Water-Energy Nexus 3 (2020) 110–116

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Water-Energy Nexus
CHINESE ROOTS
GLOBAL IMPACT
journal homepage: www.keaipublishing.com/en/journals/water-energy-nexus/

Opportunities and challenges of electrochemical water treatment

integrated with renewable energy at the water-energy nexus
Arkadeep Kumar a,b,⇑, Shu-Yuan Pan c
a
Energy Technologies Area, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720, United States
b
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, United States
c
Department of Bioenvironmental Systems Engineering, National Taiwan University, Taipei 10617, Taiwan, ROC

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Global challenges of reliable energy and clean water presently require concerted approaches in water-
Received 30 September 2019 energy nexus. Electrochemical methods for water treatment have gathered attraction because of several
Revised 12 February 2020 advantages, such as scalable, modular operations, promising distributed systems, and high energy effi-
Accepted 31 March 2020
ciency. These advantages of electrochemical methods over other water treatment systems make possible
Available online 21 April 2020
to use renewable energy such as photovoltaic solar cells, which might be intermittent in operation but
produce enough energy for electrochemical systems. In this communication, we discuss four electro-
Keywords:
chemical systems (i.e., electrocoagulation, capacitive deionization, electrodialysis, and electrodeioniza-
Desalination
Electrocoagulation
tion), powered with photovoltaic systems, for water treatment. We also critically examine the
Capacitive deionization opportunities and challenges in integration of such electrochemical desalination systems with renewable
Electrodialysis energy for future research in addressing water-energy nexus.
Electrodeionization Ó 2020 The Authors. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi Communications Co., Ltd.
Solar energy This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-
Solar cells nd/4.0/).
Renewable energy
Water
Energy
Nexus
Electrochemical

1. Introduction approach, since the interrelation of components of a system and

Global challenges such as climate change and growth of popu-
lation will lead to severe shortages of resources such as food,
energy and water (Baker, 2019). The problem disproportionately
affects the people in lower-income countries of our world, with
the poorest among them being worst affected among everyone
(Vörösmarty et al., 2000). Hence, there is a critical need to design
and develop affordable solutions that ensure reliability of critical
resources by understanding the nexus of food-energy-water
resources. The United Nations developed the Sustainable Develop-
ment Goals (SDGs) in 2016, where several goals covered the impor-
tance of food, water, and energy sustainability. Several research
initiatives have started in identifying the flows of water, energy,
and food – and how the interlinking of these factors could offer
fresh insights into developing reliable systems (Urban, 2017). A
key driver for realizing these technologies is a systems-thinking
⇑ Corresponding author at: Energy Technologies Area, Lawrence Berkeley
National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720, United States.
E-mail address: arkadeepkumar@gmail.com (A. Kumar).
addressing challenges in integration would determine the success
of the technology (Retamal et al., 2010). New water-treatment
technologies equipped with modern controls and monitoring,
involving digital methods and internet of things (IoT) are also driv-
ing energy-efficient approaches (Kumar, 2018). It is also important
to design policies from all levels to overcome the challenges, and
government initiatives are critical (Argaw, 2001).
Water stress throughout the world has been increasing, specif-
ically in areas of high population growth as tracked by data across
time. Fig. 1 shows the changing landscape of worldwide renewable
freshwater resources from 1962 to 2014 (Urban, 2017). The scale is
in cubic meters per person per year by country. Thus, the regional
water scarcity within individual countries is not reflected in the
map. The legend shows shift from dark blue to dark red as the shift
from availability of water, to scarcity, and vulnerability. The map
depicts how many regions have now shifted from available water,
towards vulnerability – such as parts of Asia, Africa, North America,
South America, and Australia. Some of the countries such as China
and India have now water stress and scarcity (marked by red) in
2014, compared to earlier situation in 1962.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wen.2020.03.006
2588-9125/Ó 2020 The Authors. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi Communications Co., Ltd.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
 A. Kumar, S.-Y. Pan / Water-Energy Nexus 3 (2020) 110–116 111

Fig. 1. Change of available freshwater over the world from 1962 to 2014, adapted from (Urban, 2017) and data from World Bank report on Renewable internal freshwater
resources per capita (cubic meters). https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/ER.H2O.INTR.PC?view=chart.

Water and energy is linked by several methods (as shown in

Fig. 2); one example being the huge quantities of water used for
cooling in thermal electric power plants (Pan et al., 2018), and in
waste-to-energy applications (Pan et al., 2015). In recent years,
there is a huge interest in fit-for-purpose solutions as many of
the water demands are for industry and agriculture, where non-
potable water is sufficient for the application (Pan et al., 2018).
The water characteristics need not be cleanest drinking water stan-
dards, but enough for the purpose (Muller, 2010). For example,
high salinity of the water is not good for agriculture as the salinity
causes salt burns for crops such as fruits and vegetables, and food
grains (Connor et al., 2012). Agriculture and industries are the
major reasons, for higher demands of water requirement in future,
with increasing stress on resources and food production, along
with the increasing world population (World Health
Organization, 2019).
Electrochemical technologies for water treatment could provide Fig. 2. Nexus of energy and water for different purposes shown with interdepen-
huge potential for the optimization of the overall energy efficiency dencies and linkages. Adapted from https://voxglobal.com/2011/03/the-energy-
of water facilities (Chaplin, 2019). A number of electrochemical water-nexus-an-emerging-risk/.
112 A. Kumar, S.-Y. Pan / Water-Energy Nexus 3 (2020) 110–116
processes have been used in wastewater treatment, such as in
space station (Samsonov et al., 1994), treatment of textile-
industry wastewater by electrocoagulation (EC) (Valero et al.,
2008), and removal of harmful contaminants such as arsenic
(Amrose, 2013). With the increase in world demands for energy,
as well as water – the key emerging technology in water treatment
innovation is combining renewable energy sources with energy-
efficient water treatment methods. In this aspect, energy-efficient
methods such as electrocoagulation, ion-removal processes such
as electrodeionization, and electrodialysis, and brackish water
desalination by capacitive deionization are discussed in this paper.
In this communication, we discuss several electrochemical-
based technologies at the water-energy nexus, which could imbibe
the new demands of water treatment – being distributed, modular,
portable, and energy-efficient, rather than capital-intensive, large-
scale installations, which are energy-hungry, and not achievable to
meet the increasing demands of future. We briefly illustrate the
advances of several promising electrochemically-based water tech-
nologies, including electrocoagulation (EC), capacitive deionization
(CDI), electrodialysis (ED), and electrodeionization (EDI). We also
provide several priority research directions for the
electrochemically-based water technologies incorporated with
renewable energy, especially photovoltaic (PV) solar cells.
2. PV-based water technologies at the intersection of water-
energy nexus
2.1. Electrocoagulation (EC) for removal of contaminants
EC could effectively produce in-situ coagulants in form of iron
oxides or metal oxides, from sacrificial anode, to capture contami-
nants (such as arsenic) while treating water (Amrose, 2013). The
advantages of EC are reducing the chemical coagulants supply
chain, in-situ generated coagulants, on-demand, in the correct
amount as needed for the contaminant level. Thus, highly-
tailored and adaptive systems can be built using electrocoagulation
for particular contaminants. With energy requirement being low in
electrocoagulation (depending on the size of the system, and
amount of water treated), energy-efficient renewable energy sources
provide excellent avenues of making energy-efficient water treat-
ment a reality. Electro-oxidation coupled with EC was used in
PV-powered systems for treating wastewater efficiently (García-
García et al., 2015). PV-enabled EC has also been used for pretreat-
ment of wastewater before fluoride removal (Palahouane et al.,
2015). Even without batteries, EC systems with direct current has
been used for treatment of textile-industry wastewater (Valero
et al., 2008). Thus, EC in combination with PV systems would be
a prime candidate for water-energy systems of the future.
2.2. Capacitive deionization (CDI) for desalination of brackish water
One promising way of generating new freshwater supplies from
currently unused water sources using new energy-efficient electro-
chemical methods compared to energy-intensive methods of the
past is capacitive deionization of brackish water. This potentially
new source of water is widely dispersed and available low salinity
brackish water. Brackish water is usually defined as the water with
a salinity less than 4 g/L (lower than seawater at 35 gm/L), which
can be effectively desalinated using low-energy methods (Urban,
2017; Oren, 2008; Tsai et al., 2019). Brackish water can be found
in many areas around the world close to applications with high
demand of water, such as agriculture and industry (Ahdab et al.,
2018). Therefore, utilization of brackish water could provide a
new source of freshwater to address the growing water demands
(Yu et al., 2016). Brackish water desalination using CDI has
emerged as the energy- and cost-efficient technology for low or
moderate salt content compared to other pressure-driven meth-
ods, such as reverse osmosis (RO) (Oren, 2008). CDI consists of
two steps: (1) Ion-electrosorption or charging, which immobilizes
ions in porous electrodes and results in deionized water, and (2)
Ion-desorption, where ions are released into a saturated brine solu-
tion, and electrodes are regenerated. From the classical work in CDI
which started years ago in the 1960s (Caudle, 1966), CDI methods
have evolved, to include ion-exchange thin membrane (IEM) barri-
ers in front of the electrodes (Biesheuvel and Van der Wal, 2010),
making the process more efficient.
The energy demands for an efficient brackish water CDI are
lower than RO, which is a key advantage. Moreover, the cyclic
operation mode of CDI leads to smart energy recovery methods,
such as buck-boost convertor for direct energy recovery (Kang
et al., 2016), or constant current conditions (Długołe˛cki and van
der Wal, 2013). In CDI, carbon electrodes desalinate brackish water
under the influence of an electric field, with the energy stored dur-
ing charging step for salt removal can be recovered during the dis-
charging step. Fig. 3 adapted from Chen et al. (2019) shows one
example of the process that utilizes the coupling of a supercapac-
itor with electrochemical cell, where the energy recovery system,
is based on four-switch buck-boost convertor with variable fre-
quency which alternately transfers energy between the CDI elec-
trochemical cell and attached supercapacitor (Chen et al., 2019).
Since the energy requirements are lower than other desalina-
tion processes (Oren, 2008), the energy demands of CDI can be
met by renewable energy sources, such as photovoltaic (PV) solar
cell, as shown in Fig. 4. Coupling a CDI unit with PV makes the
water desalination system self-sufficient in energy demands, and
could be deployed in remote off-grid locations (Mehrabian-Nejad
et al., 2017). Distributed, modular CDI have been combined with
solar cell modules in recent reported research (Wu, 2017), with
new design methodologies being developed for integrating
energy-recovery based PV systems with batteries for energy stor-
age (Tan et al., 2018).
2.3. Electrodialysis (ED) for desalination of brackish water
Another method of electrochemical desalination of water is
Electrodialysis (ED), which functions on the principle of separating
salt ions from saline water through ion-exchange membranes
under the influence of electric field. When salt water comes in,
oppositely charged ions get separated into corresponding positive
and negative electrodes, passing through ion-exchange mem-
branes, and desalinated water is the output. In an ED stack, there
is a series of anion and cation exchange membranes arranged in
alternating pattern between two electrodes, which can handle lar-
ger volumes of water required for the purpose (Strathmann, 2010).
Similar to CDI, the ED process has the advantage of close to
demand and source of water. The advantage of ED systems over
other membrane systems (such as RO) is critical for applications
requiring low-maintenance because of comparatively robust mem-
brane systems in ED. The electricity costs for ED are much lower
than RO, which makes ED systems feasible in off-grid locations
such as rural India with alternate forms of energy such as renew-
able energy. Research has found PV-powered ED systems (PV-ED)
to be appropriate for community scale systems with feasibility
studies (Nayar, 2017), as well as field testing of PV-enabled Elec-
trodialysis system in rural India (He et al., 2018). Hence, PV-ED
(as shown in representative schematic in Fig. 5) should be consid-
ered as a viable treatment method, because of reduced energy
requirements, stronger membrane components resulting in higher
lifetimes of membranes and requirement of less pre-treatment
(Wright, 2014). Some other possible variations of ED using PV solar
cells include direct connection behavior without batteries (Ortiz
 A. Kumar, S.-Y. Pan / Water-Energy Nexus 3 (2020) 110–116 113

Fig. 3. Cyclic operation of the capacitive deionization allows recovery of energy. Schematic from Chen et al. (2019).

Fig. 4. Schematic of diagram for CDI system utilizing photovoltaic energy (PV) by solar cells, and energy storage systems such as batteries.

Fig. 5. Integration of solar cell systems along with electrodialysis (ED) systems. Schematic of Electrodialysis (ED) system electrode stack adapted from Urban (Urban, 2017).

et al., 2007). However, the ED systems also have several drawbacks,
such as not being able to handle larger molecules, and limited by
fouling of membranes, which are topics of active research in this
area.
2.4. Electrodeionization (EDI) for ion separation
EDI combines ion-exchange membranes along with resins for
efficient ion-removal without use of chemicals. There is great
potential in using renewable energy sources, (which might be
intermittent such as PV solar cells) along with electrodeionization.
A resin-wafer based method of EDI showed high productivity along
with energy-efficiency (Pan et al., 2017). Introduction of resin
enhanced the energy efficiency in the electrodialysis stack as found
by researchers (Zhang et al., 2015). Thus, PV-enabled electrodialy-
sis models could be used for implementing electrodeionization in
future (Nayar, 2017).
3. Perspectives and prospects: priority research directions
Electrochemical methods combined with renewable energy
sources offer new solutions to addressing energy-efficient water
treatment, especially for desalination of brackish water at remote
regions. Table 1 summarizes the salient points of the technologies
for affordable electrochemical treatment of water to generate new
sources of water for use, from unused water resources. Electro-
chemical desalination by CDI, ED, and EDI can be run on renewable
energy technologies, such as PV solar cells. They have advantages
of being more efficient in energy requirement and membrane
maintenance compared to well-established RO systems. However,
these desalination technologies have some limitations such as
salinity levels for CDI, and pre-treatment necessary to avoid mem-
brane fouling for both ED and membrane-based CDI. Some varia-
tions of the CDI electrode materials utilizing passive salt uptake
using ion-exchange resins have been proven in lab-scale results
(Tsai et al., 2019).
For other water treatment methods such as electrocoagulation
for wastewater treatment, and electro-deionization method for
desalination, low energy requirements would make them appro-
priate candidates to be paired with sustainable renewable energy
generating PV solar cells, or combined with energy recovery
devices to run independent of grid power. Overall, electrochemical
water treatment methods hold promise in being combined with
renewable energy sources such as PV solar cells for future
energy-efficient water treatment in the water-energy nexus.
Another factor to consider integrating the water-energy technolo-
gies using renewable energy sources such as PV solar cells is solv-
114 A. Kumar, S.-Y. Pan / Water-Energy Nexus 3 (2020) 110–116
Table 1
Comparison of the technologies, advantages, disadvantages, and opportunities.
Water treatment Types of alternate energy sources
methods
Capacitive Photovoltaic solar cells (Tan et al.,
deionization 2018);
(CDI) Supercapacitor systems (Chen et al.,
2019)
Electrodialysis (ED) Photovoltaic cells (He et al., 2018), other
possibly intermittent power sources,
wind power (Veza et al., 2004)
Electrocoagulation Photovoltaic cells direct power (Valero
(EC) et al., 2008), Fenton reactions, and oxi-
dation coupled with sustainable solar
cells (García-García et al., 2015)
Electrodeionization Photovoltaics (Pan et al., 2017)
(EDI)
ing the intermittency of energy source depending on amount of
sunlight, which varies with the weather and time of the year.
Research efforts in energy storage systems such as batteries has
led to some improvements in solving the intermittency problems.
More research is necessary in energy storage to drive down cost
and provide reliable source of energy on-demand for water treat-
ment. The current scenario with rapid development of electro-
chemical methods (Chaplin, 2019), and affordable silicon solar
cells for PVs (Kumar and Melkote, 2018), has made the combina-
tion of sustainable renewable energy with electrochemical meth-
ods for energy-efficient water treatment a promising possibility
(Pan et al., 2020).
Overcoming the challenges and capitalizing on the opportuni-
ties is required to make these systems adopted for widespread
use. Future directions of these electrochemical methods for desali-
nation would concentrate on the following directions:
(1) Sustainable manufacturing methods including more
material-efficient (less wastage) and energy-efficient addi-
tive manufacturing, and environmentally friendly materials
for fabrication of electrode stack systems (Tsai et al., 2019),
high-performance materials such as innovative carbon-
fiber based composites (Chen et al., 2019), and associated
renewable energy systems such as material-efficient thin sil-
icon wafers for solar cells, including cheaper multi-
crystalline silicon (Kumar et al., 2017), intelligent material
use (Kumar and Melkote, 2017), efficient manufacturing
(Kumar et al., 2016), higher productivity (Kumar and
Melkote, 2018), environmental friendly life-cycle of photo-
voltaics (Kumar and Melkote, 2018), reducing fracture by
improved design (Kumar and Melkote, 2020), reducing
waste (Kumar et al., 2016), monitoring quality of silicon
solar cells (Skenes et al., 2018), reducing residual stresses
(Kumar et al., 2016), all leading to affordable solar cells
(ITRPV, 2017).
(2) New materials for electrode materials for capacitive deion-
ization electrodes, including abundant earth materials, to
improve the desalination efficiency (Pan et al., 2020), with
active research on-going about resin-composite electrodes
(Tsai et al., 2019), aerogels (Xu et al., 2008), highly porous
carbon (Hou et al., 2015), and new carbon materials (Liu
et al., 2017), with additive manufacturing processes
Advantages Disadvantages Opportunities
Energy efficient Would not work for high salinity New materials being developed for
method for low- water (Urban, 2017); increasing capacities of salt
salinity water (Oren, Low flow rates compared to some removal, energy recovery methods
2008); other systems (Oren, 2008) for alternate charging-discharging
Option of using with
energy storage bat-
tery systems (Tan
et al., 2018)
More robust Works well with low molecular Development of integration
membrane systems weight salts (Strathmann, 2010), mechanisms of energy systems
(Strathmann, 2010) pretreatment necessary to avoid coupled with electrodialysis
fouling of membranes (Nayar, 2017)
In-situ coagulants for Might need some pre-treatment Development of methods to reduce
variety of methods (Palahouane et al., 2015), fouling of electrode systems
contaminant removal possibilities of fouling (Den et al.,
(García-García et al., 2006)
2015)
Ion-exchange resins Depend on type of ion-exchange Development of fouling resistant
enhance electro resins (Zhang et al., 2015), fouling of EDI stacks
charge separation membranes (Pan et al., 2017)
(Pan et al., 2017)
(Kumar, 2018). Research in developing high energy-
intensity electrocoagulation system without fouling of elec-
trodes/passivation of the active materials is of interest and a
future priority direction (Müller et al., 2019).
(3) Overcoming the challenges of intermittent generation of
power by renewable energy sources such as PV solar cells
need to be overcome, with better energy storage methods,
for complete self-sufficiency in operation of such integrated
systems (Nayar, 2017).
Thus, the priority research directions for realizations of electro-
chemical methods in energy-efficient water treatment involves
development of (a) advanced smart manufacturing processes
(Kumar, 2018), (b) materials for better electrode materials (Chen
et al., 2019; Tsai et al., 2019) (c) better battery for energy storage
(Lopez et al., 2019). Apart from photovoltaics as energy sources,
other methods of sustainable energy sources such as wind energy
are also being explored (Veza et al., 2004). With the advent of mod-
ern control methods, and industry 4.0 (Shrouf et al., 2014), use of
internet of things (IoT) is also poised to become one of the impor-
tant developments with the availability of affordable sensors and
monitoring systems (Kumar, 2018). Overall, the development of
energy-efficient water treatment has huge potential with the
renewable energy integrated electrochemical methods discussed
in this paper.
4. Conclusions
In this communication, we discuss energy-efficient electro-
chemical technologies for desalination, namely capacitive deion-
ization (CDI), electrodialysis (ED), electrodeionization (EDI), and
water treatment by electrocoagulation (EC). The integration of
these electrochemical desalination systems with renewable
energy, such as PV solar cells – provide sustainable pathways for
approaching the water-energy nexus for future applications. While
recent research has made progress on making these technologies
viable – more research and field experiments are required to make
these technologies come to scale, and adopted worldwide. Some of
the possible future research questions to pursue include sustain-
able advanced manufacturing processes, better material systems
for electrodes of electrochemical water treatment , integration
 A. Kumar, S.-Y. Pan / Water-Energy Nexus 3 (2020) 110–116
schemes with better methods of energy storage, and fouling con-
trol for electrochemical systems.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
Arkadeep Kumar acknowledges the ITRI-Rosenfeld Postdoctoral
Fellowship at Energy Technologies Area at Lawrence Berkeley
National Lab from Industrial Technology Research Institute (ITRI)
of Taiwan. We acknowledge support from Professor Ashok Gadgil
and Dr. Andrew Haddad for useful discussions about research.
We acknowledge support from U.S. Department of Energy (DOE)
U.S.-China Clean-Energy Research Center’s CERC-WET project
(Grant No. DE-IA0000018, https://cerc-wet.berkeley.edu/). Shu-
Yuan Pan appreciates the Ministry of Science and Technology
(MOST) of Taiwan (ROC) under Grant Number MOST
108-2636-M-002-012.
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