CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF
LITERATURE
 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.1 Introduction

An extensive review of literature is an important aspect which guides the researcher in

identifying the gap in the related field of study. This chapter discusses the research works
done in the past, which includes an overview of hydrogen economy, and current status of
hydrogen energy research and development in India and world. For clear and easy
understanding, the review of literature is presented as follows:

2.2 Studies on Green Hydrogen

Reuel Shinnar (2003) it was being claimed that hydrogen will be a widely available, clean,
safe fuel. This article argued that such expectations are almost certainly illusory. Hydrogen,
like electricity, is not an energy resource but an energy carrier. It takes more energy to extract
hydrogen from water than burning the hydrogen can ever provide. There are also inevitable
losses in storage, transmission, and final mechanical or heating applications. The question
then turns on the efficiency—and safety—of the entire chain of conversion, from the energy
source (fossil, solar, or other) to the final use. Moreover, energy sources (preferably
renewable, for the long term) can be used for the direct creation of electricity, which can be
introduced into the existing grid without requiring a vast investment in a new hydrogen
distribution system. In addition, a hydrogen-based system would be unacceptably dangerous.
This report will present a detailed technical and economic analysis of the problems with the
proposed hydrogen economy and the advantages of some alternatives, principally electricity-
based.

Woodrow W. Clark II, and Jeremy Rifkin (2005) pointed out how the concerns of today,
including higher costs and technologies under development, can be turned into opportunities
for both the public and private sectors. It was not too long ago that the size of a mobile phone
was that of a briefcase, and then almost 10 years ago, the size of a shoe box. Today, they are
not only the size of a man's wallet but also often given away free to consumers who subscribe
or contract for wireless services. While hydrogen may not follow this technological
commercialization exactly, it certainly will be on a parallel path. International events and
local or regional security dictate that the time for a hydrogen must be close at hand.

Stephen A. Wells et al. (2011) presented a study on hydrogen economy, which concluded
that the consideration and an in depth understanding of technological and socioeconomic
issues are crucial and challenges related to these need to be addressed for a future hydrogen
energy economy.

Khizir Mahmud (2013) in his research focused on fuel cell and renewable hydrogen energy
to meet household energy demand. In his study he suggests the ways to bring in hydrogen
economy by the use of hydrogen and fuel cell in the minor household level. The study also
suggests that the use of hydrogen and fuel cell technology in household activities can help
bring down the energy crisis.

Ayhan Demirbas (2017) analysed future hydrogen economy and policies. The result of the
study suggests that hydrogen can be generated from carbon-neutral biomasses or carbon-free
energy sources such as electric, solar, and wind energy. Although the affordability of green
hydrogen is still a big question mark.

Zainul Abdin et al. (2019) demonstrated current state of the hydrogen value chain from
generation to end-use. Key hydrogen generation, storage and alternative hydrogen carriers are
reviewed. Hydrogen demand market and its transmission and distribution robustly discussed.
Hydrogen value chain and its associated challenges are illustrated. Different hydrogen cost
analysis models are critically reviewed.

T.R. Ayodele and J.L. Munda (2019) discussed potential and economic viability of green
hydrogen production by water electrolysis using wind energy resources in South Africa. The
major focus of study focus is on sustainable development, climate action and economic
growth as well as affordable energy and the major threat is that hydrogen is inflammable and
need efficient storage system.

Canan Acar and Ibrahim Dincer (2019) investigated different hydrogen production sources
and systems and some hydrogen storage options. Economic, environmental, social, and
technical performance and reliability of the selected options are compared in detail. Biomass,
geothermal, hydro, nuclear, solar, and wind are the selected hydrogen production sources;
biological, thermal, photonic, and electrical are the selected hydrogen production methods;
and chemical hydrides, compressed gas, cryogenic liquid, metal hydrides,
and nanomaterials are the selected hydrogen storage systems. The results show that solar has
the highest environmental performance (8/10) and the total average ranking (7.40/10),
nuclear has the lowest environmental performance (3/10), and geothermal has the lowest total
average ranking (4/10/10) among selected hydrogen production sources. Hydrogen
production systems’ comparison indicates that photonic options have the highest
environmental performance ranking (8/10), thermal options have the lowest environmental
performance ranking (5/10), electrical options have the highest average ranking (7.60/10),
and biological options have the lowest average ranking (4.80/10).

Biraj Singh Thapa and Bhola Thapa (2020) in his multi-disciplinary research at
Kathmandu University identifies potential barriers and opportunities for adoption of Green
Hydrogen as a future in Nepal. The research suggests that in the context of Nepal and the
Himalaya region, it is a high time to investigate the Hydropower-to-Hydrogen (H2H)
technology and prepare the region to enter the Green Hydrogen era. The result says that the
development of hydropower systems to produce Green Hydrogen for commercial
applications can change the value chain of hydropower development in the entire Himalayan
region.

Venkata Manikanta Medisetty (2020) presented an overview on the current status

of hydrogen energy research and development in India. The focus is shifted on renewable
energy sources like hydrogen, which is abundant in nature. This review examines the
continuous progress of hydrogen regarding production and storage techniques in India.

Rossana Scita, Pier Paolo Raimondi and Michel Noussan (2020) analysed the technical
and geopolitical implications of the future hydrogen economy. Investments in green hydrogen
technologies and projects have certainly increased over the last decade, but there still remains
a high number of unresolved issues, relating to technical challenges and geopolitical
implications. The conclusion is that the hydrogen is still far from becoming reality.

H. Ishaq and I. Dincer (2020) investigated three renewable energy based configurations
for hydrogen production. The renewable energy sources considered in this study are solar PV,
geothermal power generation and biomass gasification. The proposed study also presents a
novel configuration of biomass gasification for hydrogen production via multistage water gas
shift reactors. The solar PV and geothermal energy based hydrogen production systems are
analysed employing the EES software while the hydrogen production system employing
biomass gasification is simulated employing Aspen Plus.

Wu He, Qaiser Abbas et al. (2020) discussed the integration of renewable hydrogen in light-
duty vehicle: Nexus between energy security and low carbon emission resources. The study
employed a linear programming model to assess the potential of renewable hydrogen power
and its impact on electricity prices, measured the possible demand of wind-generated
renewable hydrogen for light-duty vehicles.
Abhinav Bhaskar, Mohsen Assadi and Homam Nikpey (2020) analysed decarbonization of
the iron and steel industry with direct reduction of iron ore with green hydrogen. Production
of iron and steel releases seven percent of the global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.
Incremental changes in present primary steel production technologies would not be sufficient
to meet the emission reduction targets thus application of green hydrogen come into play.

Monzure-Khoda Kazi et al. (2020) focused on the development of a strategic framework for
the design of a hydrogen supply chain network (HSCN) mainly investigating the potential of
industrial decarbonization and multi-sectors integration (i.e., transportation, energy, shipping)
via green hydrogen economy. The problem was formulated as a mixed integer linear
programming (MILP) and solved in GAMS/ IBM ILOG CPLEX 30.3.0 solver. The
applicability of the developed model was demonstrated using a base case Eco-industrial city
consisting of 10 diverse industrial portfolios targeting decarbonization by 5%. The solution
was able to find the optimal HSCN from the probable superstructure along with the optimal
sizing of green hydrogen production (453.03 MM kg/y), optimal water sources, optimal sinks
and the optimal amount of by-products generation. Furthermore, the multi-purpose model can
accomplish detailed techno-economic-environmental analysis for variable scenarios (e.g.,
variation in decarbonization target, liquid hydrogen demand, hydrogen production cost,
earnings from by-products) based on net present value.

Neda Akhlaghi and Ghasem Najafpour-Darzi (2020) provided a comprehensive review on

biological hydrogen production including organisms, type of substrates and their
concentrations, role of chemical addition, operation conditions such as temperature, pH, and
agitation, as well as illumination systems in case of light dependent processes. Further
discussions in this work comprise various configuration of integrated biological processes of
photolysis, dark, and photo-fermentation such as two component and three-component
systems.

Ujwal Sontakke and Santosh Jaju (2021) studied the conceptual overview on the potential
of the green hydrogen in India and importance of fuel cell technology development to grow
economically and provided a basis for further research on the feasibility, scalability and
economic viability of green hydrogen in India.

Joydev Manna et al. (2021) discussed opportunities for green hydrogen production in
petroleum refining and ammonia synthesis industries in India and assessed the potential for
installing solar photovoltaic (SPV) powered alkaline electrolysers for producing green
hydrogen in India.

Lakshmi Priya (2021) assessed India’s national hydrogen mission and prospects for
cooperation with GCC. The government of India has allocated funds for research and
development in hydrogen energy, and has launched the National Hydrogen Mission with a
focus on green hydrogen. India is participating in the Mission Innovation Challenge for clean
hydrogen and aims to accelerate the development of a global hydrogen market. Oman is
establishing a National Hydrogen Alliance to support the production, transport, and
utilization of clean hydrogen. India and the GCC share convergence of ideas and interests in
the hydrogen energy sector.

Asem Alzoubi (2021) focused on impact of renewable green hydrogen energy on

sustainability performance. The findings say that hydrogen has been utilized as a feedstock in
a number of important businesses for decades. Hydrogen might provide the "missing link" in
delivering large amounts of renewable energy to sectors like transportation, industry, and
existing natural gas consumption that would otherwise difficult to decarbonize through direct
electrification.

Huang Xiang et al. (2021) studied the output of renewable hydrogen from natural sources
like wind, solar, biomass, and geothermal power. It also provides rules and procedures in an
attempt to determine the current situation of Pakistan regarding the workability of upcoming
renewable energy plans. To achieve this, four main criteria were assessed and they are
economic, commercial, environmental, and social adoption. The method used in this research
is the Fuzzy Analytical Hierarchical Process (FAHP), where we used first-order engineering
equations, and levelized cost electricity to produce renewable hydrogen. The value of
renewable hydrogen is also evaluated. The results of the study indicate that wind is the best
option in Pakistan for manufacturing renewable based on four criteria. Biomass is found to be
the most viable raw material for the establishment of the hydrogen supply network in
Pakistan, which can generate 6.6 million tons of hydrogen per year, next is photovoltaic solar
energy, which has the capability of generating 2.8 million tons. Another significant finding is
that solar energy is the second-best candidate for hydrogen production taking into
consideration its low-cost installation and production. The study shows that the cost of using
hydrogen in Pakistan ranges from $5.30/kg to $5.80/kg, making it a competitive fuel for
electric machines. Such projects for producing renewable power must be highlighted and
carried out in Pakistan and this will lead to more energy security for Pakistan, less use of
fossil fuels, and effective reduction of greenhouse gas emissions.

Niall Mac Dowell et al. (2021) suggested that green hydrogen economy may boost growth in
a sectors such as transportation, steel making, refineries and many other sectors as well as
provides employment to every social class and discussed investment issues between PSU's
and Private Sector Entities.

William Cezar et al. (2021) analysed green hydrogen-based pathways and alternatives
towards the renewable energy transition in South America's regions. The result suggests that
there has been an increased concern regarding the impacts of climate change caused by the
increase in anthropogenic CO2 emissions, and the search for clean energy sources has grown.
Hydrogen produced from renewable sources is an alternative to the demand for clean energy.
the findings contribute to the cleaner production of electricity or products that consume or use
hydrogen.

Pasquale Marcello Falcone, Michael Hiete, and Alessandro Sapio (2021) analysed
hydrogen as a clean, reliable and potentially sustainable energy vector has attracted growing
interest for promoting the sustainable development of both industry and society worldwide.
The review shows that a hydrogen economy provides a cross-sectoral perspective for a clean
and—due to expected improvements—affordable clean energy supply (SDG 7) and deep
decarbonization in process industries.

Alexandra M Oliveira, Rebecca R Beswick, and Yushan Yan (2021) studied the need for a
comprehensive definition of the ‘hydrogen economy’ and illustrate a vision in which
hydrogen will primarily be used for decarbonization where no alternative exists. We propose
a three-phase implementation plan for hydrogen into the industrial sector as a chemical
feedstock, the transportation sector for long-range, heavy-duty vehicles, the buildings sector
for heat, and the power sector for seasonal storage. We find that hydrogen will not be the
largest energy economy, but with a projected need of 2.3 Gt H2 annually, it can decarbonize
around 18% of energy-related sectors. In the long-term, hydrogen can complement renewable
electricity and be the keystone to a 100% renewable future.

Joydev Manna et al. (2021) assessed existing hydrogen production capacities in petroleum
refineries and ammonia synthesis units in India along with estimating the potential for
installing solar photovoltaic (SPV) powered alkaline electrolysers for producing green
hydrogen and SPV capacity required for this purpose. Levelised cost of hydrogen production
in these industries in India has been analysed and found to be competitive. The paper also
discusses about water requirement, land requirement for SPV power plants, CO2 emissions
avoided and likely investment to be made for establishing infrastructure for green hydrogen
production. With launching of national hydrogen mission in India, a transition to green
hydrogen by the industry appears to be a near term possibility.

Malik Sajawal Akhtar, Rofice Dickson, and J. Jay Liu (2021) a comprehensive cradle-to-
gate life cycle assessment (LCA) was performed for seven hydrogen delivery pathways:
compressed gas via pipeline (CGH2-PL), compressed gas via tube trailer (CGH2-TT), liquid
hydrogen (LH2), liquid organic hydrogen carrier with natural gas as a heating source
(LOHC), liquid ammonia (LNH3), liquid organic hydrogen carrier with hydrogen as a
heating source (LOHC-Own), and the direct utilization of NH3 in direct ammonia fuel cell
vehicle (LNH3-DAFCV). The LCA results showed that CGH2-PL is the most sustainable
option among all the above mentioned pathways as it showed to have the lowest global
warming potential (GWP) (1.57 kgCO2-eq/kgH2). On the contrary, delivery via LOHC had
the worst results and would have the highest emissions (3.58 kgCO2-eq/kgH2). However, by
partially utilizing the produced hydrogen to fulfill the heating requirements during
dehydrogenation (LOHC-Own), approximately 35% of the GWP was reduced to 2.34
kgCO2-eq/kgH2. Likely, delivery via LNH3 also showed significant emissions (3.14 kgCO2-
eq/kgH2) and remained the second worst candidate for hydrogen delivery. However, the
direct utilization of NH3 in DAFCV showed promising results for GWP (1.62
kgCO2-eq/kgH2), making NH3 a likely candidate for future hydrogen and energy carriers.

Gursahib Singh, Damunas Kalra, and Rachin Goyal (2022) discussed the role of
hydrogen and its implications to decarbonise India. The pollution of the environment is
caused by the combustion of energy resources such as crude oil, coal, and fossil fuels.
Therefore, hydrogen is an essential energy source so as to decarbonise the polluting sector
and thus supports pollution free environment.

Julian David Hunt et al. (2022) reviewed the possible paths that an oil and gas company
could follow to become a sustainable development corporation and continue to be relevant in
the future. This paper aims to describe alternative sustainable pathways such as the extraction
of natural hydrogen, a hydrogen economy, offshore wind power, deep sea mining,
biorefineries, seawater air-conditioning, geothermal and geoengineering. This paper also
proposes the use of electrolysis ships for the flexible production of green hydrogen and
showed that its investment cost can be three times smaller than in fixed electrolysis plants.
The oil and gas industry has substantial intellectual, financial capital and geopolitical
influence that would not be lost during a shift to a more sustainable world. Indeed, these
assets should be used to facilitate the transition to a more sustainable future.

Robert Lindner (2022) discussed that fuel cells and other hydrogen-based technologies are
increasingly seen as a key pillar of global decarbonization efforts. A major challenge to be
overcome is the future availability of large quantities of affordable green hydrogen to supply
the envisioned hydrogen economy. The findings show that international collaboration has
increased significantly in recent years, with a clear focus on Brazil, Egypt, India, and
Morocco. Partnerships are led by both government and private sector actors and mainly take
the form of pilot projects, feasibility studies, and scientific collaboration.

Justyna Cader, Renata Koneczna, Piotr Olczak (2022) assessed the impact of economic,
energy, and environmental factors on the development of the hydrogen economy. The result
presented that to model interdependencies between socio-economic, energy, and
environmental factors with selected data characterizing the development of the hydrogen
economy.

Arturo Vallejos-Romero et al. (2022) presented a review of the research on green hydrogen
from the social sciences, identifying its main lines of research, its problems, and the relevant
challenges due to the benefits and impacts that this energy vector has on energy transitions
and climate change. The review analyses a corpus of 78 articles indexed in the Web of
Science (WoS) and SCOPUS, published between 1997 and 2022. The review identified three
research areas related to green hydrogen and the challenges for the social sciences in the
future: (a) risks, socio-environmental impacts, and public perception; (b) public policies and
regulation and (c) social acceptance and willingness to use associated technologies. Our
results show that Europe and Asia lead the research on green hydrogen from
the social sciences.

Dr. Sathyanarayana S et al. (2022) discussed that the renewable energy deployment in India
is primarily intended to spur economic development, enhance energy security, expand access
to power, and mitigate climate change.

Divik Kandpal, Dr. Anil Kumar, and Dr. Tarun Dhingra (2022) suggested that with its
applications in steel, cement, refining, chemical and fertilizers and fuel-cell based vehicles
for transportation, it can be the future fuel to achieve energy security and achieve net zero
emission target for India.

Arunkumar Jayakumar et al. (2022) significant improvement is still necessary for H2 to

compete either against the internal combustion engine vehicle or the battery electric vehicle
to win the race, arguably.

Reddi Vivek Vardhan et al. (2022) reviewed future of green hydrogen in India. Being a
developing economy India's demand for energy will grow at higher rate than any other
country and an alternative clean source is required to meet the expanding demand.

Alexandra Mallett and Prosanto Pal (2022) analysed the green transformation in the iron
and steel industry in India and rethinking patterns of innovation. The result found that the
production of steel in India is not currently on track to achieve a green transformation due to
a piecemeal approach by both steel majors and government actors and greater efforts are
required by government to make use of Green Hydrogen to reduce carbon emissions of the
steel production process.

Suddhasatwa Basu and Peter Lund (2022) reviewed hydrogen economy in India. India's
energy demand will continue to grow due to population growth and industrialization, but
there is a need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and move towards green fuels such as
hydrogen, especially in the transport sector.

Shaojie Song et al. (2022) explored options for a 2050 carbon free energy future for
India. Onshore wind and solar sources are projected as the dominant primary contributions to
this objective. The analysis envisages an important role for so-called green
hydrogen produced by electrolysis fueled by these carbon free energy sources. This hydrogen
source can be used to accommodate for the intrinsic variability of wind and solar
complementing opportunities for storage of power by batteries and pumped hydro. The green
source of hydrogen can be used also to supplant current industrial uses of grey hydrogen
produced in the Indian context largely from natural gas with important related emissions of
CO2. The paper explores further options for use of green hydrogen to lower emissions from
otherwise difficult to abate sectors of both industry and transport. The analysis is applied to
identify the least cost options to meet India’s zero carbon future.

Anirbid Sircar et al. (2022) reviewed the production methods and transportation of green
hydrogen. The study critically addresses the impact of green hydrogen on the environment, as
well as the hazards and safety issues. The study also discusses the challenges associated with
the green hydrogen and deliberates on the pillars for developing policies and the strategies for
green hydrogen in India.

Fazil Qureshi et al. (2022) argued that hydrogen may be a promising alternative to fossil
fuels due to its high calorific value. However, there are still several hurdles and challenges in
the commercialization of hydrogen for the transportation and energy generation sectors.

Ourya and S Abderafi (2022) study compares different existing technologies and ways to
increase the production efficiency upto 100%.

Sanjay Kumar Kar et al. (2022) examined the continuous progress of hydrogen regarding
its production, storage, and commercialization in India. Given the versatility in nature,
hydrogen shall play a crucial role in decarbonizing the Indian economy by 2050. India's
hydrogen energy roadmap was envisioned for an operational hydrogen economy by 2020.
The objectives of the hydrogen roadmap remained unfulfilled. We found that inadequate
infrastructural developments, lack of proactive policies, insufficient investment in the
hydrogen value chain, slow market readiness, and a shortage of public awareness have
contributed to the hydrogen economy's derailment in India. The proposed National hydrogen
energy mission aims to revive India's hydrogen economy. Stakeholders should focus on
hydrogen research, development, value chain development, and hydrogen technology
commercialization.

Arunkumar Jayakumar et al. (2022) provided a critical assessment of H2 from the

standpoint of more widespread use as a sustainable fuel for Indian mobility applications in
the global context. The potential techno-economic advantages of utilizing H 2 for automobiles
rather than battery electric vehicles or conventional internal combustion engine vehicles are
emphasized. The present assessment demonstrates that H2 production, storage, and
distribution costs are the primary challenges, and a significant improvement is still necessary
for H2 to compete either against the internal combustion engine vehicle or the battery electric
vehicle to win the race, arguably. The secondary challenges have also been demonstrated,
which include the cost of the fuel cell stack and the modifications associated with internal
combustion engine vehicles, as well as regulatory and safety concerns, which impede the
widespread usage of H2. It is critical that policy-making for sustainable mobility in India is
possible with the aid of a National H2 Energy Road-Map. This in turn can achieve a cost
target of $0.5/kg for H2.
Sidhartha Harichandan et al. (2023) assessed the achievement of sustainable development
goals through adoption of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles in India. The result presented that green
hydrogen is a futuristic fuel which will help Indian economy to boost further and may
become largest producer of green hydrogen in the near future.

Malik Sajawal Akhtar et al. (2023) studied a cradle-to-gate social life cycle assessment (S-
LCA) of green hydrogen production via water electrolysis powered by renewable electricity
from solar photovoltaic and wind farms in seven countries (the US, Chile, South Africa,
Saudi Arabia, Oman, Australia, and China) to identify the social hotspots in the entire value
chain. The results of S-LCA indicate that green hydrogen production in South Africa poses
the highest risk to most of the social indicators, especially child labour, fair salary,
unemployment, association and bargaining rights, and gender wage gap. However, in the
other countries, the risk to most of the social indicators drastically reduces when key
equipment is manufactured in the country itself rather than when it is imported from
other countries.

2.3 Research gap

After review of literature, the researcher found the gap of the study as mentioned below:

 Hydrogen technology is an emerging field in India, and there are several research
gaps that need to be addressed to accelerate its adoption and implementation. Here are
some potential research gaps:
 Cost-effective production of hydrogen: The current cost of producing hydrogen using
renewable sources like wind and solar power is high, and research is needed to
develop cost-effective methods to produce hydrogen.
 Storage and transportation of hydrogen: One of the biggest challenges of using
hydrogen as a fuel is its storage and transportation. Research is needed to develop
efficient and safe storage and transportation methods.
 Integration of hydrogen with existing energy systems: Hydrogen needs to be
integrated with existing energy systems to ensure a smooth transition to a hydrogen-
based economy. Research is needed to determine the best ways to integrate hydrogen
into the existing energy infrastructure.
 Development of hydrogen fuel cell technology: Fuel cells are an important component
of hydrogen technology, and research is needed to develop efficient and cost-effective
fuel cell technology.
  Standardization and regulations: There is a need for standardized regulations and
safety protocols to ensure the safe use and transportation of hydrogen. Research is
needed to develop standards and regulations that are suitable for the Indian context.
 Public awareness and acceptance: Public awareness and acceptance of hydrogen
technology are important for its widespread adoption. Research is needed to
understand the public perception of hydrogen technology and to develop effective
communication strategies to raise awareness and build acceptance.

2.4 Chapter summary

 A hydrogen economy is a proposed future economic system in which hydrogen is

used as a primary energy carrier. The idea behind a hydrogen economy is that
hydrogen can be produced from a variety of renewable sources, such as solar, wind, or
hydroelectric power, and can be used to power vehicles and generate electricity.
 One of the main benefits of a hydrogen economy is that it could significantly reduce
greenhouse gas emissions, as hydrogen can be produced without emitting carbon
dioxide. Additionally, hydrogen is a highly efficient fuel, and fuel cells that convert
hydrogen into electricity are much more efficient than internal combustion engines.
 However, there are also several challenges associated with transitioning to a hydrogen
economy. One major challenge is the cost of producing hydrogen, which is currently
high, and research is needed to develop more cost-effective methods of production.
Another challenge is the storage and transportation of hydrogen, which requires
specialized infrastructure and can be expensive.
 Despite these challenges, the potential benefits of a hydrogen economy have led many
countries to invest in hydrogen technology and infrastructure. Several pilot projects
and demonstrations of hydrogen fuel cells are underway around the world, and some
countries have set ambitious targets for transitioning to a hydrogen-based economy.