Resources, Conservation & Recycling 156 (2020) 104725

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Resources, Conservation & Recycling

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/resconrec

Full length article

Integrated water, waste and energy management systems – A case study T

from Curauma, Chile
Mónica Vergara-Arayaa, Helmut Lehnb, Witold-Roger Poganietzb,*
a
Magdeburg-Stendal University of Applied Sciences, Department for Water, Environment, Construction and Safety, Magdeburg, Germany
b
Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Institute for Technology Assessment and Systems Analysis (ITAS), Karlsruhe, Germany

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: The demand for energy and water by urban populations will increase in the next few decades, mainly due to
Water-energy nexus migration of people. Enhanced living standards will also increase the demand for both resources. As both energy
Urban wastewater system supply and water are limited, efficient use is a sine qua non for any future development of cities. This study
Organic municipal solid waste elaborates the resource and environmental impacts of implementing an integrated water, waste and energy
Anaerobic digestion
management system, using the medium-sized but rapidly growing settlement of Curauma, Chile, as a case study.
Environmental assessment
The Integrated System is designed by separating wastewater at the source and mixing blackwater with organic
municipal solid waste to generate electricity and heat by fermentation. By recycling greywater the demand for
drinking water can be reduced. The analysed Integrated System could raise the share of renewables in the energy
mix up to by 19% (electricity) and 51% (heat), and save fresh water resources by 30%. The depletion potential of
the Integrated System regarding water, fossil and metal resources is notably lower (up to 52%) compared to the
Conventional System. The same is true with respect to Climate Change, Freshwater Ecotoxicity, Freshwater
Eutrophication and Human Toxicity: up to 45%. The impacts of the Integrated System related to Terrestrial
Acidification are up to 174% higher due to emissions in the anaerobic digestion process, and heat and power
generation with biogas.

1. Introduction of the nexus by considering e.g. carbon emissions (Venkatesh et al.,

Studies emphasize that the next few decades will see on-going
growth of urban populations (e.g. UN DESA, 2018). This will be ac-
companied by an expanding demand for limited resources, such as
energy and water. But increasing standards of living will also fuel the
demand for these resources. A more efficient use of energy as well as
water has become one of the most important premises for sustainable
development (Dai et al., 2018). But energy and water consumption are
to some extent mutually interconnected, e.g. the former is required to
provide the latter. The relevance of the water-energy nexus to resolving
the above-mentioned dilemmas, particularly in urban areas, has been
highlighted from techno-economic (Elías-Maxil et al., 2014; Tarroja
et al., 2014; Mo et al., 2014; Lubega and Farid, 2014) as well as from
policy or societal (Scott et al., 2011; Rio Carrillo and Frei, 2009;
DeNooyer et al., 2016) perspectives. Several studies extend the analysis
2014) and food (Villarroel Walker et al., 2014).
Common to all these studies is increasing the efficiency of water and
energy systems by improving available technologies, without changing
the given water and energy infrastructures. In contrast, Otterpohl et al.
(2002) proposed separating greywater from blackwater to make use of
the chemical and thermal energy of wastewater. In Germany for ex-
ample, more than two-thirds of the domestic wastewater volume comes
from showers, bathtubs, or washing machines, which is known as
‘greywater’. Less than one-third of the volume is human excreta plus
flushing water, known as ‘blackwater’. Blackwater contains two-thirds
of the carbon compounds and more than 90% of all valuable plant
nutrients contained in domestic wastewater (Otterpohl et al., 2002). By
using blackwater as feedstock for an anaerobic digestion plant and re-
cycling greywater, the consumption of potable water and the energy
demand by households satisfied by external sources could be reduced,

Abbreviations: a, year; AD, Anaerobic digestion; BOD, Biological Oxygen Demand; CC, Climate change; CHP, Combined Heat and Power Plant; d, Day; FD, Fossil
Depletion Potential; FE, Freshwater Eutrophication; FEcox, Freshwater Ecotoxicity; HTox, Human Toxicity; MD, Metal Depletion Potential; MFA, Material Flow
Analysis; MSW, Municipal Solid Waste; OLR, Organic Loading Rate; p, Person; PE, Persons/inhabitants Equivalent; TA, Terrestrial Acidification; TS, Total Solids; VS,
Volatile Solids; WD, Water Depletion Potential; WWTP, Wastewater Treatment Plant
⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: poganietz@kit.edu (W.-R. Poganietz).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2020.104725
Received 21 August 2019; Received in revised form 18 December 2019; Accepted 26 January 2020
Available online 07 February 2020
0921-3449/ © 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
M. Vergara-Araya, et al.
Fig. 1. Wastewater treatment management systems.
Source: prepared by the author based on information from openstreetmap (2020).
while the energy efficiency of biogas production would be increased.
Moreover, historically wastewater has been used inefficiently as a
resource, although its re-use is an important part of the water cycle,
being a potentially affordable and sustainable source of water, energy,
nutrients, organic matter and other useful by-products (UNESCO,
2017).
The idea of separating wastewater at source has found some interest
from facility managers and city developers. Worldwide, single buildings
(e.g. Arminplatz (Berlin), Nolde and Grunow, 2013) as well as smaller
settlements (Stockholm Sea Port (Sweden), Skambraks et al., 2017;
http://www.stockholmroyalseaport.com/) are equipped with un-
bundled wastewater treatment systems. These ‘pilot settlements’ differ
in their technical layout. Some of them make use of the heat of grey-
water and re-use recycled greywater for specific applications, e.g. toilet
flushing (Nolde and Grunow, 2013). In other cases, recycled greywater
is used for irrigation of adjunct garden or recreation areas (Skambraks
et al., 2017).
By using organic municipal solid waste (MSW) as an additional
source of substrates for anaerobic digesters, the energy efficiency of the
process could be further improved (Mata-Alvarez et al., 2000).
Available analyses confirm the principal advantages of systems that
separate wastewater at the source, with respect to water resources and
energy demands (Righi et al., 2013; Matos et al., 2014; Ishii and Boyer,
2015). But most studies focus on single technologies. A comprehensive
assessment of the environmental impacts and resource depletion of an
entirely integrated system with respect to water, waste and energy
management is seldom carried out (Remy, 2010). The authors are
aware of only one study which analyses the environmental impacts for
an existing neighbourhood (Friedrich et al., 2020). The present con-
tribution aims to provide insights to fill this gap for new settlements.
The overarching aim of this contribution is to analyse the impacts of
implementing an integrated water, waste and energy management
system on water and energy flows, as well as on the environment. The
proposed integrated system consists of separating domestic wastewater
at source, and combining blackwater with organic MSW to generate
electricity and heat via biogas.
The study uses the water, waste, and energy management system of
Curauma as an analytical frame. Curauma is a fast-growing settlement
under the administration of the Municipality of Valparaíso in Chile,
with the potential opportunity to overcome the conventional manage-
ment of water, waste, and energy, when establishing new residential
areas.
2
Resources, Conservation & Recycling 156 (2020) 104725
Material flow approaches are a common instrument to track energy
and material flows (Niza et al., 2009; Kennedy et al., 2011). They allow
the identification and quantification of the flows of single elements
relevant to the urban metabolism, such as energy (Zhang et al., 2011),
water (Madrid-López and Giampietro, 2015), or carbon (Chen and
Chen, 2012). They show potential to address the nexus between mul-
tiple elements (Chen and Chen, 2015, 2016; Chen and Lu, 2015). After
material flow approaches, Input-Output Analysis (Chen and 2015,
2016; Chen et al., 2015; Yang and Chen, 2016; Villarroel Walker et al.,
2014) as well as the concepts of water footprint (Shao and Chen, 2013,
2016), or embodied energy (Shao et al., 2013; Shao and Chen, 2015),
are possible approaches to describing the metabolic volumes of cities.
These methods can help to reveal water and energy flows and their
interconnections; but a comprehensive analysis of the environmental
impacts of the different shapes of systems under review needs detailed
consideration of the technologies and processes involved. Thus, the
material flow approach used in this study is grounded in a detailed
modelling of the technologies and processes, using life cycle inventory
(LCI) data, supplemented by a life cycle inventory assessment (LCIA), to
capture the environmental impacts (cf. Uihlein et al., 2006).
To reveal the underlying assumptions and discuss the main findings,
in section 2 the idea of separating wastewater at source and integrating
organic MSW flows within a city is described in more detail. Section 3
presents the selected method, while section 4 describes the model used
and the scenarios developed for the analysis. The main findings are
presented and discussed in section 5. Section 6 offers some concluding
remarks.
2. Wastewater treatment systems
In developed countries, state-of-the-art urban wastewater systems
(WWS) combine gravity-driven sewers with mechanical-biological
treatment plants. The most important solid by-product of wastewater
treatment plants (WWTP) is sludge. Both primary and excess sludge
must be stabilized before its further treatment. In large scale WWTPs,
the most efficient way, in terms of energy and resources recovery po-
tential, is anaerobic stabilization, producing biogas and a nutrient-rich
bio-solid in adjunct digestion plants. Thus, a traditional WWTP sludge
digestion system fulfils the main purposes of any WWS, i.e. to transport
considerable amounts of pathogens and thus water-related diseases out
of settlements in a safe way, while with the derived sludge an additional
energy carrier is locally available (Fig. 1 above).
M. Vergara-Araya, et al.
However, if the WWTP performance is poor, or if wastewater
treatment is limited to organic matter removal, like in Curauma, the
waters receiving wastewater are affected by organic material and nu-
trients, thus polluting water bodies. Moreover, often the treated was-
tewater is not re-used; water which is crucial for arid or semiarid re-
gions. It is estimated that in Chile, approximately 10% of the national
water gap could be filled by the re-use of wastewater from marine
sewage outfalls (Fundación Chile, 2017). Also, if nutrients are not re-
moved during wastewater treatment, or if the nutrient-rich sludge is not
used, e.g. in agriculture, a loss of plant available nitrogen and phos-
phorous is observed.
Wastewater treatment using activated sludge technology is an en-
ergy-intensive process, with WWTP as one of the most expensive public
industries in terms of energy requirements (ENERWATER, 2017).
Without biogas-based energy production and proper energy efficiency
measures, the energy balance is negative due to high energy demand
from the several cleaning steps, e.g. aeration, dewatering, pumping, etc.
(Tchobanoglous, 2003; Guerrini et al., 2017; Barroso Soares, 2017).
In order to improve the resource and energy efficiency of the total
wastewater treatment system through better recycling of inherent en-
ergy and substances, and to reduce the negative environmental impacts
of wastewater treatment, a separate flow treatment of municipal was-
tewater complemented with organic MSW is suggested as an alternative
(Lange and Otterpohl, 2000). A simple system would separate waste-
water between greywater and blackwater at the source of wastewater
generation (Fig. 1 below).
In a traditional water collection system, greywater comes from
bathtubs, showers, hand-washing basins, laundry machines and kitchen
sinks, in households, office buildings, schools, etc. (Eriksson et al.,
2001; Fane, 2013; Department of Consumer and Business Services,
2015; Crook, 2009; Henze and Comeau, 2008). The share of greywater
in wastewater differs notably worldwide; generally between 50% and
80% (Allen, 2010). In households with dry latrines, found usually in
low- and middle-income countries, the greywater fraction of total
wastewater production may even reach 100% (Morel and Diener,
2006). The amount of greywater depends on the lifestyle, fixtures, type
of settlement and climatic conditions (Oteng-Peprah et al., 2018), but
also on the efficiency of water use. Greywater could be treated in the
neighbourhood and re-used for toilet flushing, water infiltration, or soil
irrigation of non-edible plants.
Blackwater, consisting of human excreta and flushing water, con-
tains between two-thirds and nearly 100% of all valuable plant nu-
trients or carbon compounds in domestic wastewater (Otterpohl et al.,
2002). Blackwater which is rather undiluted could enhance the energy
efficiency of anaerobic digestion. An efficient anaerobic digestion pro-
cess requires rather dry sewage sludge. To feed anaerobic digesters with
sewage sludge from WWTPs, a sludge thickening process is required,
which demands more than 10% of the required energy to produce
biogas. If the produced biogas is used in a combined heat and power
plant (CHP), the energy gain would be higher, considering also the use
of heat e.g. for residential heating. Improving the energy efficiency of
the operational phase of a WWTP could be of crucial importance. The
operational phase, for example of a typical North American WWTP,
Fig. 2. Conventional water, waste and energy management systemsNote: Emissions are not shown.
3
Resources, Conservation & Recycling 156 (2020) 104725
dominates the life cycle energy use (around 94%), and life cycle
greenhouse gas emissions (about 90%) (Racoviceanu et al., 2007; cf.
Nair et al., 2014).
The efficiency of the system could be improved even more, with the
addition of organic MSW to blackwater. A mixture of substrates (two or
more) in a process called co-digestion raises energy efficiency, due to
positive synergisms established in the digestion medium, and the
supply of missing nutrients by the co-substrates (Mata-Alvarez et al.,
2000). Several positive experiences of co-digestion of sewage sludge
and organic waste have been documented (Nielfa et al., 2015; Han
et al., 2016; Aguilar et al., 2017), with increased biogas yields com-
pared to substrate mono-digestion.
However, the potential losses and gains depend crucially on a set of
parameters. The inlet flow composition and feed ratio are amongst the
most relevant factors in an anaerobic digester operation.
The system requires changes to the wastewater infrastructures.
Within buildings, separated pipe systems for each type of wastewater
transport are needed. For the transport and digestion of blackwater, a
low dilution flush system for toilets would be beneficial (Stauffer, 2018;
Gao et al., 2019).
Another requirement is the separation of solid waste flows at the
source, e.g. within private households, at least between organic and
non-organic MSW. This can be critical, since large amounts of plastics
and other objects can seriously disturb the treatment process.
Separating solid household waste at the source is known both in prin-
ciple and in many countries’ practices; however it is not exempt from
problems, such as miss-sorting and contamination of waste.
Furthermore, the community and local authorities must be con-
tinuously engaged to promote correct waste separation (Muralikrishna
and Manickam, 2017).
3. Methods
The analysis of the conventional system as well as of an integrated
system will make use of a process-based material flow approach (MFA),
which combines MFA with life cycle inventory (LCI) (Uihlein et al.,
2006). This allows calculation of the environmental impacts of the
system under review using life cycle impact assessment (LCIA). For the
process-based MFA analysis, openLCA v.1.7.4 and the database ecoin-
vent v.3.5 (www.ecoinvent.org) are used. For the environmental as-
sessment, ReCiPe Midpoint (H) LCIA method is applied with a cut-off
1% criteria. The analysis differs between resource-related impacts and
environment-related impacts. In the case of resource-related impacts,
Water Depletion Potential (WD), Fossil Depletion Potential (FD), and
Metal Depletion Potential (MD) are calculated. Environment-related
impacts capture water-related ones, i.e. Freshwater Ecotoxicity (FEcox)
and Freshwater Eutrophication (FE); climate-related impacts, i.e. Cli-
mate Change (CC), and biomass-related ones, i.e. Terrestrial Acidifica-
tion (TA). Additionally, Human Toxicity (HTox) is analysed.
The study assumes only flows induced by private households in
residential areas.
The process-based MFA consists of three parts, which form the
systems boundary (Fig. 2):
M. Vergara-Araya, et al.
• Water/wastewater system, which depicts the provision of water,
wastewater generation, wastewater collection and its treatment;
• Generation of MSW, transport and treatment;
• Provision of and demand for electricity and heat.
At each step the relevant technologies are modelled (see below).
The volume of the relevant material flows as well as of the energy is
determined by the demand of the population in Curauma, given tech-
nical restrictions.
To quantify the impacts of an integrated system, two scenarios are
analysed in more detail. The first scenario, called Conventional System,
could be seen as a reference scenario, describing the current system.
The second scenario, called Integrated System, will assume an in-
tegrated water, waste and energy management system, as featured
above. In the following, both systems, and thus the considered sce-
narios, are described in more detail. The scenarios are constructed as
“as-if-scenarios” (Börjeson et al., 2006): the analysis aims to answer the
question, ‘What happens with respect to resource demand and emis-
sions, if the Conventional System runs from 2015 to 2030 or if, as an
alternative, the Integrated System is implemented right from the start of
the settlement’s establishment and also operates between 2015 and
2030?’
4. Models
In the following, the main features of the two models required to
analyse the scenarios are described. The mathematical structure of the
models can be found in Supplementary Information.
4.1. Frame conditions
The geographical systems boundary of the system under review is
Curauma (Fig. 3). Curauma is a site for different real estate develop-
ment projects in the region of Valparaíso (which borders the Me-
tropolitan Region of Santiago de Chile), to foster the rapidly increasing
demand for living areas in the region (Mansilla and Fuenzalida, 2010;
ENACO, 2011).
The main common driver for the impacts of both systems under
review is the population development. Since the other relevant factors,
such as the energy mix, differ between the two scenarios, they are de-
scribed in the subsections 4.2 and 4.3.
For the study, a population of 30,500 inhabitants in 20151 is as-
sumed. Using a variety of official data and available data from press
media from 2007 to 2017 (Proyectan millonaria inversión en Curauma,
2011; Curauma Todas las ventajas, 2014; 3V Chile, 2012; Álvarez and
Durán, 2008), an annual population growth rate of 4.9% is estimated.
Assuming a linear growth, the population would increase by 31,250, to
61,750 in 2030.
4.2. Conventional system
Current resource management in Curauma follows traditional lines.
The water management, municipal waste management and local energy
systems are separate (Fig. 2), and carried out by different companies
and municipal departments.
4.2.1. Water and wastewater management
In Curauma, esval S.A., a private Chilean company, which is now
controlled by Ontario's Teachers Pension Plan Board (OTPP) (otpp.com;
accessed 29 April 2019), is responsible for the drinking water supply,
sewerage and sewage treatment. In the region of Valparaíso, water
comes mainly from the Aconcagua River (about 1.074 million m3/a)
1
In the meantime the population grew to about 39,500 inhabitants (2017),
surpassing the expectations (Poduje et al., 2018).
4
Resources, Conservation & Recycling 156 (2020) 104725
and subterranean water sources (about 0.276 million m3/a (both
2012)). Water loss, however, is high, reaching values between 20 and
40% (Morandé and Doña Ilades, 1997; Albarrán Ulsen et al., 1997). For
the analysis, the current national average value of 35% is used (MMA,
2012; ECONSSA CHILE S.A., 2014). Average water consumption equals
156 L/(p*d) (own calculation based on SISS, 2014a and ANDESS,
2013). The water demand per person per day and the water loss is
assumed not to change until 2030. Investments in the current and fu-
ture pipelines are not taken into account in the analysis due to a lack of
reliable data.
The wastewater from Curauma is treated in the wastewater treat-
ment plant Placilla de Peñuelas (also called Placilla V), located in the
Northwest of Curauma. The 2015 sewage water collection coverage was
93.1% (own calculation based on esval S.A., 2017). Since the sewage
collection rate is expected to improve, it is assumed that the coverage
will increase by 0.5% per year, reaching 100% in 2029. Treatment in
the WWTP comprises a completely mixed aerated pond with sedi-
mentation (SISS, 2014b), with a design flow of 1.2 L/s and a daily
maximum of 92.3 L/s (esval S.A., 2009). The water outlet of the WWTP
Peñuelas is connected to the nearby Las Cenizas creek (esval S.A.,
2009). The average energy requirement accounts for about 0.097 kW h/
m3 for pumping (Matos et al., 2014). The electricity required for
aeration is around 2 W/m3 (DWA, 2005). The computation of the en-
vironmental impacts considers the necessity of expanding the existing
treatment system due to the expected population growth.
4.2.2. Waste management
Since Curauma is part of the Municipality of Valparaíso, the
Municipality is responsible for collecting, transporting and disposing of
residential solid waste, and commissioned the company COSEMAR
(UCV radio, 2015). Currently, solid waste management is practically
limited to landfilling, aiming to dispose of all waste in sanitary landfills,
closing unsanitary landfills and illegal dumps (Biblioteca del Congreso
Nacional, 2005).
Assuming that a person in Curauma generates about 0.97 kg waste
per day (SGS SIGA, 2018), of which 53.3% is of organic origin
(CONAMA, 2010), in 2015 around 10,710 t organic MSW (2015) is
available. It is assumed that the waste composition remains constant
until 2030, although, as seen in other countries, it could be expected
that with increasing national income the share of organic waste would
decrease (Chanathip, 2017; Hoornweg and Bhada-Tata, 2012). But no
data to project future waste composition are available. In 2015 about
86.0% of the organic MSW was disposed to landfills, and 14.0% is re-
cycled (own calculation based on MMA, 2018). The future amount of
available organic waste is influenced by the growing population and by
the increasing recycling rate, which increases by 5% per year. The latter
is due to an assumed successful enforcement of Law 20.920, which
establishes the framework for Waste Management, Extended Producer
Responsibility and Promotion of Recycling (MMA, 2016).
The collection rate of MSW in 2015 was 100% and is assumed not to
change until 2030. The waste is collected in 21 metric ton refuse trucks
that pick up the municipality’s solid waste from households. For cal-
culating the collection service impacts, a waste disposal trip from
Curauma to El Molle Sanitary landfill of 20 km, with a round trip 3
times a week and 20.5 L diesel/(ton*km) fuel consumption (Davis et al.,
2016) is assumed.
4.2.3. Energy management
Until November 2017 electricity in the central region of Chile was
distributed by the SIC (Sistema Interconectado Central). The assumed
electricity mix for 2015 corresponds to the available data from 2014
and consists of hydropower (share 41%), diesel (21%), coal (15%), and
natural gas (12%) as the main energy carriers. Renewable energies have
a share of 8% (CNE, 2015). For the period 2015–2017 this electricity
mix is assumed for the modeling. After merging SIC with SING (Sistema
Interconectado del Norte Grande), the Sistema Eléctrico Nacional (SEN)
M. Vergara-Araya, et al.
Fig. 3. Location of Curauma in Chile.
was created (CNE, 2018). The merger changed the electricity mix
considerably; it now consists of hydropower (share 27%; −14%), re-
newable energies (21%; +13%), coal (share 21%; +6%), natural gas
(19%; +7%) and diesel (13%; −8%) (CNE, 2018). Our assumption is
that the 2018 electricity mix is held constant until 2030.
Since October 2014, small consumers, such as households and small
business, can also inject energy into the grid with plants of an installed
power less than or equal to 100 kW (netbilling). But the share is neg-
ligible, as in April 2018 only 16 MW were installed nationwide
(Ministerio de Energia, 2018), and so will be not considered in the
model.
In the Curauma region the average demand of households for
electricity excluding electricity used for heating equals 1867 kW h/
(household*a) (2015) (own calculation based on Agostini et al., 2012).
The Chilean average energy requirement has steadily increased by 2.9%
on average per year over the last 20 years, showing the influence of
increasing income on energy demand (World Energy Council, 2013. A
prolongation of this trend is assumed, achieving in 2030 an electricity
demand of 2867 kW h/household*a.
In the respective region the main energy carriers for heating are
wood (share 65.3%), liquefied petroleum gas (LPG; 24.0%) and kero-
sene (7.5%). Electricity (3.0%) and charcoal (0.2%) are rather unim-
portant (own calculation based on CChC, 2010). Since Curauma has no
access to a gas grid, natural gas is not provided. This energy mix for
heating is assumed not to change until 2030. The energy requirement
for heating per household is currently about 0.9 MW h/(household*a)
and is assumed to remain constant, since no significant changes in
housing construction materials or laws enforcing higher energy effi-
ciency standards are expected in the next few years.
4.3. Integrated system
The integrated water, waste and energy management system sce-
nario under review combines the different resources and energy flows
(Fig. 4). Wastewater is separated within the household into greywater
and blackwater. Greywater is treated and then re-used, e.g. for toilet
5
Resources, Conservation & Recycling 156 (2020) 104725
flushing, while blackwater is transported to an anaerobic digestion
plant. Together with organic MSW, blackwater is fermented into biogas,
which is converted in a combined heat and power plant (CHP) into
electricity and heat.
4.3.1. Water and wastewater management
Drinking water provision, including water losses and infrastructure,
will not be affected by the integrated management system. However, a
reduction in the need for potable water is expected. Decentralized water
treatment systems with water re-use, like in the Netherlands, experi-
ence a reduction of about 50% (Hernández Leal et al., 2007). In order to
be conservative, in this study a reduction of 30% in drinking water
consumption is assumed, resulting in a freshwater demand of 109 L/
(p*d).
Of the generated wastewater, following Fane (2013); Crook (2009),
and Finley et al. (2009) as well as Henze and Comeau (2008), about
70% is assigned as greywater; the rest as blackwater. The share of
greywater and blackwater in wastewater is assumed not to change in
the period under investigation.
Since no special technologies using small flushing volumes are
foreseen the initial concentration of blackwater is relatively low, i.e. 1%
total solids (TS). Therefore, a primary settling in the existing WWTP is
planned, to reach 3% TS concentration. The supernatant water col-
lected in this settling is treated with the greywater, representing 22% of
the total treated volume.
The treatment of greywater and recirculated wastewater from the
primary settling will take place in the existing aerated pond with se-
dimentation. By treating only the greywater fraction and the re-
circulated wastewater, the organic load is significantly reduced, from
60 to 34 g BOD/(PE*d) for pure greywater (DWA, 2017a), extending
the lifetime of the existing pond. Due to the lower nutrient load in
greywater (DWA, 2017b), no additional nitrogen or phosphorous re-
moval is required under the described conditions.
4.3.2. Anaerobic digestion
The composition of organic MSW can vary significantly (Deublein
M. Vergara-Araya, et al.
Fig. 4. Integrated water, waste and energy management system Note: Emissions are not shown.
and Steinhauer, 2008; Hartmann and Ahrring, 2005; Eisted and
Christensen, 2011; Zhang et al., 2007; Bouallagui et al., 2011; Faaji
et al., 1997). For this study, a dry matter (DM) content of 35% with
50% of fermentable volatile solids (VS) is assumed.
After local waste separation, assuming a recovery rate of 80%, the
organic fraction of the municipal solid waste collected in Curauma is
mixed with blackwater, which represents approx. 75% TS. The mixture
is then fed to the reactor. The mixture of blackwater and organic waste
will contain 4.2% DM – the blackwater significantly dilutes the organic
waste – and 78% volatile solids (VS).
Considering the characteristics of the feedstock, the wet (low-solids)
technology for anaerobic digestion is assumed in the model. Mesophilic
digesters (∼35 °C) with an Organic Loading Rate (OLR) up to 2 kg VS/
(m3*d) are typical for this purpose. A biogas yield of 0.97 Nm3 biogas/
kg VSremoved with a composition of 55% CH4 is assumed – typical figures
for wet digestion with wastewater sludge as feedstock (Tchobanoglus
2003). Possible increases in the biogas yield due to co-digestion are not
considered, so as not to overestimate biogas production. The methane
loss accounts for 1 g CH4/kg feed (TS) (Pipatti et al., 2006).
The produced digestate is used as a fertilizer and thus can substitute
industrially-produced fertilizer. In the digestate the average content of
nitrogen is 0.4% W/W (Pastorelli et al., 2013; Sogn et al., 2018). For the
ammonium nitrate-fertiliser a content of around 35% W/W N is as-
sumed, leading to a replacement rate of 87.5 kg digestate/kg fertilizer.
In the model the replacement is treated as a credit.
The anaerobic digestion (AD) plant demands electricity and heat.
The electricity required in the AD process is mainly for pumping and
mixing. Heat is required to heat up the feedstock to 35 °C, to heat the
anaerobic digesters and to maintain the desired mesophilic tempera-
ture. It is estimated that in the AD process 25% of the total produced
heat and 4.4% on average of the produced electricity are demanded.
4.3.3. Combined heat and power plant (CHP)
For the adjunct combined heat and power plant (CHP) an electrical
efficiency of 30% and a thermal efficiency of 45% (FAO, 2009) are
assumed. Taking into account the caloric value of methane (15 kW h/
kg), its density (0.716 kg/m3) and the methane content of biogas (55%),
1.49 kW h/m3 biogas electricity and 2.23 kW h/m3 biogas heat are
generated by the CHP.
4.3.4. Energy mix
The remaining electricity will partly substitute the electricity pro-
vided by the Chilean electricity grid. The remaining heat will replace all
the heat produced by energy carriers with the highest climate impacts,
6
Resources, Conservation & Recycling 156 (2020) 104725
i.e. LPG, kerosene, electricity and charcoal. Wood is only partially re-
placed.
5. Results and discussion
The demand for electricity is driven by population growth and by
the varying per-capita demand, which are identical in both scenarios. In
both scenarios Curauma’s demand for electricity will increase to about
59,900 MW h in 2030, compared to about 19,200 MW h in 2015 (Fig. 5;
left scale). In the Integrated System more than one-tenth of the elec-
tricity demand can be satisfied by biogas, although the share declines
over time from 19.0% (2015) to 13.3% (2030) (Fig. 5; right scale). The
increasing availability of blackwater and organic MSW is outmatched
by the increasing per-capita demand for electricity coupled with the
population growth. In the Conventional System no biogas is produced.
A slightly different picture can be observed in the case of heat. In
both scenarios the heat demand is only determined by the growth of the
population, resulting in an increase from about 8900 MW h in 2015 to
about 18,200 MW h in 2030 Fig. 5; left scale). But the share of biogas-
based heat is around 50% in the Integrated System (Fig. 5; right scale),
whereas in the Conventional System no biogas is produced. In contrast
to electricity production, the share of biogas-produced heat is slightly
increased, from 48.0% (2015) to 50.8% (2030). The increasing share is
the result of a higher availability of organic MSW and sludge to be
treated at the AD plant; meanwhile the heat demand remains constant
per household.
The relevance of biogas-based electricity and heat depends crucially
on the accessibility of blackwater and organic MSW, the per-capita
demand for electricity and heat and the growth of the population. A
Fig. 5. Electricity and heat demand and the share of biogas at electricity and
heat production in the scenario Integrated System.
M. Vergara-Araya, et al.
Table 1
LCIA results for Conventional and Integrated Systems.
Impact category Unit
3 6
Resource depletion Water Depletion Potential (WD) m *10
Fossil Depletion Potential (FD) t oil-Eq*103
Metal Depletion Potential (MD) t Fe-Eq*103
Effects on water Freshwater Ecotoxicity (FEcox) t 1.4-DCB-Eq *103
Freshwater Eutrophication (FE) t P-Eq
Effects on climate Climate Change (CC) t CO2-Eq*103
Other effects Human Toxicity (HTox) t 1.4-DCB-Eq *103
Terrestrial Acidification (TA) t SO2-Eq
Note: C: Conventional System; I: Integrated System.
decline of available blackwater or organic MSW by 10% would reduce
the share of biogas at electricity production by about 8.2% (blackwater)
and by 2.2% (organic MSW); in case of heat the shares will decline by
7.9% (blackwater) and 2.1% (organic waste). Organic MSW contributes
to biogas production by 19.2% in 2015 and by 18.1% in 2030. A 10%
higher per-capita demand for electricity and heat would cause a decline
in the share of biogas at electricity generation by 9.0%, and at heat
production by 9.1%. A 10% larger population in 2030 would cause the
share of biogas at electricity production to decline by 1.3%; but there
will no impact on the share of biogas production. The larger population
will induce a higher demand for energy, but will also generate more
blackwater and organic waste.
In both scenarios the demand for electricity and heat is identical,
but this is not so in the cases of water demand, fossil and metal re-
sources. The technical shape of the system under investigation de-
termines the outcome in respect to these resources: the demand for
these resources is generally lower in the Integrated System compared to
the Conventional System. Irrespective of this, the resource demand in
2030 is always higher than the one in 2015 (s. Table 1), which results
mainly from the growth of the population.
The implementation of the Integrated System reduces the Water
Depletion Potential (WD) in 2015 by 51.7% and in 2030 by 51.4%
compared to the Conventional System, which would realize in 2015
2.45 m3 * 106 WD and in 2030 5.02 m3 * 106 WD (Table 1). Drinking
water production contributes more than 99% to the reduced WD
(Fig. 6a)). The WD of the Integrated System in 2030 is 0.1% lower than
in the Conventional System in 2015 (Table 1).
The Fossil Depletion Potential (FD) of the Integrated Systems ac-
counts in 2015 for 60.4% of 6.67 t oil-Eq*103 achieved by the
Conventional System and in 2030 for 68.4% of 17.33 t oil-Eq*103 rea-
lized by the Conventional System (Table 1). It stems mainly from the
changed mix of electricity and heat, favouring biogas: the share of re-
duced emissions due to the changed energy mix at the reduced FD
equals 89.9% (2015) and 90.8% (2030). All other changes, such as the
reduced drinking water supply (share 7.9% (2015) and 7.3% (2030))
and the reduced demand for fossil fuels for collection and treatment of
MSW due to waste separation (share 2.0% (2015) and 1.8% (2030)) are
of minor relevance (Fig. 6b)).
A different pattern explains the lower Metal Depletion Potential
(MD) of the Integrated System: in 2015 the MD of the Integrated System
is 23.7% lower, and in 2030 22.1% lower, than in the Conventional
System, which achieves in 2015 0.32 t Fe-Eq*103 and in 2030 0.75 t Fe-
Eq*103 (Table 1). Although the changed energy mix is still relevant,
contributing to the reduced MD by 23.9% (2015) and 24.8% (2030),
other drivers are also noteworthy. These are drinking water provision
(share 26.3% (2015) and 24.8% (2030)), and wastewater treatment
(share 24.4% (2015) and 24.7% (2030)) (Fig. 6c)).
Given the environmental impacts of constructing the required heat
and gas grids, the advantages of the Integrated System could be lower.
However, a comparable study focussing on an existing neighbourhood
in Germany, indicates that the environmental impacts of construction
7
Resources, Conservation & Recycling 156 (2020) 104725
2015 2030
C I C I
2.45 1.18 5.02 2.44
5.11 3.09 14.14 9.67
0.32 0.25 0.75 0.59
1.83 1.03 3.63 2.00
11.68 9.19 29.71 23.95
20.93 14.03 54.05 39.00
10.50 6.79 26.32 18.14
92.34 252.59 330.16 608.14
are with one exception – metal depletion potential – low. Including
impacts of construction will not reverse the above presented findings
(Friedrich et al., 2020).
Of the five environment-related impact categories analysed, the
water-related environmental impacts, as well as Human Toxicity and
Climate Change, show the same patterns as the resource-related ones:
with a growing population the environmental impacts are considerably
increased (Table 1). But the environmental impacts of the Integrated
System are lower than those in the Conventional System.
The Freshwater Ecotoxicity (FEcox) of the Integrated System is
43.6% (2015) and 45.0% (2030) lower than the FEcox of the
Conventional System, which achieves in 2015 1.83 t 1.4-DCB-Eq*103
and in 2030 3.63 t 1.4-DCB*103 (Table 1). The main cause for the
comparably low FEcox of the Integrated System is the drop in the col-
lected and at the sanitary landfill treated MSW by 47.3%, which ac-
counts for 94.4% (2015) and 93.8% (2030) of the entire difference of
FEcox between the systems (Fig. 7a)). The impacts of all other factors,
such as changed energy mix and reduced drinking water production,
are negligible.
In respect to Freshwater Eutrophication (FE) the differences be-
tween the systems are equal to 21.3% (2015) and 19.4% (2030),
whereby the Conventional System causes in 2015 11.68 t P-Eq and in
2030 29.71 t P-Eq. (Table 1). In contrast to FEcox the lower FE of the
Integrated System is forced mainly by the changed energy mix, due to
the reduced share of fossil energy carriers. The share of the impacts of
the changed energy mix at the lower FE is 88.1% (2015) and 89.6%
(2030), followed by the impacts of the reduced drinking water pro-
duction (share: 11.2% (2015) and 9.9% (2030)) (Fig. 7b)).
The technical shape of the Integrated System leads also to a sig-
nificantly lower Human Toxicity (HTox) compared to the Conventional
System, which achieves in 2015 10.50 t 1.4-DCB-Eq *103 and in 2030
26.32 t 1.4-DCB-Eq *103: −35.7% (2015) and −31.1% (2030)
(Table 1). The lower impacts on HTox are equally forced by the reduced
collection and treatment of MSW (share of the impacts at the lower
HTox is 54.1% (2015) and 50.9% (2030)), and the impacts of the
changed energy mix (share: 40.7% (2015) and 44.1% (2030)) (Fig. 7c)).
These two factors are also the driving forces for the reduced
greenhouse gas emissions, which determine the category Climate
Change (CC). The emission level of the Integrated System is 33.0%
(2015) and 27.8% (2030) below that of the Conventional System,
where the emission level equals to 20.93 t CO2-Eq*103 (2015) and
54.05 t CO2-Eq*103, respectively (Table 1). The dominant factor is the
lower share of fossil energy carriers (share at lower CC 65.6% (2015)
and 68.2% (2030)). The reduced collection and treatment requirements
of MSW contribute to the reduced climate-relevant emissions by 33.6%
(2015) and 31.4% (2030) (Fig. 7d)).
Terrestrial Acidification (TA) is the only category where the impacts
of the Integrated System are significantly higher than in the
Conventional System, which realizes in 2015 92.34 t SO2-Eq and in
2030 265.09 t SO2-Eq: +173.5% (2015) and +129.4% (2030)
(Table 1). This difference is related to the use of biogas for energy
M. Vergara-Araya, et al.
Fig. 6. Resource depletion impact categories.
provision (Fig. 8). This process, although more environmentally-
friendly in most categories, is not exempt from environmental impacts.
Ammonia is identified as the largest contributor to this impact category
(between 68% and 69% of the total) and is attributed to ammonia
produced in the liquid digestate and emitted during the digestate sto-
rage, as well as the emissions of acid gases in the life cycle of the grid
electricity used (Whiting and Azapagic, 2014; Fusi et al., 2016). The
same effect of larger Terrestrial Acidification impacts in heat and power
cogeneration with biogas has been reported in other studies, indicating
an acidification potential 25 times higher than using heat from a nat-
ural gas-operated CHP (Whiting and Azapagic, 2014).
Whereas the resource and environmental impacts are not affected
noteworthy by a decrease of blackwater and organic waste availability,
a changed energy demand and population growth could have a con-
siderable influence. A decline of available blackwater or organic MSW
by 10% would have no impact on the reviewed impact categories in the
Conventional System while some minor changes can be observed for all
impact categories in the Integrated System. Reducing the availability of
blackwater would cause higher resource demands and emissions be-
tween 0.03% (WD; 2015) and 1.6% (FD; 2015); the impacts of a de-
creased availability of organic waste are even smaller, varying between
0.01% (WD; 2015 and 2030) and 0.5% (FD; 2015).
A 10% higher per-capita demand for electricity and heat would
cause an increase across all impact categories and both Systems ranging
from 0.1% (WD; 2015) to 9.9% (FD; 2015). With one exception – TA –
the highest impacts can be observed in 2030 in the Integrated System,
the lowest in 2015 in the Conventional System. A comparable pattern
emerges in case of a 10% larger population; but in the Conventional
System the effects across all impact categories are slightly higher: in
2015 + 2.2% and in 2030 + 1.4%. In the Integrated System the effects
of a larger population are smaller: in 2015 they vary between 18.1%
(WD and FE) and 19.7% (MD); in 2030 they range between 10.1% (WD,
8
Resources, Conservation & Recycling 156 (2020) 104725
FE, HTox, TA) and 11.2% (MD). A detail overview over the changes on
all impact categories is given in SI.
The reviewed variables are mainly influenced by individual beha-
viour, which could be affected by political decisions.
Summarizing, the establishment of an Integrated System leads, with
one exception, to lower resource- and environment-related impacts.
The differences between the analysed systems are quite noteworthy in
all investigated impact categories. The advantages of the Integrated
System scenario in respect to the analysed impact categories decrease
over time if the main reason for the advantage is the changed energy
mix. As described above, biogas production is limited by available
blackwater and organic MSW. An increasing per-capita demand for
energy could outmatch the increasing availability of the mentioned
feedstock. If collection and treatment of MSW, drinking water provi-
sion, or wastewater treatment are the dominant factors for reduced
levels of emissions, then the gain of the Integrated System is not af-
fected over time.
6. Concluding remarks
The presented analysis gives some indication of the possible en-
vironment- and resource-related benefits (and disadvantages) of im-
plementing an integrated water, waste and energy management system
under the conditions of Curauma. The findings are based on a com-
prehensive approach, i.e. on a process-based MFA analysis, but consider
mainly the impacts of flows. Impacts of construction expenses, which
would be necessary to implement the Integrated System, such as in-
house pipelines to separate wastewater at its source, as well as a grid
system for heat or gas transport within the settlement, are not included.
Other potential benefits, such as using heated greywater as an energy
source, are also not considered. The main reason for this is the lack of
reliable data. Additional research is therefore needed, to get a better
M. Vergara-Araya, et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling 156 (2020) 104725

Fig. 7. Water-related environmental impact categories, Human Toxicity and Climate Change.

picture of the entire environment- and resource-related impacts.
Although the focus of the study is on environment- and resource-
related impacts, the opportunities to implement a new system depend
also on the expected costs, and the acceptance of the users; with the
Integrated System scenario new behavioural pattern are required, such
as separating solid waste at home. The implementation of an Integrated
System also requires re-organizing the provision of water and energy, as
well as the treatment of wastewater and waste, which are currently
operated by four different organizations. Thus, it is not only the entire
costs of establishing the Integrated System which could be crucial, but
also the allocation of the costs (and benefits) to different stakeholders.
Using Curauma as a case study, the findings are specific to the
conditions of that settlement. The valuation of the different advantages
of an Integrated System will vary according to climate, and economic
and cultural conditions, amongst others. For example, in semi-arid or
arid regions the focus will lay more on water-related impacts, whereas
in humid regions this could be of minor relevance. Furthermore, in
cases where the system is installed in settlements with existing waste-
water treatment plants, the environmental and economic costs of in-
vestment have to be balanced with the environmental and societal
benefits – which could differ considerably between regions. If a sepa-
rate flow system is integrated in a solid waste collection and treatment

Fig. 8. Terrestrial Acidification.

9
M. Vergara-Araya, et al.
system, additional benefits could be realized, because e.g. solid waste
without the organic fraction is easier to treat (Bilitewski et al., 2018).
Additional research is necessary to better understand the relevance of
site-specific impacts for the entire findings.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Mónica Vergara-Araya: Methodology, Investigation, Formal ana-
lysis, Writing - original draft, Writing - review & editing. Helmut Lehn:
Conceptualization, Writing - review & editing. Witold-Roger
Poganietz: Conceptualization, Methodology, Formal analysis, Writing -
original draft, Writing - review & editing.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influ-
ence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgement
We would like to thank the reviewers for their helpful comments
and suggestions. The authors received no external support for this work.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary material related to this article can be found, in the
online version, at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2020.104725.
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