 i 1
 n n

i) F(x + y) = F  x i v i   yi vi 
 i1 i 1 
 n 
= F  ( x i  y i ) v i 
 i1 
n
=  (x i  yi ) w i by definition of F
i 1
n n
=  xi wi   yi w i
i 1 i 1
 n
  n 
= F 
 i 1
x v
i i 

 F   yi vi 
 i 1 
by definition of F
=
 .
 n 
ii) F(x) = F  x i v i 
 i1 
 n 
= F  (x i ) v i 
 i1 

n
=  (x i )w i , by definition of F
i 1
n
=   xi wi
i 1
 n 
=  F   xi vi  , by definition of F
 i 1 
=  F (x)
So,    
Therefore from (i) and (ii) we conclude that F is a linear transformation from V in to W.
c) In (a) and (b) we have shown the existence of a linear transformation F : V  W such that
G for all . To prove that F is unique, suppose that G: V  W is
a linear transformation such that G { } Let ‗x‘ be any vector in V
n
then x  xv
i 1
i i for some unique scalar in K.
 n 
Thus G ( x )  G  x i v i 
 i1 
n
=  x i G(v i ) as G is a linear transformation
i 1
n
=  x i w i as G(vi) = wi for each i = 1, 2, 3, ..., n.
i 1
 n 
= F  x i v i  by definition of F.
 i1 
= F(x), Since for any  we conclude that
This proves that F is unique. With this we complete the proof of the theorem.
Remark:
1) The vectors in theorem 4.2.2 are completely arbitrary; they may be
linearly dependent, independent or they may even be equal to each other. But the number of
these vectors in W must be equal with that of the number of basis vectors of V.
2) In determining the linear transformation from V in to W the assumption that { }
is a basis of V is essential.

Example 5.1.3:
a) Is there a linear transformation T from in to such that and
b) How many linear transformations satisfying the given conditions do we have?

Solution:
a) Yes. The two vectors and are linearly independent and hence they form a basis
for 2. Thus according to theorem 4.2.2, there is unique linear transformation from in to
such that ) and
b) As it is verified above, we have only one linear transformation satisfying the given
conditions.
Example 5.1.4: Describe explicitly the linear transformation  such that
and
Solution: Let  Then ( can be expressed as a linear combination of
{ } form a basis of .
So for some 
.
y 2y
Hence we have x = 2a + b and y = 3a, which in turn implies a  and b  x 
3 3
 2y 
 1, 0
y
Thus (x, y) = (2, 3)  x 
3  3 
y  2  
T ( x, y)  T  (2,3)   x  y  (1, 0) 
3  3  
y  2 
= T (2,3)   x  y  T (1, 0)
3  3 
y  2 
= (4,5)   x  y  (0, 0)
3  3 
4 5y 
=  y ,   (0, 0)
3 3 
 4 5y 
Therefore, T ( x, y)   y,  , for all (x, y) 
3 3 

Observe that the image of any vector (a, b) 2 under the linear transformation of the given
 4 5
example is b ,  . So the image of 2 under T is the line through (0, 0) with
 3 3
 4 5
direction vector  , .
 3
3
4 5 
Activity 5.1.4: Let  be as in example 4.2.2 above, i.e T (a, b)   b, b 
3 3 
i) Let { } Find the image of A under T i.e T[A].
ii) Describe the set containing all elements in whose images is (0,0)
Example 5.1.5: Find a linear transformation  such that
.
Solution:  { } is a basis of . (verify). Thus there exists a unique linear
transformation  such that ) and .To
describe this unique linear transformation explicitly, suppose  . Then
(x, y) = t1 (1, 2) + t2 (0, 1), for some t1, t2 as  is a basis of 2.
= (t1, 2t1 + t3)
 x  t1
Thus we have 
 y  2t1  t 2
Which in turn implies t1 = x and t2 = y – 2x. So (x, y) = x(1, 2) + (y – 2x) (0, 1) and
T(x, y) = x T (1, 2) + (y - 2x) T(0, 1)
= x (3, -1, 5) + (y – 2x) (2, 1, -1)
= (3x, -x, 5x) + (2y – 4x, y-2x, 2x – y)
= (2y – x, y – 3x, 7x – y)
Therefore the required linear transformation is given by
T(x, y) = (2y – x, y – 3x, -y + 7x).
Activity 5.1.5:
1) a) Find a linear transformation T: 22 such that T(1, 0) = (1, 1) and
T (0, 1) = (-1, 2)
c) Prove that T maps the square with vertices (0, 0), (1, 0), (1, 1) and (0, 1) in to a
parallelogram.

2) a) Is there a linear transformation T:33 such that T(0, 1, 2) = (3, 1, 2) and

T(1, 1, 1) = (2, 2, 2)?
b) If your answer in (a) is yes,
i) find T.
ii) is it unique? Why?
Example 5.1.6: Is there a linear transformation L from 2 in to 2 such that L(1, -1, 1) = (1, 0)
and L(1, 1, 1) = (0, 1)?
Solution: Even though (1, -1, 1) = (1, 1, 1) are linearly independent vectors in 3,
They do not from a basis of 3. This is because a basis of 3 must contain three linearly
independent vectors as 3 a 3-dimensional vector space. So theorem 4.2.2 does not guarantee us
the existence of a linear transformation L : 3 2 such that L(1, -1, 1) = (1, 0) and
L(1, 1, 1) = (0, 1)? But to make use of the theorem we need to have a basis of 3 containing the
two given vectors v1 = (1, -1,1) and v2 = (1, 1, 1) and a vector v3 different from v1 and v2. That is
we need to find a vector v3 so that {v1, v2, v3} is a basis of 3. For this put v3 = (0, 0, 1).
Since  (1, -1, 1) + (1, 1, 1) + (0, 0, 1) = (0,0,0) for some ,, implies  =  =  = 0, (1, -
1, 1), (1,1,1) and (0, 0, 1) are three linearly independent vectors in 3. In addition to this let us
take one more vector in 2, say (0, 0). Now we have a basis {(1, -1, 1), (1, 1, 1), (0, 0, 1)} of 3
and three vectors (1, 0), (0, 1), (0,0) in 2. Thus by theorem 4.2.2 there exists a unique linear
transformation L: 32 such that L(1, -1, 1) = (1, 0), L(1, 1, 1) = (0, 1) and
L(0, 0, 1) = (0, 0).
To find this linear transformation, first let us write any (x, y, z) 3 as a linear combination of
(1, -1, 1), (1,1,1) and (0, 0, 1). This is possible as they form basis of 3.
Set (x, y, z) = a(1, -1, 1) + b(1, 1,1) + c(0, 0, 1); a, b, c  and solve for a, b, c interms of x, y,
and z.
(x, y, z) = (a, -a, a) + (b, b, b) + (0, 0, c)
(x, y, z) = (a + b, -a + b, a + b + c)
x  ab

y  a  b
z  a  b  c


xy xy
b  , a  , c  z x
2 2
( x  y) ( x  y)
Thus (x, y, z) = (1,-1,1) + (1,1,1) + (z - x) (0,0,1)
2 2
( x  y) ( x  y)
L(x, y, z) = L(1,1,1)  L(1,1,1)  ( z  x) L(0,0,1)
2 2
x y ( x  y)
= (1, 0)  (0, 1)  ( z  x) (0, 0)
2 2
 x y x y
=  , 
 2 2 
Therefore, we have obtained a linear transformation L: 32 given by
 x y x y
L(x, y, z) =  ,  , Moreover
 2 2 
 1  (1) 1  (1) 
L (1,-1, 1) =  ,  = (1, 0) and
 2 2 
 1  1 1  1) 
L (1, 1, 1) =  ,   (0, 1) .
 2 2 
Consequently we can say that there is a linear transformation L: 32 satisfying the two
given conditions L(1, -1, 1) = (1, 0) and L(1,1,1) = (0, 1).
Note: The linear transformation T: V  W whose existence and uniqueness is guaranteed by
theorem 4.2.2 depends on the given basis vectors of V and the given vectors of W whose number
equals the number of basis vectors in V.
x  y x  y
Is L: 32 given by L(x, y, z) =  ,  the only linear mapping that can satisfy
 2 2 
the requirements of the question in the above example? Replace (0, 0, 1) by (1, 0, 0) in the
solution of the above example and find a linear transformation
L: 32 such that L(1, -1, 1) = (1, 0) and L(1, 1, 1) = (0, 1). Do the same by replacing (0, 0)
by (1, 1) and (0, 0,1) by (1, 0, -1).

Exercise5.1.2:
1) Find a linear transformation
a)  such that and
b)  such that and
c)  such that and
d)  such that
5.2 The Rank and Nullity of a linear transformation and examples

In this section we will discuss in detail about two important sets related to a linear
transformation T: V  W, where V and W are vector spaces over the same field K. One of them
is a subset of V and the other is a subset of W. Is there an element v in V such that T(v) = Ow .i.e.
the zero vector in W? We know that T(Ov) = Ow, so there is at least one element v in V such that
T(v) = Ow. Hence we have a non-empty subset
{  } of V. It is a subspace of V because
i) 
ii) If  then
So as T is a linear transformation
=
=
Thus  for any 
iii) If u U and  K, then T(u) = Ow
  as T is a linear transformation
= = , So,  u U for any  K and for any u U
From (i), (ii) and (iii) it follows that U is a subspace of V.
So  u U for any  K and for any u U. From (i), (ii) and (iii) it follows that U is a subspace
of V. On the other hand we know that, the range of T is a subset of W. It is also a subspace of W.
This section is concerned with these two special subspaces. Let us begin with the following
definition.

Definition 5.2.1: Let V, W be vector spaces over K and T: V  W be a linear transformation.

i) . The set of elements v V such that is called the Kernel of T or the null
space of T.
ii) . The set of elements w in W such that there exists an element v of V such that
is called the image or the range of T.
Notation: We shall denote the Kernel and image of a linear transformation
T: V  W by KerT and ImT respectively. So
{  }And
{  , for some v  V}
At the beginning of this section we have proved that kerT is a subspace of V. In the theorem
below we prove that ImT is a subspace of W.
Theorem 5.2.1: Let T be a linear transformation from a vector space V in to W over the some
field K. Then
a) Ker T is a subspace of V
b) ImT is a subspace of W.
Proof : a) It is already proved
b) Clearly ImT is a subset of W
i) Since T( )= , ImT.
ii) Let  . Then there exists  such that
1 1 and 2 2. Since V is a vector space,  . More over
T ) = . Thus  as there exists a
vector v  V such that . So we have
 , for all 
iii) Let  and w  ImT. Then there exists v V such that
as  . Since V is a vector space over   . More over
   . Hence   , now from (i), (ii) and (iii)
We conclude that that ImT is a subspace of W.
Example 5.2.1: Let  be defined by . Then
a) Show that T is a linear transformation
b) Find the Ker T and ImT.

Solution: a) Let ,then:

i)
= And
ii) ( )
=
=
=
Therefore, T is a linear transformation.
b) To find KerT and ImT for the give function, lets define KerT and ImT in following way

a) kerT  ( p, q, r )  3 T ( p, q, r )  (0,0) 
= ( p, q, r )   3
( p  q, q  r )  (0,0)
= ( p, q, r )   3
p  q  0 and q  r  0 
= ( p, q, r )   3
pqr 
= ( p, p, p) p   = p(1,1,1) p  
So kerT is the subspace of  3 generated by (1,-1,-1). And


b. Im T  (d , e)   2 T ( x, y, z )  (d , e), for some ( x, y, z )  3 
= (d , e)   2
( x  y, y  z )  (d , e), for some ( x, y, z )  3 

= (d , e)   2 x  y  d and y  z  e , for some x, y, z   
= ( x  y, y  z ) x, y, z  
= ( x  y,0)  (0, y  z ) x, y, z  
= ( x  y) (1, 0)  ( y  z ) (0,1) x, y, z   
= t1 (1,0)  t2 (0, 1) t1  x  y   and t2  y  z  
Thus ImT is the subspace of generated by That is (why?) .

Observe that .

In the next theorem we state an equivalent condition that help us to determine whether a given
linear transformation T is one-to-one (injective) or not, using the concept of kerT.
Theorem 5.2.2: Let T: V  W be a linear transformation. Then T is one-to-one if and only if
{ }
Proof: ( ) Suppose T is one-to-one. We need to show that kerT contains only the zero vector.
Let  , then . But , so from this idea we have ,
this implies as T is one-to-one. Therefore { }
(  ) Suppose { } Then we want to show that T is one-to-one.
Now let  . Then
or
Thus by definition linear transformation, we have
, which implies
 . Since ker T contains only the zero vectors by assumption,
, and hence . Consequently T is one-to-one.
Example 5.2.2: Let T  be a linear transformation given by
– Then:
i) Find ker T and ImT.
ii) Is T one-to-one? Why?
Solution: i) {  }
={  }
={  – }
= {  } { }. And using the
definition of ImT, it follows
ImT = { (u , v, w)  Im T | (u , v, w)  T (a, b) ( a, b)   2 }
= { (u , v, w)  Im T | (u , v, w)  (a  b, a  b, b) a, b   }
  (u, v, w)  Im T | u  a  b, v  a  b wb a, b   }
  (u, v, w)  Im T | u  v  2b wb a, b   }

  (u, v, w)  Im T | u  v  2w, u , v, w   }
  (u, v, w)  Im T | u  v  2w, u , v, w   }
Im T   (u, v, w)  Im T u, v, w   and u  v  2w
 (v  2w, v, w) v, w  
 (v, v,0)  (2w,0, w) v, w    v(1,1,0)  w(2,0,1) v, w 
Therefore ImT is a subspace of  3 generated by (1, 1, 0) and (2, 0,1). What is dim(kerT)? What
is dim(ImT)?
ii) Since ker T = {(0, 0)} (since it contains only the zero vector of ), So T is one – to – one.
But if  { } we can conclude that T is not one-to-one.
Activity 5.2.1:
Let T  be given by –
a) Show that T is a linear transformation
b) i) Find ker T
ii) Is T one-to-one? Verify
iii) Find ImT.
Does a linear transformation maps linearly independent vectors in to linearly independent
vectors?
Consider the linear transformations L and T from in to given by
and . The vectors and are linearly independent
in . But and are linearly dependent vectors in
. On the other hand , are linearly independent.
Thus from this particular instance we conclude that a linear transformation may or may not map
linearly independent vectors in to linearly independent vectors.
Under what condition does it map linearly independent vectors in to linearly independent
vectors?
The following theorem provides a sufficient condition for this.

Theorem 5.2.3: Let T: V  W be a linear transformation and be linearly

independent vectors in V. If { }, then are linearly
independent vectors in W.
Proof: Let be scalars such that
Then by linearity of T we get,
Hence  But { }.
Thus, . Since are
linearly independent vectors in V, it follows that
This completes the proof.
In the theorem 5.3.2, we have proved that if the kernel of a linear transformation T contains
only the zero vector i.e T is one to one then T maps linearly independent vectors in to linearly
independent vectors.
In the next theorem we will see the dimension of the kernel and image of a linear transformation
L: V  W with the dimension of V. Before going to it let us have the following definition.
Definition 5.2.2: Let L be a linear transformation from a vector space V in to W over the field K.
a) The dimension of the Kernel (the null space) of L is called the nullity of L.
b) The dimension of the Image (the range) of L is called the rank of L.
Example 5.2.3: The linear transformation  with and of example
4.3.1 is given by .We have seen that its kernel is a subspace of
generated by So . That is Nullity of Its image is a
subspace of with basis { } So . Since
and , we have
Example 5.2.4: Consider the linear transformation T  given in example 4.3.2. We have
seen that its kernel contains only the zero vector, so
The set { } is a basis of its image, so Again we have
Theorem 5.2.4: (Rank-nullity theorem) Let V and W be vector spaces over the same field K.
Let T: V  W be a linear transformation. If V is finite dimensional vector space then

i.e
Proof: Since V is finite dimensional vector space, it is obvious that Ker T and
is finite dimensional. Moreover dim (Ker T), 
Let { } and { } be basis of kerT and ImT respectively
 Then there exist  such that:
for 
Claim:  { } is a bais of V.
Now we show that
i)  generates V
ii)  is linearly independent.
i) Let  . Then  and hence there exist a unique scalars in
K such that .
So, T , as for
Thus this implies

 .
Hence , for some unique
Scalars, in K. Therefore
.. From the this we conclude
that  generates V.
ii) Suppose ……(1)
where  K.
Then (Ov) w.
So we have
w.
 w since w and
for all j = 1,2,3,…..,n and for all i = 1,2,3,…….,m,
 , since { } is basis of ImT.
 v (replace by 0 in……….. (1)
 , since { } is a basis of Ker T.

Thus we have shown that

That is is a linearly independent set in V. From (i) and (ii) it follows that
 { } is a basis of V.
Hence
Therefore,
Example 5. 2. 5: 1) Let  be a linear transformation defined by
– – – , for all a, b, c, d in , then

i) Find the rank and nullity of T.
ii) Is T one-to-one? Is T on to?
Solution: i) First let us find nullity of T.
Let  , then
 – – –
 x  y  z  w  0                           (1)

  x  2 z  w  0                            (2)
 x  y  3z  3w  0                            (3)

.
Adding (1) and (3), we get – By dividing both sides of this equation by 2,
we get equation (2)
i.e. –
Thus
=
=
Hence the vectors generate ker T as every in ker T
can be written as a linear combination of Moreover they are linearly
independent vectors in ker T. Therefore { } is a basis of ker T and hence
That is nullity of T is 2. Now by using rank-nullity theorem, we can easily
determine the rank of T.

ii) T is not one-to-one, because  { } Since which is different from

,  . So T is not on to.
Example 5.2.6: Find a linear transformation  whose range (image) is spanned
by
Solution: Given ImT is spanned by { }
Let define a vector by (0,0,0,0) in this set which will not affect the given spanning property.
Now by using, the standard basis of . One can get a linear transformation 
such that
. If  then
=
=
Therefore, is a linear transformation.
Example 5.2.7: Let  be a linear transformation defined by
–
i) Find a basis for
ii) Find a basis for
iii) Verify rank nullity theorem for T
Solution: i) From the definition of kerT, we have  , then
 – , by definition
a  b  c  0

 2a  b  c  0
 3a  2b  0

3
From b  a
2
a
Substituting this in and – c  .
2

Thus any element , can be expressed as
 3 a  3 1
 a, a,  a 1, , 
 2 2  2 2
  3 1  generates ker T. Therefore

That 1, ,    3 1  is a basis of ker T
 2 2 1, , 
 2 2 
ii) Again by using the definition for ImT, we have
ImT =   , for some  }
 – , where  .
 x  y  z  u                                  (1)

 2 x  y  z  v                                  (2)
3x  2 y  w                                    (3)

By adding equations (1) and (2) we get, But
So
Thus any vectors in ImT can be written as in the form of:
 .
 .
 .
Hence every vector in ImT is a linear combination of
Thus { } generates ImT. In addition are also a linearly
independent Therefore, this implies { } is a basis of ImT.
iii) as its basis contains only one non-zero vector, as its basis
contains two vectors. i.e.
,as stated in the theorem.
Recall that a linear transformation T: V  W
i) is one-to-one iff { }
ii) is on to iff .
Now suppose V and W are respectively „n‟ and „m‟ dimensional vector spaces over the same
field K. If n > m, is there a one-to-one linear transformation from V in to W?
Suppose there is, then { } and hence .

So, by using rank-nullity theorem, thus . But this

is not possible as ImT is a subspace of W. Therefore there is no one-to-one linear transformation
T from V in to W if . If n < m, does these exist an on to linear transformation
T: V  W? If it exists and Thus form rank-nullity theorem
it follows that , which implies – which is not
possible. Therefore there does not exist a linear transformation  which is on to if dim
V is less than dim W. Is there a one – to – one linear mapping form to ? Is there an on to
linear mapping from to ?
Exercise 5.2.1:
1) For each of the following linear transformation, find a basis and dimension of its image and
kernel.
i)  defined by
ii)  defined by
iii) defined by – –
iv)  defined by where
 1 2 0 1
 
A    2  1 2 1  and X is a column vector in
 1  4  4 2
 
2) Find a linear transformation  such that { – } is the
i) Kernel of T ii) image of T
3) Find a linear transformation  whose kernel is generated by
.
4) Find a linear transformation  whose image is generated by
5) Let L: V  W be a liner transformation. Let w W and  such that .

Show that iff where u is an element of the kernel of L.
6) Let the linear transformation  be defined by
– – . Find the rank and nullity of T.
7) Show that the linear transformation  for which

and is both one-to-one and on

to.
8) Let T be the linear transformation from in to defined by:
– –
i) If (a, b, c) is a vector in 3, what are the conditions on a, b, and c so that the vector be
in the range of T? What is the rank of T ?
ii) What are the conditions on , and so that be in the null space of T? What
is the nullity of T?
iii) Is T one-to-one? Why? And is T on-to? Why?
5.3 Algebra of Linear transformations

In the study of linear transformation from vector space V in to W, it is of fundamental
importance that the set of these transformations possesses a natural vector space structure. The
set of linear transformations from a vector space V into itself has even more algebraic structure
because of ordinary composition of function, provides a multiplication of such transformations.
We shall explore these ideas in this section.
Notation: We denote the set of all linear transformations from a vector space V in to W over the
field K by While using the notation it should be noticed that V and W are
vector spaces over the same field. Let   Then T and S are linear
transformations from V in to W and hence they are functions from V in to W. Thus
i) The sum of A and is a function from V in to W defined by
, for all v in V.
ii)The scalar multiple of A by   ) is a function from V in to W defined by:
  , for all v in V.
We now state a theorem that asserts  are linear transformations form V in to W
for any  and  and is a vector space with addition and
multiplication by scalars defined as above. We shall prove the first two assertions and leave the
last one as an exercise.
Theorem 5.3.1: Let V and W be vector spaces over the field K. Let A and B be linear
transformations from V in to W and  Then
i) the function A + B is a linear transformation from V in to W. i. 

ii) The function A is a linear transformation from V in to W. i.e  

iii) T (V, W) the set of all linear transformations from V in to W with respect to the
operation of vector addition and scalar multiplication defined as:
and
  , for all  is a vector space over K
Proof: i) We need to show that A + B is a linear transformation from V in to W for any linear
transformation A and B from V in to W. For this let  and  . Then:
, why?
1 , why?
, why?
, why?
Moreover,   
=  , why?
 , why?

Therefore is a linear transformation.
ii) Let A be a linear transformation form V into W and  hen for any 
and  We have
a)  
 , why?
  , why?
  and
   
 why?


 
 
Therefore  is a linear transformation.
iii.To prove this part we need to check that all the conditions in the definition of a
vector

space are satisfied. So we leave this prove to you as exercise.

Note: In the above theorem, we have asserted that is a vector space over K. With this
we can consider every linear transformation in as a vector.
The zero vector in this vector space will be the zero transformation that sends every vector of V
in to the zero vector in W.
Example 5.3.1: Let  and  be linear transformations given by:
– are and –
linear transformations form in to . Find
i). (ii) –
Solution: a). Since T and H are linear transformation from in to , we have
 and hence –  as is a vector space

over . So and – are linear transformations from 3 in to 2.
b) i)
–
ii) –
–
Theorem 5.3.2: Let nd be vector spaces over the field K. Let T and S be linear
transformations from V in to W and from W into Z respectively. Then the
compose function SoT defined by for all  is a
Proof: Let T and S be as in the hypothesis of the theorem Let  and  . Then:
)
, why?
, why?

and
, because T is a linear transformation
, why?
Therefore is a linear transformation.

Notation: For the sake of brevity we shall simply denote the composition of S and T by
Activity 5.3.1:
1) Give two linear transformations and from in to it self such that  From this
you may conclude that composition of linear transformations is not commutative.
2) Is composition of linear transformations associative? Justify your answer!
3) Let and be vector spaces over the field K.
Let  and 
Verify each of the following.
i)
ii) =
iii) for all
Remember that by a linear operator on vector space V we mean a linear transformation from a
vector space V in to itself. If T is a linear operator on vector space V, we can compose T with T
to get which is again a linear operator on V. We shall use the notation
and in general (the composite of T with itself n times) for We
define (identity mapping) if  (the zero mapping).
Example 5.3.2: Let T be a linear operator on a vector space V over the field F.
i) If the zero mapping then what can you say about the relation of the range of to the
kernel of
ii) Give an example of a linear operator on 2 such that but  .
Solution:
i) Method 1:
 for all v in V
 , zero vector in V.

  for all v in V. But T(v) is an arbitrary element of Range of T for any

 . Therefore, 
Method 2:
Let  Then for some  So
as  .
Hence 
Therefore, Range of T is a subset of
ii) Consider the linear map  such that 
Then  
Now
So,  Hence,
Example 5.3.3: Let  be a linear operator on given by
). Show that – , where I is the identity mapping on
and is the zero mapping on .
Solution: –
– – – So,
[ – ] –
– –
– – – –
Thus, –
Activity 5.3.2:
1) Let T and S be linear operators on . Does imply either ?
Explain! Give a counter example if your answer is No.
2) Let V be finite dimensional vector space over the field F and T be a linear operator on V.
Suppose that T. Prove that the range and null space of T have only the
zero vector in common.

Now let us discuss about inverse of a linear transformation. Recall that a function from V in
to W is called invertible if there exists a functions S from W in to such that is the identity
function on and is the identity function on W. If T is invertible function then, S is unique
and is denoted by and is called the inverse of T.  when ever
exists. Furthermore we know that is invertible iff T is one- to- one and on to.
Theorem 5.3.3: Let and be vector spaces over the field and Let be a linear
transformation fro V in to W. If T is invertible then the inverse function is a
Proof: Suppose  W is invertible then there exists a unique function  such
that  for all  . Moreover is 1-1 and on to. We need
to show that is linear. Let  and  . Then there exist unique vectors
 such that and as T is 1-1 and on to. So
and .
, because T is linear
.
Thus for any  Since 
    .
Therefore, is a linear transformation.
Remark: Let   be invertible linear transformations. Then
i)  is also invertible and
ii)  is also invertible and
Example 5.3.4: Let  be a linear transformation given by .
Is T invertible? If so, find a rule for like the one which defines T.
Solution: We know that { } then is one to-one
(a, b, c)   3
| T (a, b, c)  (0,0,0) 
(a, b, c)   3
| (a,3b, c)  (0,0,0) 
(a, b, c)   3
| a  0, 3b  0 and c  0 
(0,0,0).
Therefore T is one to one. Moreover from rank-nullity theorem,

So
. Since is a subspace of and , we have
. Hence T is on to as .
Therefore is invertible as it one to- one and on to.
To find , let Then . So
v
y  , z  w But  Thus
3
 v 
 u, , w 
 3 
Whenever V is a finite dimensional vector space, one – to – oneness can be related to linear
independence and rank as stated in the theorem below.
Theorem 5.3.4: Let  be a linear transformation and V be finite dimensional vector
space with . Then the following statements are equivalent.
i) T is 1 – 1
ii) If are linearly independent vectors in then
are linearly independent vectors in ImT
iii) If { } is a basis of V then { } is a basis of .
Proof: Left as exercise
Activity 5.3.3:
Prove theorem 4.4.4. Follow the following steps
1) Show that (iv)  (i)
2) Show that (i)  (ii)
3) Show that (ii)  (iii)
4) Show that (iii)  (iv)
5) Form 1, 2, 3 and 4, can we conclude that (i)  (ii)  (iii)  (iv)? How?
Remark: For finite dimensional vector spaces V and W over the field K with ,
we have the following results about any linear transformation T : V  W.
a) T is 1 – 1  T is invertible
b) T is on to  T is invertible.

Example 5.3.5: Let  be a linear operator such that . Show that I – L is

invertible. (I is the identity mapping on V.)
Solution: Clearly I – L is a linear operator on . Let  Then
. That – . So we have But and

hence . Thus . Therefore – { } Consequently
I – L is one to one. In this case it is not sufficient to have I – L is 1 – 1 to conclude that it is
invertible as V can be infinite dimensional. (Nothing is assumed about V whether it is finite or
infinite dimensional). So we need to show that I – L is on to. For this let  . Then 
and  . Moreover
– –
– –
Thus is the pre-image of v under I – L. So for any vector v  V there exists a vector
in V such that – . From this it follows that –  is on
to. Therefore I – L is invertible as it is 1 – 1 and on to.
Exercise 5.3.1:
1) Let T and S be linear operators on defined by and
.
i) How do you describe T and S geometrically?
ii) Give rules like the one defining T and S for each of the linear transformations
–
2) Let T be the linear operator on defined by
– Is T invertible? If so, find a rule for .
3) For the linear operator T of exercise 2, Show – – (I – identity
aping and O zero mapping)
4) Let T be a linear transformation from in to and Let U be a linear transformation from
in to . Prove that the linear transformation UT is not invertible.
5)  be a linear transformation. Show that L is invertible and find for:
a) L( x, y, z )  ( x  y, x  z , y  3 z )
b) L( x, y, z )  (3x  y  z , x  y, 4 x  y  z )

6. a) Let S : V V be a linear operator such that – (where I is the identity

mapping on V and is the zero mapping on V) Show that S-1 exists and is equal to – .
b) Let T be a linear operator on a vector space V, and assume that for all 
Show that – is invertible.
7) Let F and G be linear operators on a vector space V over the set of real numbers.. Assume that
FG = GF. Show that
i)
ii) – –
5.4 Matrix representation of a linear transformation

In this section we shall investigate the strong relationship that exists between linear
transformation and matrices.
5.4.1 Linear transformation associated with a given matrix
In section we will study how to represent linear transformation using matrix. Let us consider a
matrix A  a ij 
mn
over a field K ( i .e a ij  K for each i = 1,2,…,m and for each
j = 1, 2, …,n). We can associate a mapping T A : K n  K m by defining TA ( X )  AX for any

column vector X in Kn.
Activity 5.4.1: Show that TA is a linear transformation in the above explanation.
Definition 5.4.1: For any matrix A  a ij  m  n over a field K. The mapping T A : K n  K m

defined TA ( X )  AX , forallX  K n is called the linear transformation associated with the matrix
A.
Note: In this definition, each element X of Kn should be considered as column vector
otherwise AX is not defined.
Example 5.4.1:
1 0
a) Let A    . Then T A :  2   2 is an identity linear transformation
0 1
1 0  1 0  x 
   x   x   
b) Let B   2 1  . Then T B     2 1     2 x  y  . Thus T B :2  3 given
3 0  y   3 0  y   3 x 
     

 x 
 x  
by T B     2 x  y  is the linear transformation associated with matrix B.
 y   3x 
 
1 3  0  2  2
Let A   , u   , v   , w    and TA be the linear transformation associated
0 1  2  0  2
with matrix A. Find i). TA (u), TA (v) and T A ( w )
0   2   2  0 
ii) The image of the square with vertices   ,   ,   and   .
0  0   2   2
Solution:
 1 3 0  6 
i). T A ( u )  Au        
0 1  2   2 
 1 3  2  2
T A ( v )  AV        
0 1  0   0 
 1 3  2  8 
TA ( w )  Aw        
0 1  2   2 
ii). T A deforms the given square as if the top of the square were pushed to the right while
the base is held fixed (see the figure below).
We call such transformation shear transformation.

Activity 5.4.2:
1) Let be 7  5 matrix. What must a and b be inorder to define
By .

1 0 
2) A    . Give a geometrical description of the linear transformation
 0  1
associated with .
3)
i) Find the linear transformation T associated with B.
ii) Find X in whose image under is b
iii) Determine whether the system has no solution, unique solution or many
Solutions: In this section we will study how to define system of linear equations with the help
of linear transformation associated with the coefficient matrix of the system. Consider the
system AX  b A is m  n real matrix. AX  b iff TA ( X )  b where is

the linear transformation associated with matrix A. Thus the system AX = b has a solution
iffb is in the range of TA. If there is exactly one element X   n whose image is b under
then the system AX  b has exactly one solution. But if b has more than one pre-images
under then the system has more than one solution. If there is no such
that T ( X )  b , (i.e b is not in the range of ), then the system has no solution.
A
Activity 5.4.3:
Prove that if TA  { } then the system has at most one solution. Further b
the zero column vector in then the homogeneous AX  has at least one solution.
What is this solution? The solution set AX  is the kernel of TA. So the solution set
AX  is a subspace of . Suppose and { } is a basis of
. Then any solution AX  0 can be expressed as
where are scalars. Now let Xo be one particular solution of the non-
homogeneous system AX  b w be any solution AX  b AX o  b  Aw , so
we have, . This in turn implies

and hence w  X o  ker T A . Thus or
, where are scalars.

Therefore if Xo is one particular solution of the non-homogeneous system AX  b then every
solution w AX  b is given by or

where { } is a basis and . are scalars.

This called the general solution of the non homogeneous AX  b .
 1 0 3   4
Example 5.4.2 A    b    and TA be the linear transformation
  2 1  3  9 
associated with matrix A.
i) Find
ii) b  Im TA ?
iii) Is there more than one X whose image under
iv) Describe the solution set AX  b
Solution: T A :  3   2 is given by
 x1  x 
   1 0 3   1  x1  3x3 
TA  x2      x2    
x    2 1  3  x    2 x1  x2  3 x3 
 3  3
i) 
ker TA  X  3 TA ( X )  0 
a
   a  3c   0  a  3c  0 
So  b   ker TA        
c   2a  b  3c   0   2a  b  3c  0
 
 a  3c  b
  3c      3 
      
Thus ker T A    3c  c   = c  3  c  
 c     1  
      
ii) Since dim(kerTA) = 1 and 3 = dim (kerTA) + dim(ImTA),
dim(ImTA) = 3 – 1 = 2. Hence TA is on to. So every element in  2 has a pre-
image under TA . Consequently b  Im TA as b   2 .

iii) Since b has a pre-image under TA , there exists x o   3 such that T A ( x o )  b . Moreover
  3
 
for any    , w  x o     3  is a pre-image of b, as
 1 
 
  3   3
   
TA ( w)  TA ( xo     3   TA ( xo )  TA   3  = b  . = b
 1   1 
   
Thus we have more than one element in  3 whose image under TA is b.

 4  4
   1 0 3     4
iv).  1  is a particular solution of AX = b as    1     .
 0    2 1  3  0   9 
   
  4    3  
    
Therefore,  1   q  3  q   is the solution set of AX = B
 0   1  
    
Exercise 5.4.1.1:
 1 0  1
 
1) Let A   3 1  5  and TA be the linear transformation associated with matrix A. Find
 4 2 1 
 
X such that TA (X ) 
1 3 4  3  1
   
2) Let A   0 1 3  2  , b    1 and TA be the linear transformation associated with
3 7 6  5 7 
   
matrix A.
i) Find ket TA
ii) Is b in the range of TA
iii) Describe the solution set of AX = b
3) Suppose T : 5  2 and T(X) = AX for some matrix A and each X in  5 . How many
rows and columns does A have?

5.4.2 The matrix of a linear transformation

In the previous subsection we have seen that associated to any given m  n matrix A there is a
linear transformation defined by . In this subsection we shall see the
reverse process; that is, to find a matrix associated to a given linear transformation from a finite
dimensional vector space V in to finite dimensional vector space W over the same field K.
Before we going further, let us recall about the coordinates of an element V of a finite
dimensional vector space V with respect to a given ordered basis  of V. What do we mean by
ordered basis? Suppose { } is an ordered basis for a finite dimensional vector
space V over a field K and v is in V. The coordinates of v relative to the basis (or the
coordinates of v) are the scalars in K such that
.
If are the -coordinates of v then the vector in ,
 c1 
c2 
 
  
.
v
.
 
. 
cn 
is the coordinate vector of v relative to  or the  -coordinate vector of v.

Example 5.4.3:
i) The coordinates of relative the standard basis { } of
are simply and , since .
 1  1
ii) Consider a basis { }of , b1    and b2    .The coordinate
0  2
 1  2 
vector of X    relative to  is X     , since .
6  3 
Activity 5.4.4:
5
1) Find the vector X determined by the coordinate vector X    where
3 
 3   4  
   ,  6 
 5   

3
2) Find the coordinate vector X  of X   5 relative to the basis
 4 
  1  2   1  
 0  ,  1  ,  1 
         of .
 3  8   2  
 
3) Let be the space of polynomial functions from in to of degree two or less and P be
an element of defined by
a) Find the coordinate vector of P relative to the standard basis
{ }, where, , and .
b) Find the coordinate vector of P relative to the basis { }, where
, and, .
Now let us deal with the matrix of a given linear transformation. Let V be an n-dimensional
vector space over the field K and let W be an m-dimensional vector space over K. Let
{ } and { } be ordered bases of V and W respectively. Suppose
T : V  W is a linear transformation. Then for any in T ( x )  W nd can be expressed
as a linear combination of elements of the basis . So we have,
T (v1 )  a11w1  a21w2    am1wm
T (v2 )  a12 w1  a22 w2    am 2 wm

(1)
T (v j )  a1 j w1  a2 j w2    amj wm

T (vn )  a1n w1  a2 n w2    amn wm
Where, ‘s are scalars in K.
Writing the coordinates of successively as columns of a matrix we get

 a11 a12 ... a1 j ... a1n 

a a 22 ... a 2 j ... a 2 n 
 21
 . . . . 
 
 . . . . 
 . . . . 
M    ……………………………. (2)
 a i1 ai2 a ij a in 
 . . . . 
 
 . . . . 
 . . . . 
 
a m1 a m2 a mj a mn 
m n
That   
M  T (v1 ) ' T (v2 ) ' ... T (v j )  ' ...T (vn )  '  
The matrix M in (2) is called a matrix representation of T or the matrix for T relative to the
bases and . If  and  ' are standard bases of V and W respectively, we call the matrix M in
(2) the standard matrix for the linear transformation T.
Example 5.4.4: Define by
a) Find the standard matrix for T.
b) Find the matrix of T relative to the ordered bases
 { } { } respectively.
Solution: a) Here we use the standard basis of .
Writing the coordinates of as first, second and third columns of a

matrix we get the standard matrix M for T as
 3  2 1
M  
 1 1 5
c) ,
0  7  4
The matrix of T relative to  and ‘ is M  
4 6 5 

Our next task is to examine how the matrix M in (2) determines the linear transformation T.
If is a vector in V, then the coordinate vector of x relative to
 x1 
 x2 
 
   and
.
  X 
.
 
. 
 xn 
…….... (3)
Using the basis  ' in W, we can rewrite (3) in terms of coordinate vectors relative to  ' as
T ( x) '  x1 T (v1 ) '  x2 T (v2 ) '  ...  xn T (vn ) ' … (4)
Further the vector equation (4) can be written as a matrix equation?

T ( X ) '  M X  …. (5)
Thus if X  is the coordinate vector of x relative to  , then the equation in (5) shows that
M X  is the coordinate vector of the vector T(X) relative to  ' .
Note: In case when W is the same as V and the basis  ' is the same as  , the matrix M in (2)
is called the matrix for T relative to  and is denoted by T  .
Activity 5.4.5: Using equation (3), verify equations (4) and (5).
Example 5.4.5: Let be the linear transformation defined by
Find the matrix of T relative to the bases
{ of and { } of .
Solution:

The matrix M of T relative to the bases and is:

 7  33  13
M 
4 19 8 
Example 5.4.6: Let { } be a basis for a vector space V over the set of real numbers.
Find , where T is a linear transformation form V in to V whose matrix relative
to
0  6 1 
 is T   0 5  1
1  2 7 
 3 
 
Solution: Let . Then the coordinate vector of x relative to  X     4 
 0 
 
and the coordinate vector of T(X) relative to  is
0  6 1   3   24 
T ( X )  T  X  = 0 5  1  4 =  20 . Hence T(x) = 24b1 - 20b2 + 11b3.
1  2 7   0   11 
Exercise 5.4.2.1:
1) Let F be defined by Find the matrix
associated with F with respect to the standard bases of and .
2) Let T defined by Find the matrix of T relative to the
bases { } { }
 1 2  1
3) Let A    and TA be a linear mapping from to defined by
3 4 0 
where v is a column vector in . Find the matrix of relative to the
 1   0  0 
       1   2 
B 1   0  ,  1 ,  0  B 2   ,   of and respectively.
 0   0  1   3   5 
     
4) Suppose that { } and { } be a basis for real vector spaces V and
W, respectively. Let T : V  W be a linear transformation with the property that

.Find the matrix M for T

relative to and .
5.5. Eigen values and Eigenvectors of a linear Transformation

In this section we look for vectors that are sent by a linear operator into scalar multiple of
themselves. Recall that a linear operator is a linear transformation from a vector space to itself.
Definition 5.5.1:
Let T: V V be a linear operator on a vector space V over a field K. An eigen value of T is a
scalar  in K such that there is a non-zero vector v in V with  . If  is an eigen value
of , then
a) Any vector v in such that T(v) = v is called an eigenvector of T associated with the
eigenvalue ;
b) The collection of all vectors v of V such that  is called the eigen space associated
with .
Note:
 One of the meanings of the word ―eigen‖ in German is ―Proper‖. Thus eigen values are
also called proper values or characteristic values or latent roots.
 If and are eigenvectors associated with eigenvalue . Then:
i) is also an eigenvector with eigenvalue , because:
  
ii) Each scalar multiple,  , is also an eigenvector with eigenvalue ,
because:  
Activity 5.5.1: Let  be a linear operator with  { }. Prove that every non zero
vector in is an eigenvector of T with eigenvalue .
Example 5.5.1:
a) Let  be the identity operator. Every non-zero vector in V is an eigenvector of
id with an eigenvalue , since:
b) Let T be a linear operator which rotates each  by an angle of 90o.

T has no eigen values and hence no eigenvectors.

c) Let  be the differential operator on the vector space of differentiable
functions. We have .
Hence, is an eigenvector of D corresponding eigenvalue .
5.6. Eigen space of a linear transformation

Definition 5.6.1. For a given linear operator T: V V , a nonzero vector x and a constant scalar
are called an eigenvector and its eigenvalue, respectively, when T(x) = x. For a given
eigenvalue , the set of all x such that T(x) = x is called the -eigenspace. The set of all
eigenvalues for a transformation is called its spectrum.
When the operator T is described by a matrix A, then we'll associate the eigenvectors,
eigenvalues, eigenspaces, and spectrum to A as well. As A directly describes a linear operator on
Fn, we'll take its eigenspaces to be subsets of Fn.
Theorem 5.6.1. Each  eigenspace is a subspace of V .
Proof : Suppose that x and y are  eigenvectors and c is a scalar.
Then T(x+cy) = T(x)+cT (y) = x+cy =  (x+cy)
Therefore x + cy is also a  eigenvector. Thus, the set of  eigenvectors form a subspace of Fn.
Example: Let  a linear operator over a field . Let  The set of all
eigenvectors of T with eigenvalue.
Claim is a subspace of .
Proof:
i)  , Showing that 
ii)  
=  +  
iii)  ,  K  T( ) = T( ) = ( ) = ( )
  
Thus we have proved that the eigenspace associated with  is a subspace of V.

Summary
 Let and be vector space over the same field A function  is called a
linear transformation (or a linear mapping) of in to if it satisfies the following
conditions:
i) 
ii)    
 T: V  W is a linear transformation from vector space V in to W over the same field K
then
i) T(Ov) = Ow
T   i v i  
n n
ii)
 i 1 
 T( v
i 1
i
) i K and vi V, i = 1, 2, …, n.
 Let V, W be vector spaces over K and T: V  W be a linear transformation.

a. The set of elements v V such that is called the Kernel of T or the null
space of T.
b. The set of elements w in W such that there exists an element v of V such that
is called the image or the range of T.
 Let L be a linear transformation from a vector space V in to W over the field K.
i) The dimension of the Kernel (the null space) of L is called the nullity of
L.
ii) The dimension of the Image (the range) of L is called the rank of L.
 For any matrix A  a ij

mn
 
over a field K. The mapping T A : K n  K m defined
TA ( X )  AX , forallX  K n is called the linear transformation associated with the matrix

A.
 Let T: V V be a linear operator on a vector space V over a field K. An eigen value of T
is a scalar  in K such that there is a non-zero vector v in V with  . If  is an
eigen value of , then
a) Any vector v in such that T(v) = v is called an eigenvector of T associated
with the eigenvalue ;
b) The collection of all vectors v of V such that  is called the eigen
space associated with .
 If and are eigenvectors associated with eigenvalue . Then:

i) is also an eigenvector with eigenvalue , because:
  
ii) Each scalar multiple,  , is also an eigenvector with eigenvalue ,
because:  

1) Determine whether or not each of the following mappings is linear transformation.
 given by
b)  given by
c)  given by
2) Let M2 denote the vector space of 2  2 matrices over .
ab
Let T: M2 M2 be given by T    
a b 2c
3)     . Is Ta linear mapping? Justify
c d    3a c  d 
your answer!
4) Let V be the vector space of m  n matrices over . Let P be a fixed mm matrix and Q a
fixed n n matrix over . Show that the mapping L: V V defined by T(A) = PAQ is a
5) Show that the mapping F: 2 defined by F(a, b) = |a – b| is not a linear
transformation
6) Let V be the space of n x 1 matrices over  and let W be the space of m 1 matrices over
. Let A be a fixed m  n matrix over . Define T: V  W by T(X) = AX, X  V.
Prove that i) T is a linear transformation.
ii) T is a zero transformation if and only if A is the zero matrix.
7) Let L: V  W be a liner transformation. Let w W and  such that .
Show that iff where u is an element of the kernel of L.
8) Let the linear transformation  be defined by
– – . Find the rank and nullity of T.
9) Show that the linear transformation  for which
and is both one-to-one and on
to.
10) Let T be the linear transformation from in to defined by:
– –
11) If (a, b, c) is a vector in 3, what are the conditions on a, b, and c so that the vector be in
the range of T? What is the rank of T ?

12) What are the conditions on , and so that be in the null space of T? What is
the nullity of T? Is T one-to-one? Why? And is T on-to? Why?
13) L  be a linear transformation. Show that L is invertible and find for:
a) L( x, y, z )  ( x  y, x  z , y  3 z )
b) L( x, y, z )  (3x  y  z , x  y, 4 x  y  z )
14) Let S : V V be a linear operator such that – (where I is the identity

mapping on V and is the zero mapping on V) Show that S-1 exists and is equal to – .
15) Let T be a linear operator on a vector space V, and assume that for all 
Show that – is invertible.
16) Let F and G be linear operators on a vector space V over the set of real numbers.. Assume
that FG = GF. Show that
i)
ii) – –

CHAPTER SIX
GROUP REPRSENATION
6.1 Definition and Examples
It takes patience to appreciate the diverse ways in which groups arise, but one of these ways is so
familiar that we can use it to ease our way into the basic definition. To this end, recall the
following three things about the set of integers with respect to the operation addition. First
addition is associative. Second, 0 is an identity. And third, relative to 0, each integer has an
inverse ( its negative ). They show that the integers with addition form a group, in the sense of
the following definition.
Definition 6.1.1 we say that a system , consisting of a non-empty set and a binary
operation on a is a group if the following four axioms are satisfied:
G1:    … (Closure)
G2:  … (Associativity)
G3:  such that,  … (Existence of identity element)
G4:  ,  , such that … (Existence of inverse elements)
Remarks:
1. Axiom G1 is actually redundant as the fact is a binary operation on guarantees that is
closed under But G1 is traditionally stated in the definition of a group along with the other
axioms to emphasize the closure property of the binary operation.
2. A group may have many properties other than those specified by the axioms. One property
enjoyed by many groups is that the binary operation is commutative. These groups are so
important we make the following definition:
Examples 6.1.1
a) is a group, where is the set of integers. First the sum of any two integers is an
integer. That is, so closurity is satisfied. 0 is an identity
element of Z because, for any .
Again for any there is such that that means
every integer has an inverse. Therefore, is a group. is not a group, Axiom G4
fails.(show!)

b) is a group, because if and are positive rational numbers, then

is also positive. Multiplication of positive rational numbers is
associative (show!). The identity element is 1, and the inverse of is ( ).
c) , the set of all 2 real matrices is a group under the operation addition. Since for
any real numbers
* + [ ] [ ] so closurity is satisfied. We know that matrix
addition is associative.* + is the identity element and* + is the inverse of * +.
d) Let denote the set of all mappings defined by for

any and each .With composition of mapping as an operation,
is a group.
Solution: For closurity let and be in , then =
since .Composition of mappings is
associative(show!). Since for each and ,
also for every ,hence is the
identity element of .Given the inverse of is such that for
each since as .
Definition 6.1.2 A group is said to be abelian (or commutative) if the following axiom is
also satisfied:
G5:  …. (Commutativity)
The groups in example (a) and (b) are abelian while the groups in example (c) and (d) are not
because matrix multiplication is not commutative and for part (d) if we take and we
get while
6.2 Simple Properties of Groups

Theorem: 6.2.1. Let be a group. Then the identity element of G is unique.
Proof: Suppose e and e are both identity elements of the group G, since e is an identity element
we have  , similarily,  , since e is an identity element.Thus e = e
Theorem: 6.2.2 (Cancellation Laws). Let be arbitrary elements of a group , then
the following are true.

i) ( left cancellation law)

ii) (right cancellation law)
Proof: i) By G4: G such that,
Now
 … (* is a binary operation)
 … (Associativity)
 …. (Def. of inverse)
 … ( Def. of identity) we can prove (ii) in a similar way.
Theorem 6.2.3: Let be an arbitrary element of a group Then, an inverse of is unique.
Proof: Suppose and be inverses of . Then by G4. and
therefore, . Hence, by the cancellation law,
. Thus the inverse of is unique.
Remarks
a) If the binary operation is given by the context, we permit ourselves to write just instead
of ) and we write instead of . Thus we talk of ―the group ‖. For instance,
when we say the group of integers Z it should be clear that the binary operation is addition.
We usually use the symbol to denote the identity element of a group and the symbol for the
inverse of an element , whenever we use the multiplicative notation for the binary operation.
When the additive notation is used for the binary operation, we denote the identity element by 0
and the inverse of by – .
Theorem 6.2.4: If s a group, then for all  .
Proof: is the inverse of . But since = , then is also the inverse of
. By the uniqueness of the inverse of , we get .
Theorem 6.2.5: If is a group, then for all  .
Proof By definition is the inverse of . But
=[ ] …. (Associativity)
=[ ] …. (Associativity)
= …. (def, of b-1)
= …. (def. of e)
= ….. (def. of a-1) Similarly,

Hence by uniqueness of the inverse of we get:

One method of classifying groups is by consideration of the number of elements in the group.
Hence we make the following definition.
Definition 6.2.1: The number (possibly infinite) of elements in a group is called the order of
G and is denoted by We say is a finite group (an infinite group) if its order is finite
(infinite).
Let be an element of a group with identity element . Define: , and
and whenever is defined for a positive integer , define
. Then, by mathematical induction, is defined for each non-negative integer .
Furthermore, define for every positive integer . Then is defined for all
integers n. Next we see that this definition of exponents satisfies the usual rules of exponents.
Theorem 6.2.6: Let be a group and let be an arbitrary element of . Then
1) for all integers and .
2) = for all integers and .
Proof: 1) We proceed by induction on . If , is true by definition of am+1.
Assume that for some positive integer k.
Then, ……….by the definition of
=
This shows that holds for all integers and for all positive integers . If ,
the above equality holds, since a0 = 1. Suppose is negative. Then – is positive. Hence,
= .
2) Again we proceed by induction on . If is true by def. of (am)1.
Assume (am)k = amk for some positive integer k.
Then, = =
The case n  0 can easily be checked.
Note: In cases in which we use additive notation for the binary operation, we make use of
multiples in place of powers; that is, takes the place of . Where
, times.

6.3 Types of Groups and Representations

6.3.1 The Group of Integers Modnlo n
Let = The set of integers, and let be a fixed positive integer. We define a relation ‗‘ on as
follows:   if is a multiple of ( i.e divides ).It is an easy
exercise to show that ‗‘ is an equivalence relation on . That is ‗‘ is reflexive, symmetric and
transitive. To see this, since , then so  hence ‗‘ is
reflexive. If  , then for some equivelentely
which implies  hence‗‗ is symmetric. Finally, if  and
 , then and for some ;
so we have consequently  , thus ‗‗ is transitive.
Notation: For , let [ ] denote the equivalence class of for which belongs..
Let {[ ] [ ] [ ]}
Claim 1: Every element of belongs to exactly one of the equivalence classes in Zn.
Before we can prove claim 1, however, we need to prove a seemingly trivial but very important
lemma.
Lemma 6.3.1. (Division Algorithm)
If  with , there exists unique integers and such that ,  .
Proof: Let { – | –  }. First, we show that  . Since is assumed to
be a positive integer, . It follows that |a| and hence that | .
Hence, by choosing , we see that  S therefore S  . Now, if 0  S, clearly 0
is the least element of S. Suppose 0  S. S being a non-empty set of positive integers, has a
least element. Thus in each case S has a least element , such that for some 
. Algorithm. We next show that also . Suppose, on the contrary assume
. Then – . But – – . Thus –  . But since ,
– and we have a contradiction of the fact that is the least element of S. Hence,
.
It remains to be prove that and are unique. Suppose also , Z such that ,
where .
Then, ,

 – –  – But since 0  r < b and 0  r1< b, we have |r1 – r|

< b. Thus b|q – q1| < b which gives |q – q1| < 1 since q and are integers we must have
so since, – – = 0 we get r1 = r. The unique integers and are
called the quotient and the remainder respectively. It is clear that if and only if
We now return to the proof of claim 1.
Proof of Claim 1: Let  . By division algorithm,  such that and
 . Then – and so  . Thus  [ ]. Since  ,[ ] .
Hence, belongs to one of the elements of . Since the elements of are distinct equivalence
classes, they have no elements in common. This proves our claim.
We next define an addition on as follows:For [ ] [ ] , set [ ] [ ] [ ].
Claim 2:The above addition is well-defined, i.e. if  [ ] and  [ ],
then [ ] [  ].
Proof: from the hypothesis we have   and   hence, 
and  for some integers . Then   and so
   Therefore, [ ] [  ]
Claim 3: is a group with the operation addition defined above.
Proof:
i) We have already seen axiom G1 holds.
ii) Let [ ] [ ] [ ] , then [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
[ ]
[ ] [ ] [ ]
[ ] [ ] [ ] Hence, G2 holds.
iii) [ ] is the identity of .
iv) For [ ] , there is [ – ] and [ ] [ ]= [ ] [ ] and [ ]
[ ] [ ] [ ]. Hence, [ – ] is the inverse of [ ]. Thus [ ] is invertible.
Notation: We shall denote the element of the group by instead of by
[ ][ ] [ ], where there is no danger of ambiguity.

6.3.2. Permutation groups

Let be any non-empty set. Let be the set of all one-to-one mappings of onto itself.
is called the set of all permutations of A. We want to show that with composition of
mappings as a binary operation, is a group. We show this step by step
1) To show that   for all , element of we need only show that  o  is
one-to-one and onto.
i) One-to-oneness of  o : We have that and are one to one mappings.
Let           ,
showing that   is one-to-one.
ii) Ontoness of  o  : Suppose  . Since  is onto  such that  . Since  is
onto  such that,  .
Therefore,     . Hence,   is onto.
2) We next show that o(o) = (o)o. Here     ,
while ((   =    =   Therefore, ( o ( o ))(a) = (( o
) o )(a) for all . Hence,  o ( o )) = ( o ) o .
3) The identity mapping A  is the identity element, i.e.,  o A = A o  =  for all
which shows existence of identity in .
4) Since  is onto, for each  such that  . By one-to-oneness of , this
is unique. Hence the correspondence associating to is a mapping. We denote this
mapping -1. Notice that  o -1 (a) = (-1(a)) = (a) = a = iA(a) and -1o (a) = -
1
((a)) = -1(a) = a = iA(a). Therefore,  o -1 = -1 o  = iA which shows existence of
inverse for each mapping. Hence, from (1), (2), (3) and (4) we see that S(A) is a group.
6.3.3. The Symmetric Group

Let { 1 2 n} be a set. A permutation of a1, a2,… an is a one-to-one mapping from A
onto A. As shown above, the set of all permutations of a1, a2, …, an is a group where the
operation is composition of mappings. This group is denoted by and is called the symmetric
group of order . Even though is a special case of , it is sufficiently important in the
study of groups to merit special consideration. We illustrate the principles involved with .
(a) Consider the mapping  defined on the set {a1, a2, a3, a4}, by:

a1 a2
: a2 a3
a3 a1
a4a4
 is a permutation on a1, a2, a3, a4. It is advisable to develop a shorthand notation for the
mapping . The notation
 1 2 3 4
 =  
 2 3 1 4
will be used to represent the permutation . Let the permutation  be represented by:
1 2 3 4
 =  
 3 4 1 2
Since  and  are mappings, we can compose them as usual to obtain  o  and  o :
 1 2 3 4   1 2 3 4  1 2 3 4 
 o  =   o   =  
 2 3 1 4   3 4 1 2   1 4 2 3 
1 2 3 4  1 2 3 4  1 2 3 4
 o  =   o   =   Observe that  o o.
 3 4 1 2  2 3 1 4  4 1 3 2
b) Returning to , we can easily see that in general a permutation  on the n symbols a1, a2
…, an can be represented by:
1 2  n
 =   where i1, i2, …, in is a simple rearrangement of 1, 2, …, n.
 i1 i2  in 
c) What is the order of Sn?The order of Sn is the number of permutations of 1, 2, …, n and it is
For instance, has 3! = 6 elements. That is, {  } where

1 2 3  1 2 3  1 2 3
=   ;  =   ;  =  
1 2 3  2 1 3  3 2 1
1 2 3   1 2 3 1 2 3
 =   ; =   ; =  
1 3 2   2 3 1  3 1 2

Exercise 6.1
1) Determine which of the following are groups.
a) ({-1, 1}, . ), where ―.‖ is the usual multiplication.
b) ( , U), where X is a set and ―U‖ denotes union of sets.
c)  where  –
d) (S, .), where { : is a non-zero real number and  } and ― .‖ is the usual
multiplication.
e) (2\{(0, 0)}, .) where (a, b).(c, d) = (ac – bd, ad + bc)
2) Give an addition table for Z5.
3) Let be the set of all functions , Prove that together with the usual addition of
functions is a group.
4) Let be a group and are in . Show that an1an11 … a11
5) Let  { } and, for  , let  be given by . Show that the
set {  } together with composition for functions form a group.
6) Let be a group and for each  let :  be defined by . Prove that
the set {  } together with composition of functions is a group.
7) Compute the following products in the group .
 1 2 3  1 2 3
a)    
 3 2 1  2 3 1
 1 2 3 1 2 3 
b)    
 2 3 1  1 3 2 
8) Give a multiplication table for .
9) Let be a group containing an even number of elements. Show that there exists  ,
 , such that .
10) Let be a group and  . If , prove that .
11) If is a group and for all  , prove that is an abelian group.
12) If is a group such that for every pair  , prove that is abelian.

Definition 6.3.1: A non-empty subset of a group is a subgroup if is a group with the

binary operation of .
Remarks:
1) Every group is a subgroup of itself. The subset consisting of just the identity element ,
i.e., { } is also a subgroup of . Hence, every group consisting of more than one element has
at least two subgroups: and { }. They are called trivial subgroups of .
2) If is a group, then all subgroups of other than itself and { } are called proper
subgroups of G.
Notation: If is a subgroup of , we write  . If  and  , we write . In
the latter case, is a proper subgroup of .
Examples6.3.1.1
1) (Q+, .) is a proper subgroup of (+, .).
2) Consider the group Z4. The following is the addition table for Z4.
+ 0 1 2 3
0 0 1 2 3
1 1 2 3 0
2 2 3 0 1
3 3 0 1 2
Observe that the only proper subgroup of Z4 is {0, 2}
3) What are the subgroups of (Z, +)? We have the trivial subgroup {0}. For every positive
integer m, ( , +) is a subgroup of (Z, +). In fact these are the only subgroups of Z, as
shown in the following theorem. { }.for instance,
{ }
Theorem 6.3.6: ( , +), where runs through the set of positive integers, is the only non-zero
proper subgroup of (Z, +).
Proof: Let be a subgroup of and  .
Then H contains a non-zero integer and, being a subgroup, must contain a positive integer (since
if  , then –  also). Let be the smallest positive integer in H. Then  , since a
typical element of is of the form where  . We need only show that  . Let
 . By Division Algorithm  such that , where  . Since

 and – , it it follows that  . Since is the smallest positive integer in H, it

follows that . Thus  . Hence, H = mZ.
Theorem 6.3.2: Let G be a group; a non-empty subset H of G is a subgroup of G if and only if:
1)   
2)   
Proof: (): If H is a subgroup, (1) and (2) clearly hold by definition.
(): Suppose (1) and (2) hold. Then we need only check axioms G2 and G3. Let
 . Then  (since )
Since G is a group, . Hence associativity holds for H. Let a  H. Then
by (2), H. By (1) we obtain H. This proves H contains identity element.
Therefore H is a group and hence a subgroup of G.
Corollary 6.3.1: Let be a group. A non-empty subset of is a subgroup of if and only if
   .
Proof: ()Suppose H is a subgroup of G. Let a, b  H. By axiom G4,  H so by
closurityaxiomwe get H.
Conversely, suppose   now for  we have H
hence  H, showing that condition (2) of the above theorem holds. Let a, b  H
then, ,  . Hence, = (a-1)-1b  H. Thus condition (1) of the above theorem also holds.
Therefore, H is a subgroup of G.
Theorem 6.3.3: Let G be a group and let  .Then {  } is the subgroup of G
and is the smallest subgroup of G which contains .
Proof: Let x, y be arbitrary element of H. Then x = am, y = ak for some m, k  Z. Then xy =
amak = am+k H. Notice that x-1 = a-m. Hence x-1 H. Thus by Theorem6.3.7, H is a subgroup of
G. H is the smallest subgroup of G containing a because any subgroup of G containing a must
contain H.
6.3 Cyclic Groups
Definition 6.4.1: A group H is said to be cyclic if there exists an element  such that every
element of H can be written as for some integer .H is called the cyclic group
generated by a, and is denote by < >. is called a generator of H. If H is a subgroup of
G, then H is called a cyclic sub-group of G.

Examples 6.4.1:
1) Since for any integer the group of integers is cyclic group as both 1
and -1 are generators of for the group.
2) (Z4, +) is also a cyclic group and both 1 is a generator since ,
, in so we can write <1> = Z4.
is also a generator for (show!)
3) In the group of integers Z , for any n  Z, .
Theorem 6.4.1: Let G be a finite cyclic group generated by . If , then:
i)  for any positive integer .
ii) { } is precisely the set of elements belonging to G.
Proof: (i) Suppose and . Let  . Then for some integer . By
Division Algorithm there are unique integers such that  . Then
Hence, every element of G is of the form , where  .Hence G has at most

elements, where . Contradiction!
ii) We know that the elements all belong to G. Next we show that these
elements are distinct. Suppose for some positive integers  . Then
multiplying by we get
and, since i< j  n, we must have 0 < j – i< n. But by (i) above, for . Which
is a contradiction! Thus the elements are all distinct. Since ,
then G must be precisely the set { }.However, since G is a group,  .
But  if .
Hence, .
Theorem6.4.2: Every subgroup of a cyclic group is cyclic.
Proof: Let . Let H be a subgroup of G.
If { }, then H is certainly cyclic with generator .Hence, assume  { }. Since H is
a subgroup of G, every element of H is of the form for some integer .
Let be the least positive integer such that  . Let be an arbitrary element of H.
By Division Algorithm, there are integers such that and  .
Then – , and hence Since  , then

must also be in H. Moreover, since  H, then must be in H. Hence,

 H. Since is the least positive integer such that  , we must have .
Hence, . Hence, H is a cyclic group with generator .
Corollary 6.4.1: Suppose a finite cyclic group has order . Then the subgroups of
are precisely the subgroups generated by where divides .
Proof: Left as exercise.
Exercise 6.4.1:
1 2 3 1 2 3 
1) Show that  ,   is a subgroup of S3
  1 2 3   1 3 2 
2) Prove that every cyclic group is abelian
3) Let G be a group, and let A and B be subgroups of G. Prove that A  B is a subgroup
of G. Show that A  B need not be a subgroup of G.
4) We have seen that M = the set of all 2  2 matrices over Z is a group with matrix
 a b
addition as a binary operation. Is the set of matrices of the form   , where a,
 0 0
bZ, a subgroup of M?
5) Find all subgroups of S3.
6) Let G be a g group and let C(G) = {x  G: xg = gx for all g  G}. Prove that C(G) is
a subgroup of G.
7) Let G be an abelian group. Show that the set
{  for some  } is a subgroup of G.
8) Show that a group G has no proper subgroups if and only if it is a cyclic group of
prime order.
6.4 Cosets and Lagrange‟s Theorem

In this section we will study more closely the relationship between a group and its subgroup.
Definition 6.5.1:Let G be a group and let H be a subgroup of G. If  , then
{  } is called the right coset of H in G determined by a. The element is often called a

representative of the right coset . Similarly, {  } is called the left coset of H in

G. Of course, if G is abelian for all  .
Remarks:
1) We shall consider only right coset here; however with minor alternations, the discussion
here could be repeated for left cosets.
2) Note that so that H itself is a right coset of H in G.
We will see later that the set of all right cosets of a subgroup H in a group G decomposes G into
disjoint subsets. Before proceeding with the proof of this, let us consider an example.
Example 6.5.1
Consider Z4 = {0, 1, 2, 3} and its sub-group. H = {0, 2}. We will compute all the right cosets of
H in Z4.
H0 = H2 = {0, 2}
H1 = H3 = {1, 3}
There are two distinct (disjoint) right cosets of H in Z4. Observe that, in fact, these distinct right
cosets of H form a partition of Z4. We will soon see that this is the case for any group G and its
sub-group H.
Definition 6.5.2: Let G be a group and H a subgroup of G. For a, b G we say a is congruent to
b modulo H, written as a  b(mod H), if ab-1 H.
Note: ―Congruence modulo H‖ is a relation on G.
Theorem 6.5.1: The relation a  b(mod H) is an equivalence relation on G.
Proof: 1) Since H is a subgroup, aa-1 = eH. Hence, a a(mod H).
2) Suppose a  b(mod H),i.e.,ab-1H. Then ba-1=(ab-1)-1 H. Hence, b  a(mod H).
3) Suppose a  b(mod H) and b  c(mod H), i.e., ab-1,
bc-1H. Now, ac-1 = (ab-1) (bc-1)H. Hence, a  c(mod H).
Therefore, the reflexive, symmetric and transitive properties hold and a  b(mod H) is an
equivalence relation on G.
Remark: If , and , then the relation  , i.e., , under the
additive notation, reads as – is a multiple of . This is the usual number theoretical
congruence modulo .

Lemma 6.5.1: Let [ ] the equivalence class of a under ―Congruence modulo ‖. Then
[ ] . That is, [ ] is precisely the right coset of in determined by .
Proof: [ ] {   }
{ }
{  }
Since the set of right cosets of H in G are simply the equivalence classes of an equivalence
relation on G, we immediately obtain the following theorem.
Theorem 6.5.2: Let G be a group and let H be a subgroup of G. Then the set of all right cosets
of H in G form a partition of G. Hence every element of G belongs to one and only one right
coset of H in G, i.e., any two right cosets of H in G either are identical or have no elements in
common.
Lemma 6.5.2: There is a one to one correspondence between any two right cosets of H in G.
Proof: Let Ha and Hb be any two arbitrary right cosets of H in G. Define a mapping : Ha
Hb by (ha) = hb for all h H. Then  is onto since for each hbHb, ha Ha such that
(ha) = hb. Supposes (ha) = (ha), i.e., hb = hb. Then by cancellation law,
h = h, and so ha – ha. Therefore,  is 1-1. Hence,  is a 1-1 correspondence between Ha and
Hb.
Remark: Any two right cosets of H in G have the same number of elements. Moreover, since H
is a right coset, each right coset of H in G contains the same number of elements as H, namely,
o(H).
Theorem 6.5.3: (Lagrange): If G is a finite group and H subgroup of G, then o(H)|o(G).
Proof: Let n = 0(G), m = 0(H). Let k = The number of distinct right cosets of H in G. By 6.5.5.
and 6.5.6, any two distinct right cosets of H in G have no elements in common and each has m
elements. Hence, n = mk.
Definition 6.5.3: Let G be a group and H a subgroup of G. The number of distinct right cosets
of H in G is called the index of H in G. The symbol iG(H) denotes the index of H in G.
Note: By Lagrange‘s theorem, in case G is a finite group.
o(G )
iG(H) = .
o( H )

Definition 6.5.4: If is a group and , the order (or period) of a is the least positive integer
m such that . If no such integer exists, we say that a is of infinite order. We use the
notation o(a) for the order of a. Note that where
Lagrange‘s theorem has several corollaries. We list a few.
Corollary 6.5.1: If G is a finite group of order n, then an = for all a  G.
Proof: Let a  G and H = <a>. Let m = o(H). By Lagrange‘s theorem, for some
positive integer k. We know am = e. Hence, an = amk = (am)k = ek = e.
Corollary 6.5.2: If G is a finite group and a  G, o(a)|o(G).
Proof: We know o(a) = o(H) where H = <a>. We also know by Lagrange‘s Theorem o(H)|o(G).
Corollary 6.5.3: If G is a finite group of order p where p is a prime number, then G is cyclic and
every element of G except the identity is a generator of G.
Proof: Let  G. By 4.5.11, . Since is prime and , . Hence the
cyclic subgroup generated by any element of G other than the identity has order and
therefore must be all of G.
Exercise 6.5
1) Let h be a positive integer. List all right cosets of nZ in Z.
2) Let Z[x] be the set of all polynomials with integer coefficients and H the set of all
polynomials with integer coefficients whose constant terms are zero.
a) Prove that H < Z[x]
b) Find all cosets of H in Z[x]
3) Let G be a group, o(G) = 12. What is the maximum number of proper subgroups G can
have? If G has subgroups of order 2 and 3, what is the minimum number of proper
subgroups G can have?
4) Let G be an abelian group, H < G, K < G, with o(H) = 5 and o(K) = 7. Prove that there
exists an element in G of order 35.
5) Let [x] be the set of all polynomials over the reals and L the set of all polynomials in [x]
of degree 1 or less.
a) In [x], is 3x2 (1 + 2x2) (mod L)?
b) In [x], is 4x3 + 2x2 – 5x + 3  (4x3 + 2x2 + 8x – 19) (mod L)?
c) In [x], is x2 (1 + x + x2) (mod L)?

6) Let H be the set of all polynomials having 3 as a root and [x] as in problem 5.
a) Prove that H <[x]
b) Is x3  3x2 (mod H)?
c) Is 3x3 – 7x2 (2x3 – 4x2) (mod H)?
d) Is x3 – 2x2 – 3x  0 (mod H)?
6.5 Normal Subgroups and Quotient Groups
Definition 6.6.1: A subgroup H of a group G is said to be a normal subgroup of G if 
for all   .
Definition 6.6.2: ={ :  } for  .
Corollary 6.6.1: A subgroup H of a group G is normal if an only if  H,  .
Notation: To say H is a normal subgroup of G is expressed symbolically as H  G. If H  G
and H  G, we write H  G.
Example6.6.1.{ } and G are normal subgroups of every group G, where is the identity element
of G. These are called trivial normal subgroups of group G.
Example 6.6.2 Let M2 be the set of all non-singular 2  2 matrices with real entries.Then M2
forms a group under matrix multiplication (please check). Further, let N be the subset of M2
of all matrices of unit determinant. Then N is a subgroup of M2 (please verify). To prove
that N  M2, let A  N and let X  M2 and let |A| stand for determinant of A. Then:
|X-1AX| = |X|-1|A| |X|
= |X|-1 |X| |A|
= |A|
=e
 X-1 AX N
Hence by definition, N  M2.
Properties of Normal Subgroups
Theorem 6.6.1: Let H be a subgroup of G. Then H  G  xHx-1 = H x  G.
Proof: xHx-1 = H x  G
 xHx-1  H
 H  G (Corollary 6.6.3)
Conversely, let H  G

 xHx-1 H (Corollary 6.6.3) (i)

 x-1Hx = x-1H(x-1)-1 H (using (i))
 H = x(x-1Hx)x-1 xHx-1 (because x-1Hx  H)
 H = xHx-1 x  G
Theorem 6.6.2: Let H  G. Then H  G Hx = xH x  G.
Proof: H  G  xHx-1 = H x  G (by Theorem 6.6.5)
 (xHx-1)x = Hx
 xH = Hx, x  G
Conversely, let xH = Hx x G.Thus for x  G and h H, we have xhx-1 = (xh)x-1
= (h1x)x-1, (xh = h1x for some h1 H as (xH = Hx)
= h1(xx-1) = h1 H
 xhx-1 H x  G and h H
 H  G (by definition (6.6.1) of normal subgroup)
Lemma 6.6.1: If H is a subgroup of group G, then HH = H.
Proof: By definition, HH = {h1h2|h1H, h2H}
Now H < G implies h1h2 H h1, h2 H. Therefore, h1h2 HH  h1h2 H
Hence HH  H. Again, H = He, e is the identity element of H  HH
Therefore, H  HH
Hence HH = H
Theorem 6.6.3: Let H  G. Then, H  G if and only if product of two right cosets of H in G is
again a right coset of H in G.
Proof: Given: H  G. Let a, b  G.
Then, HaHb = H(aH)b
= H(Ha)b (because H G  Ha = aH a  G
= (HH)ab (Theorem 6.6.5)
= Hab (Lemma 6.6.6) which is a right coset of H in G.
Conversely, let Ha and Hb be two right cosets of H in G. Also let HaHb = Hc where Hc is
another right coset of H in G. Since no two right cosets of H in G are the same and no term is
repeated in any coset, then if HaHb = Hc, then c = ab.
Therefore, HaHb = Hab

 (HaHb)b-1 = (Hab)b-1
 HaH1 = Ha1
 HaH1 = Ha1
 HaH = Ha  (HaH)a-1 = (Ha)a-1
 HaHa-1 = H = HH (Lemma 6.6.6)
 H(aHa-1) = HH
 aHa = H
 H  G (Theorem 6.6.5)
Theorem 6.6.4: Let G be a group. Any subgroup of index 2 is normal in G.
Proof: Let H < G of index 2. Then iG(H) = 2. In other words, there are 2 right cosets of H in
G. Let x  G but x  H. Then H Hx = and G = H Hx (right coset
decomposition). It follows that Hx = G\H.
Again there are two left cosets of H in G and H xH = whenever x  H, x  G.
Therefore, G = H xH and xH = G\H
Therefore, xH = Hx = G\H.
Hence H  G.
Example6.6.3: Consider symmetric group S3 on the set {1, 2 3}. The elements of S3 are:
1 2 3 1 2 3 
P0 =   =( 1) u1 =   = (2 3)
1 2 3 1 3 2 
 1 2 3  1 2 3
P1 =   = (1 2 3) u2 =   = (1 3)
 2 3 1  3 2 1
1 2 3  1 2 3
P2 =   = (1 3 2) u3 =   = (1 2)
 3 1 2   2 1 3 
Considers H = {P0, P1, P2}please verify from multiplication table that H  G.
0(S3) = 6, 0(H) = 3 Therefore, iG(H) = 2 Hence H  S3 (using Theorem 6.6.8)
We can also prove that H G without using Theorem 6.6.8.
Right cosets: HP0 = HP1 = HP2 = H = {P0, P1, P2}
Hu1 = Hu2 = Hu3 = {u1, u2, u3}
Left cosets: P0H = P1H = H = {P0, P1, P2}
u1H = u2H = u3H = {u1, u2, u3} Therefore, Hx = xH, x  S3.Hence H  G

Next we consider H = {P0, u1}

It can easily be checked from multiplication table that H < G. Then,
Right cosets Left cosets
H = {P0, u1,} H = {P0, u1}
Hu2 = {u2, P2} = HP2 u2H = {u2, P1} = HP1
Hu3 = {u3, P1} = HP1 u3H = {u3, P2} = HP2
Therefore, Hu2 u2H and Hu3 u3H. Hence H is not a normal subgroup of S3.
Similarly, one can check that subgroups {P0, u2} and {P0, u3} of S3 are also not normal
subgroups of G. In fact, it can be easily verified that S3 has no normal subgroup of index 3.
Definition 6.6.3: Let G be a group and let N  G( N a normal subgroup of G).Then we define:
{  }. In other words, G/N is the collection of all right cosets of N in G.
Theorem 6.6.5: Let N be a normal subgroup of G, and let denote the set of all right cosets
of N in G. For and let with this operation is a
group called the quotient group (or factor group) of G by N.
Proof: we must first prove that the operation on G/N is well-defined, that is, if and
, then . From we have for some
and from we have for some . Therefore . But
for some because N is normal in G. This gives , so that
with this proves that hence the operation is
well-defined.
Associativity: The operation on G/N is associative because if , then
 .
Existence of Identity: Let be the identity of G. Then is the identity element of
G/Nbecause if , then and  .
Existence of Inverses: Let  Then
and Therefore, the inverse of Na is . This proves that
is a group.
o(G )
Corollary 6.6.2: If G is a finite group and N  G, then o(G/N) =
o( N )

Proof: Follows from corollary to Lagrange‘s theorem.

Theorem 6.6.12: Every subgroup of an abelian group is normal.
Proof: Exercise
Example 6.6.4: Let G = Z the group of integers. Let { }
is a cyclic subgroup generated by 3.Therefore, G is abelian group hence, N  G
Since G is abelian, the right cosets of N in G will be written as in place of
. The quotient group of Z by N is { } is a group with identity
and each element having an inverse. For instance, the inverse of is
because
Example 6.6.5: Let H be a subgroup of order 2 in the group Z8. Z8 is a cyclic group generated
by 1, i.e., Z8 = <1> Let G = Z8. Then the only subgroup of G of order 2 is
H = {0, 4} (please verify). Since G is abelian, H G.Thecosets of H are:
{ } { }
{ }
{ }
{ }
Therefore, { }
The operation table of G/H is the following:
 H0 H1 H2 H3
H0 H0 H1 H2 H3
H1 H1 H2 H3 H0
H2 H2 H3 H0 H1
H3 H3 H0 H1 H2
For example,  
  {
It follows from the operation table that G/H forms a group.
In other words, Z8/H, where H = {0, 4}, is the quotient group of Z8.
Example6.6.6: What is the group when 3 and { } in the usual notation?

Solution: We have seen that is normal subgroup of . Therefore, { } where

{ 2 3} and is any one of the elements u1, u2, and u3. The Multiplication table of
is given below:
. N0 N1 where N0 = N
N0 N0 N1 N1 = Nx
N1 N1 N0
For example, N1N1 = NxNx = Nx2 = N = N0 (since x2 = P0 xG)

Exercise 6.6.1
1) Which of the following are normal subgroups?
a. The even integers in the group of integers.
b. Z3 in Z6.
2) Let H be the subgroup of Z12 generated by 3.
List the cosets of H in Z12 and construct a table for Z12/H.
3) Prove: If A and B are normal subgroups of G, then A  B is a normal subgroup of G.
4) If A is a normal subgroup of G and B is a subgroup of G, prove that AB = {ab: a A and b 
B} is a subgroup of G. If B is also a normal sub-group of G, show that AB is a normal sub-
group of G.
5) Show that {(1), (1, 2)} is not abnormal subgroup of S3.
6.6 Homomorphism
One way to study a relatively large and complicated group is to study its smaller and less
complicated subgroups. Homomorphism can help us do just that.
Definition 6.7.1: Let be groups with operations * and respectively. A mapping
  is called a homomorphism if
   
Example6.7.1:
1) Let G = any group with identity element .   , defined by   , is a
homomorphism because    for all  .

2) Let G = any group, : G G, defined by (a) = a a G, is a homomorphism. For this

let  , then    hence is a homomorphism.
3) Let + = The group of positive real numbers under multiplication. Let  = The group of
real numbers under addition; a mapping  : + defined by  , is a
homomorphism.
Solution: let  . We need to show that .
Now as required.
Definition 6.7.2: Let   be a homomorphism of groups and let be the identity
elements of and respectively. Then  {   }, is called the kernel of
 and,  {   for some  } is called the image of .
Lemma 6.7.3: Let   be homomorphism. Let be the identity elements of and
respectively. Then
a) 
b)  
c)  is a normal subgroup of .
Proof: a) Since is homomorphism we have for all      .

On the other hand, since is the identity in we have   so by
cancellation law 
b)Let  . Since is a group . From (a ) above  so
    and     (
b/c is homomorphism). Hence,  is the inverse of  in and therefore
  .
Since  . Let  ), then   ). Therefore
   , showing   hence
 is a subgroup of . Now let  and  ).
c) Then,  =   =    =
Therefore,  ). Hence,  is a normal subgroup of .

Definition 6.7.3:
Let   be a homomorphism.
a) If  is onto,  is called an epimorphism.
b) If  is one-to-one,  is called a monomorphism.
c) If  is both an epimorphism and a monomorphism, then  is called an isomorphism. If 
is an isomorphism, then and are said to be
isomorphic, and we write .
Theorem 6.7.1: Let   be a homomorphism. Then
1)  is an epimorphism if and only if  .
2)  is a monomorphism if and only if  { }, where is the identity element of .
Proof: 1) is obvious
2) Suppose  is a monomorphism. Let  , then  , where is the identity element
in . But  . Hence,    . Therefore
 { }
Conversely suppose  { }. Let  such that   then
  =       . hence,  is a
monomorphism.
Theorem 6.7.6: ( Fundemental theorem of homomorphism ): Let   be an
ephimorphism. Then ).
Proof: Since  is normal subgroup of we have  is a group ( quotient group).
Define a map   by  ), where 
Claim: is well-defined, i.e., then   . But  a  b(mod K)
   for some  . Therefore, for some  . Hence,
      which means . Thus is
well-defined.
Now    .Hence, is a homomorphism.
Suppose        )
  ) . Hence is one-o-one. Clearly is onto, since  is onto. Hence,
is an isomorphism.

Theorem 6.7.3: Suppose is a group and a normal subgroup of . Then  

defined by   is an epimorphism and  .
Proof:    showing that  is a homomorphism. Clearly  is
onto. Hence  is an epimorphism. Suppose  ). Then    .
Hence,   . Suppose  then    ). Hence,
 ). Therefore,  .
Definition 6.7.4:The epimorphism  defined by  is called the
canonical epimorphism.
Exercise 6.7.1
1) Let  be a homomorphism. Prove that
a) is a subgroup of
b) If is onto and  , then  .
c) If is cyclic, then Im is cyclic.
d) If is abelian then is abelian.
2) Let P be the set of polynomials over  of degree less than or equal to 2. Let : P  be
defined by (f) = f (5). Prove that is a homomorphism. Describe the set -1
(0).
3) Show directly that as groups Z4/{0, 2} Z2 by defining a homomorphism from Z4 to Z2.
4) Let [x] be the group of polynomials over  and A the set of polynomial with 3 as a root.
Prove that [x]/A .
5) Let G be a finite group and o(G) = p, p rime.
Prove that Zp G.
6) Define : (, + )  (+,.) by  . Show that  is an isomorphism.
7) Prove that any infinite cyclic group is isomorphic to the group of integers under
addition.

6.7 Automorphisms
Definition 6.8.1: Let be any group. An isomorphism space  is called an
Automorphism of G. In other words, a map  is to be Automorphisms iff:
a) is homomorphism;
b) is one-to-one; and
c) is onto.
Examples 6.8.1:
1) The identity mapping of onto itself is clearly an Automorphisms of .
2) Let be any abelian group. Define a mapping  by
 . is an Automorphisms of .
First we show that is well defined. That is, for x, y in if , then
. Now implies where e is the identity of . Then,
hence . Obviously is onto and one-to-one. Moreover, 1 2
= = x 21 x11 = x11 x 21 = x1,x2 G.
Therefore, is homomorphism. Hence is Automorphism of G. Furthermore, if xo G such

that x0 x01 , then (x0) = x01  x0. So  .
Theorem 6.8.1: The set of all Automorphisms of group of forms a group.

Proof: Let be the set of all automorphisms of . We know that is the group of all
permutations of . Then we shall prove that . Obviously A(G)  S(G). Clearly the
identity map iG is automorphism of .Therefore, iG A(G). Hence  . For elements of
, we can use composition of mappings as defined for group .
i) Let  A(G)   S(G)  2 1 S(G)  2 1 is one-one and onto
Thus,  G, we have:
( 2 1)( )= 2( 1( )) = 2( 1 1 )= 2 1(x1) 2 1(x2)
Therefore, 2 1 is a homomorphism of G and hence 2 1 is automorphism of G i.e.

2 1 A(G).
ii) Let  A(G)   S(G)  -1
 S(G)  -1
is one-one and onto
Also  1
x1 1

x2 = ( -1
x1) ( -1
x2)
-1 -1
= (x1) (x2)

= iG(x1)iG (x2) = ,by applying on both sides we get

-1 -1 -1
(x1) (x2) = (x1x2)
Therefore, -1
is automorphism and hence -1
 A(G) < S(G). Thus A(G) is a group in its own
right. We call A(G) the full group of automorphisms of G.
Theorem 6.8.1: For , define a map :  by  . Then is an
automorphism of .
Proof:
i) Given  . Let . Then .
Therefore, is onto.
ii) Let ( = ( ) = by cancellation law . Therefore, is
one-one. Hence is an automorphism of G.
iii) ( )= =
Hence is homomorphism.
Definition 6.8.2: For each  , the automorphism :  defined as
 is called an inner automorphismof . Any other automorphism of is called
outer-automorphism of G.
Example6.8.2: Let be non-abelian group,implies there is a pair  such that 
Now . Therefore, Thus for non-abelian group , ther always
exist non-trivial inner automorphisms of G. Let {  } the set
of all inner automorphisms of the elements of group .
Theorem 6.8.3 : . In other words, is a group in its own right.
Proof: Clearly  and 
i) Let ,  where  . Then x  G, ( )( ) =
= hence
Let    . Then  , ( .
i g 1 ( x )
Therefore, -1 (because . Therefore, i g i g 1 = ,
where The identity element in .

Similarly, i g 1 i g = .Therefore ( )-1 = i g 1  Hence is
called the group of inner automorphisms of .

Remark: Let be abelian group. Then obviously the only inner automorphism is the identity,
since then . All non-trivial automorphisms of are outer automorphisms.
Definition 6.8.3: The set of all elements commutative with all elements of a group is called its
center and is denoted by ). In other words,
{   }.
Lemma 6.8.1: For any group , the center is an abelian group and hence a normal
subgroup of .
Proof: i) Let and for all .Then
therefore .
ii) Let     .
Therefore, . Hence .Obviously from its definition is abelian.
Hence is a normal subgroup of .
Example: By elementary calculations, it can be shown that the group S3 has trivial centre.
If G is abelian group, then C(G) = G.
Theorem 6.8.4: .
Proof: Consider the mapping,  defined by where .
i) Obviously is onto
ii) , we have (proved in theorem (6.8.5)).
. Therefore, is homomorphism
Therefore,  is homomorphism and onto. Hence, by first fundamental theorem of
homomorphism, , where is the kernel of homomorphism , i.e. {
}, where is the identity map of
We shall prove that K = C(G). Let   . Therefore,
 (x) = (x), x  G then
 
 . Hence K  C(G).
Conversely, let   then


  . Hence C(G)  K . It follows that =
Hence, it follows that
6.8 Representations
Cayley‟s Theorem 6.9.1: Every group is isomorphic to a group of permutations.
Proof: Let be any given group. We proceed as follows:
Step I. We shall produce a suitable set . Let us think of just as a set. Let be the group
of all permutations of . For , we define a map  given by ,
i) Let . Then therefore, is onto.

ii) Let (x1) = (x2) where x1, x2 G
 1 2
 1 2. Hence, is 1 – 1
Therefore, is a permutation of . Hence .
Let  {  }
Step II: Se next show that 
i) Let , G. The  , we have ( )(x) = = = =
Therefore, =
ii) where is the identity of . Therefore, is the identity of 
iii) Let , where . Then, and
Therefore, ( )-1 = . Hence .
Step III: To prove that . Define a map  by
i) It follows that is onto
ii) Let

 (x) = (x)



Therefore, is 1 – 1
iii) For . Therefore, is homomorphism

It follows that is isomorphism of onto Hence
Definition 6.9.1: The group defined above is called left regular representation of G.
Further consider   defined by g . Then each  . Let {
}. Then is group and . The group is called right regular
representation of G.
The multiplication tables for G and G shows that G and G are isomorphic where G is the
group of permutations as shown.
Exercise 6.9
1) Prove that .
2) Let  be a homomorphism with
a) Find
b) Show that is an automorphism
c) If  , show is an automorphism.
d) use (c) to find
e) Show that Z 5* = {1, 2, 3, 4}, where Z 5* is group under multiplication modulo 5.
3) Find all automorphism of Z3.
4) Find all automorphism of Z4.

References
 D. C. Lay, Linear algebra and its applications, Pearson Addison Wesley, 2006
 Bernard Kolman& David R. Hill, Elementary linear algebra, 8th
ed., Prentice Hall, 2004Serge Lang; Linear Algebra
 Demissu Gemeda, An Introduction to Linear Algebra, Department of
Mathematics, AAU, 2000
 H. Anton and C Rorres, Elementary linear algebra, John Wiley &Sons, INC., 1994
 K. Hoffman & R. Kunze, Linear Algebra, 2nd ed., Prentice Hall INC1971
 S. Lipschutz, Theory and problems of linear algebra, 2nd ed.McGraw-Hill1991
 H. Anton (2005).Elementary Linear Algebra, 5th edition. New York:John Wiley &
Son.Inc.
 D.C.Lay.(2006).Linear Algebra and its Applications.Pearson Welsley.
 K.Hoffman & R.Kunze.(1971). Linear Algebra 2nd ed. New York: Prentice Hall INC.

Linear Algebra I Final

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Linear Algebra I Module for Chemist Students

By: Bule Hora University Mathematics Department Page 1

1.1 Definition of Points in n-space

Fig. 1.1: Illustration of point

By: Bule Hora University Mathematics Department Page 2

Definition 1.3: If and are points in the same

Example 1.2: a. In the plane, if A = (1, 2) and B = (-3, 5), then

1.2. Vectors in n-space, Geometric interpretation in 2 and 3- spaces

By: Bule Hora University Mathematics Department Page 3

and strictly speaking, no direction, it is convenient to view it as a vector. It is called a zero or a

Fig.1.2 Illustration of vectors

determined by its terminal point P. If be a point, then we shall write be a

By: Bule Hora University Mathematics Department Page 4

Example 1.2.1: If and , then ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ .

Fig.1.3: Illustration of vector operation

By: Bule Hora University Mathematics Department Page 5

Proof: Let A = ,B= and C = be vectors in Rn and m,

By: Bule Hora University Mathematics Department Page 6

The magnitude is √ √ √ = 52.5.

By: Bule Hora University Mathematics Department Page 7

The Distance Formula

The distance between two pointsP1 andP2 is given by:

1.3 Scalar product, the norm of a vector, orthogonal projection,

By: Bule Hora University Mathematics Department Page 8

Proof: Let and be two vectors and t be any scalar

By: Bule Hora University Mathematics Department Page 9

The length, or norm or magnitude of a vector is denoted by can be

Thus, the norm of the vector A is expressed as:

a12  a 22  ...  an2 .

Example 1.3.3: If , then ‖ ‖ √ √ √

Example 1.3.4:If ( ), then ‖ ‖ √( ) ( ) ( ) √ =1.

Example 1.3.5: Given a vector Find a unit vector in the direction of A.

Solution: ‖ ‖ √ √ √ , then the unit vector in the

the angle between the vectors A and B (0    ) . Then A.B  A B cos

By: Bule Hora University Mathematics Department Page 10

Fig.1.6 shows dot product

Therefore = cos-1(0.914) 23.94

By: Bule Hora University Mathematics Department Page 11

a) A.B  A B (Schwarz inequality)

A.B  A B | cos | which implies A.B  A B (Why?)

 V.V , so similarly, we have

as that of A or opposite to it depending on whether is acute or obtuse. Since ‖ ‖

By: Bule Hora University Mathematics Department Page 12

This vector is called the projection of along and is denoted by: .

Note: 1) is parallel to A. That is , for some .

Example 1.3.7: Let and 2,  3, 1 , then

Thus the direction cosines are: ‖ ‖

Activity 1.3.5: Show that: .

1.4 The Vector product

i j k  Standard unit vectors in row 1

We calculate the 3 3 determinant as follows: (note the alternation in sign)

 i (a2b 3 a3b2 )  (a1b3  a3b1 ) j  k (a1b2  a2b1 )

By: Bule Hora University Mathematics Department Page 14

By: Bule Hora University Mathematics Department Page 15

1.5 Application on area and volume

Fig. 1.9 Area of a parallelogram

By: Bule Hora University Mathematics Department Page 16

Fig.1.10 Illustration of volume

By: Bule Hora University Mathematics Department Page 17

1.6 Lines and planes

Fig.1.11 Illustration of line in 3D

Rewriting this equation gives  x, y, z    x0 , y 0 , z 0  t  a, b, c 

Then setting r =  x, y, z  , r0   x0 , y 0 , z 0  , and v = < a, b, c >, we get: