Solar Energy 228 (2021) 594–611

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Solar Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/solener

A review on various designs for performance improvement of passive solar

stills for remote areas
Milad Mohsenzadeh , Lu Aye *, Philip Christopher
Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Group, Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology, The University of Melbourne, VIC 3010, Australia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Potable water scarcity is one of the major issues that has been affecting millions of lives. It became serious in
Solar still underprivileged remote communities that are unable to afford conventional water supply and treatment systems.
Desalination Passive solar desalination systems as a cost-effective option for water supply are becoming more feasible in
Design enhancement
remote areas. However, low water yield and poor reliability are the main deficiencies that need improvement.
Water cost
Remote area
This article reviews recent studies conducted on performance improvement and water cost reduction of passive
Review solar stills associated with new designs and modifications appropriate for remote areas to identify the most
effective designs. The individual effect of each component’s design on performance parameters (water yield,
thermal efficiency, and unit water cost) has been reported and discussed. The design specifications and outcomes
of studies were reviewed and presented in tables to give a broad view of activities in the area, and to provide
future studies with data for validation purposes. This article shows knowledge gaps and opportunities for future
research through a distinct classification of studies to shape a clear roadmap on the development of passive solar
stills. The most effective designs of components with respect to their application in remote or disaster-stricken
areas with no access to power infrastructure were determined. In addition, issues around the structural design
complexity and operational reliability associated with new designs were presented.

1. Introduction
The natural freshwater resources around the globe are extremely
scarce (Mekonnen and Hoekstra, 2016). Overexploitation and contam­
ination by human are the main destructive activities have led to an
enormous loss of freshwater resources (Koehler, 2008). Oceans contain
about 97% of the water on the globe with a salinity range of 3.5–5 %.
Only 2.5% of total global water resources are fresh, and merely 31.4% of
that is accessible to support life on land (Powers, 2017; Shiklomanov
and Rodda, 2004). These resources are available either as groundwater,
or as surface water in lakes, rivers, etc. It is estimated that over a billion
people in the world are facing a lack of access to potable water. By 2025,
it is likely to reach 1.8 billion people who will be suffering the physical
water scarcity (Arnell, 2004; Kalogirou, 2014; Shatat et al, 2013).
Currently, up to 31% of the population in African countries and up to
25% of people in Asia are experiencing water scarcity (Arnell, 2004;
Shatat et al, 2013). These people are mainly living in remote areas with
low population densities that are unable to afford conventional water
supply systems. It shows the necessity of developing small scale and
cost-effective water generation systems suitable for remote
communities.
There are several technologies developed to generate potable water
from seawater or brackish water (Cheung and Gu, 2007; Dalrymple et al,
2010; Giesen et al, 2013; Kalogirou, 2014; Madaeni, 1999; Qiblawey
and Banat, 2008). Reverse osmosis (RO) and Multi-stage flash (MSF) are
the dominant desalination methods making up about 65% and 21% of
the worldwide installed capacity of water desalination systems by 2014
(IDA, 2015). The selection of the effective water purification technique
mainly depends on the salinity of available feed water, water demand,
size of the investment, and the availability of energy resources
(Ambashta and Sillanpää, 2010; Chandrashekara and Yadav, 2017;
Cheremisinoff, 2001; Gupta et al, 2012; Malaeb and Ayoub, 2011).
Water desalination is an energy-intensive process. The main energy
source can be obtained from fossil fuels or renewable energy resources
including solar, wind, and geothermal energies (Rufuss et al, 2016).
Utilising solar stills which distil water directly inside its solar collector is
a competitive method in small scale applications compared to indirect
desalination methods. Solar stills are simple, low-cost, and easy to
maintenance which makes them a promising option for remote areas
(Qiblawey and Banat, 2008).
Solar stills work on evaporation and condensation of water using

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: lua@unimelb.edu.au (L. Aye).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2021.09.086
Received 18 December 2020; Received in revised form 27 September 2021; Accepted 29 September 2021
Available online 7 October 2021
0038-092X/Crown Copyright © 2021 Published by Elsevier Ltd on behalf of International Solar Energy Society. All rights reserved.
M. Mohsenzadeh et al. Solar Energy 228 (2021) 594–611

enhancement. For a solar still, performance can be quantified by thermal

Nomenclature efficiency and water yield which normally are reported per day. The
water yield of a passive solar still can vary between 1.5 and 7.0 kg m− 2 d-
1
CPSS Conventional Passive Solar Still depending on weather conditions, operating parameters, and system
Ext. External design (Hitesh et al, 2019; Kumar et al, 2015; Mohammed and Askalany,
FPC Flat Plate Collector 2019; Singh et al, 2019; Thakkar et al, 2020; Tiwari and Sahota, 2017).
HNG Hierarchically Nanostructured Gel In this review, new designs of components are categorised into four
Int. Internal processes: solar radiation collection, heat energy absorption, heat stor­
MSF Multi-Stage Flash age, and water vapour condensation. It covers all the steps that take
PCM Phase Change Material place in the solar thermal desalination process to generate drinking
PSS Passive Solar Still water and provides a distinct classification of recent advancements in
PVT Photovoltaic Thermal each process. All performance data along with the specifications of the
RO Reverse Osmosis designs from previous studies are reviewed presented in tables to give a
RPSS Reference Passive Solar Still comprehensive overview on activities in this area and to provide future
SSPCM shape-stabilized Phase Change Material studies with data for validation purposes. The new designs and elements
SWF Steel Wool Fibres for each category are reviewed in separate sections (Sections 3, 4, 5, and
UWC Unit Water Cost [US$ L-1] 6). The improvement in water yield, thermal efficiency, and unit water
cost are reported and discussed. In each section, the most effective
design of components on performance improvement and water cost
reduction, particularly with respect to their application in remote areas
thermal energy received from the Sun (Rufuss et al, 2016). Solar stills is specified. The final section provides succinct conclusions and appro­
are mainly categorised into active solar still and passive solar still. In priate recommendations for future studies. It also presents relevant is­
both types, the energy received from the sun increases the temperature sues in terms of structural design complexity and operational reliability
of saltwater and its vapour pressure inside the still. Once the vapour concerning new designs.
pressure exceeds that of the air at the interface, water starts to evaporate
and leaves the residues behind in the basin. Pure water vapour is then 2. Design improvements and modifications of passive solar stills
condensed in the system and collected as a distilled water (Cengel et al,
2011). In general, the desalination in solar stills takes place in four major The basic type of PSSs known as single-slope single-basin solar still
steps: the collection of solar radiation, absorption of heat energy, (Fig. 1) is made of a basin (tray), glass cover, and evaporation chamber.
evaporation of water, and the condensation of water vapour. The The incident solar radiation passing through the glass cover is received
evaporation process in solar stills is highly energy-intensive due to the by the basin and the bulk water inside and increases its temperature.
latent heat of evaporation of water which indicates their low perfor­ Evaporation of water starts once the bulk water gets warmed up to the
mance. In a passive solar still (PSS), the solar radiation is directly point that the vapour pressure exceeds that of air on the surface (Cengel
received by the basin; however, in an active solar still, a solar thermal et al, 2011). Due to the slight difference in the density of the air inside
collector is combined with the system to raise the water temperature the evaporation chamber, water vapour rises from the basin to reach the
which significantly increases the production rate of distilled water. glass cover on the top. The thin inclined transparent glass cover adjacent
Active solar stills, however, have a complex structure and usually need to the ambient air acts as a condensation surface due to its lower tem­
electricity to operate. Therefore, considering the lack of access to the perature than the dew point of the moist air. Therefore, water vapour
electric power infrastructure and the maintenance professionals in many loses the heat and condenses as distilled water on the cover. In this
remote areas, passive type of solar stills would be a feasible option to article, the single-slope single-basin passive solar still is denoted as
address the water security challenge in water-stressed communities in CPSS, which stands for Conventional Passive Solar Still.
remote or disaster-stricken areas. The significant difference between passive solar stills with active
This article reviews contemporary designs developed by different solar stills is that the active type uses an extra solar collector connected
studies to improve the performance of passive solar stills. It shows to the main solar still. It increases the available heat energy for water
knowledge gaps and opportunities for future research by providing a evaporation. Active solar stills typically have higher productivity and
clear roadmap on the development of new designs for performance thermal efficiency compared to passive solar stills (Tiwari and Sahota,

Fig. 1. The schematic of a conventional single-slope single-basin passive solar still.

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M. Mohsenzadeh et al. Solar Energy 228 (2021) 594–611

Fig. 2. An overview of various design improvements and modifications on PSS discussed in this review article.

Table 1
An overview of studies covered in this review on solar radiation collection improvements (collector & receiver design).
Reference Specific design/modification Location Latitude Productivity Increase in Capital Water Experiment Peak solar
(◦ N) (kg m− 2 d-1) output cost cost date radiation
(%) (US $) (¢ L-1) (W m− 2)

Tanaka and Int.* reflectors/Ext.* top Fukuoka 30.0 7.5 48 – – – –

Nakatake, (2006) reflector (vertical angle)
Tanaka, (2010) Int. reflectors/Ext. top reflector Fukuoka 30.0 8.0 67 – – Jun –
(optimum tilt angle)
Tanaka, (2011) Ext. bottom reflector/ Wick Fukuoka 30.0 6.0 13 – – – –
basin
Omara et al. (2014) Stepped basin/Int. reflectors Kafr El- 31.0 6.4 75 – – 09 Aug 1100
Sheikh
Omara et al. (2014) Stepped basin/ Int., Ext. top & Kafr El- 31.0 8.1 125 160 3.1 05 Aug 1100
bottom reflectors Sheikh
Huang and Chang, Int. reflectors/Ext. top reflector Tainan 22.5 5.3 138 – – 21 Dec 600
(2017)
Estahbanati et al. Int. reflectors Iran 35.0 5.2 34 – – Annu. 1000
(2016)
El-Swify and Metias, Int. reflectors (except front) Cairo 30.0 3.0 23 – – Jun –
(2002)
Khalifa and Ibrahim, Int. reflectors/Ext. top vertical Iraq 33.0 5.0 30 – – Jun –
(2009) reflector
Al-Garni, (2014) Ext. Reflectors Dhahran 26.0 4.0 83 – – 15 Dec 1400
Dev et al. (2011) Inverted absorber (1:1)/glass Oman 23.5 6.3 192 165 1.5 01 Jul 990
covered
*
Int. = Internal; Ext. = external

2017). However, passive solar stills have low cost, simple structure, and
are easy to operate which could be the more suitable choice for remote
areas with higher solar radiation averages throughout the year (Kumar
et al, 2015).
Many studies have been conducted on passive solar stills to improve
the performance by introducing a new design of components, different
structure materials, extra components, or alternative operation pro­
cedures. Fig. 2 presents an overview of various improvements on PSS
which has been discussed in this review article. These design improve­
ments and modifications are classified into four categories correspond­
ing to the thermal distillation process including: insolation collection,
heat absorption, heat storage, and water vapour condensation. The
significances, issues, and individual effects of designs on performance
parameters (water yield, thermal efficiency, and unit water cost) are
presented in the following sections.
3. Insolation collection Improvement: Collector & receiver
design
Water distillation techniques require a large amount of energy to
evaporate water. Therefore, improving the collection of solar radiation
is an important consideration in solar still design. Many investigations
have examined the use of flat plate reflectors as a method to increase the
available solar radiation on the receiver surface (glass cover) (Abdullah
et al., 2020; Kabeel et al., 2019b; Moh’d A and Al-Ammari, 2016;
Murugan et al., 2019; Omara et al., 2014, 2017). These reflectors proved
to have a significant improvement on the performance of the PSS. In
addition to reflectors, the angle of the transparent cover on top of the
PSS and its material affect the amount of solar radiation received by the
bulk water and the basin. Studies have considered the effect of trans­
missivity of cover and the reflection of solar radiation from the cover to
find appropriate material and the right inclination angle of the cover (El-
Maghlany et al, 2016; El-Samadony et al, 2016). Due to the availability,
lower cost, and convenient specifications of the float glass, it is widely

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M. Mohsenzadeh et al.
Fig. 3. The schematics of PSS utilising internal or external reflectors with (a) stepped basin (Omara et al, 2014), (b) V-corrugated basin (Omara et al, 2016), (c)
single-basin (Estahbanati et al, 2016), and (d) double slope, single-basin (Al-Garni, 2014).
chosen as the cover material on PSS. Table 1 provides an overview of
studies covered in this review on solar radiation collection
improvements.
Flat plate reflectors have been used in various arrangements such as
internally on sidewalls, externally on the top or bottom edge of the
cover, or in a combination of internal and external reflectors. Fig. 3
shows the different placements of reflectors on the PSSs investigated in
previous studies. The outcomes showed that internal reflectors can
improve water generation by about 22% to 34% (Bataineh and Abbas,
2020; El-Swify and Metias, 2002; Estahbanati et al, 2016; Lourakis,
2005). Estahbanati et al. (2016) showed that internal reflectors on the
front, back, and sidewalls of CPSS can increase the annual water pro­
duction by 34%. Examining the annual water yield variation reveals that
the internal reflectors significantly impact productivity during the
winter season by a 65% increase. This observation makes sense as the
solar altitude angle in middays of winter is lower than in summer, and
therefore incident solar radiation ends up on the sidewalls rather than
the basin. Then, using internal reflector re-directs solar radiation to­
wards the basin area. The water yield increase of PSS utilising both in­
ternal and external reflectors was reported between 30% and 125% (Dev
et al, 2011; Huang and Chang, 2017; Patel et al, 2020; Shanazari and
Kalbasi, 2018; Shmroukh and Ookawara, 2020). Omara et al. (2016)
tried internal reflectors for a PSS with a V-corrugated wick basin (Fig. 3
(b)). They increased the productivity by about 145%; however, the
water yield without reflectors was only 55% higher than that of a
reference CPSS. Other studies also highlighted that the appearance of
distillate droplets on the sidewalls of a PSS with internal reflectors
would significantly reduce the reflectivity (Arunkumar et al, 2019;
Tanaka and Nakatake, 2006).
In inverted absorber solar stills, examined in different studies, the
basin is also heated from the bottom side. A reflector is placed under the
basin where the solar radiation is reflected towards the bottom surface
of the basin which is exposed and uninsulated as shown in Fig. 3(c) (Dev
et al, 2011; Shanazari and Kalbasi, 2018). Dev et al. (2011) used an
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Solar Energy 228 (2021) 594–611
inverted absorber to achieve higher bulk water temperature by about
6.4% for the water depth of 0.01 m. In their study, a glass cover was
placed on the aperture area of the reflector that has the same area of the
basin to avoid heat loss to the ambient air. They reported a 192% in­
crease in water yield and estimated the unit water cost (UWC) of $ 0.015
L-1 for the lifespan of 15 years. In this arrangement, using an insulation
layer beneath the inverted reflector to reduce excessive heat loss can
enable space for further studies.
Studies used different approaches to theoretically examine the
contribution of flat plate reflectors on the total solar radiation received
at the basin area and find the optimum orientation of external reflectors.
Tanaka and Nakatake, (2006) generated a geometrical model to
consider the effect of an external reflector placed on the top of the cover.
Assuming the fixed vertical position for the reflector, the model esti­
mated an increase of 48% in the annual water yield. Tanaka, (2010)
determined the monthly optimum angle of external top reflector
through a computer model. The result of the study estimated an annual
water yield increase of 67% for a reflector at the optimum angle with
half the size of the basin, and 26% increase when compared to a fixed
vertical slope reflector. Huang et al. (2017) proposed a time-dependent
function for the angle of external top reflector applying the Levenberg-
Marquardt optimisation method (Lourakis, 2005). Using this function,
the water yield increased by 28% during the winter compared to a fixed
vertical reflector. It should be noted that the external reflector at the top
of the cover, however, could obstruct the solar radiation during the early
morning and in the evening depending on its angle and the aspect ratio.
Al-Garni examined a double-slope PSS by placing external reflectors at a
close distance as shown in Fig. 3(d) to avoid the shadow effect of re­
flectors on the system at any time (Al-Garni, 2014). The study reported
daily water yield at 4.0 kg m− 2 d-1 during winter with 83% increase
compared to a CPSS. The considerable increase in the reflection of solar
radiation on the cover without making any shadow seems to make this
approach promising, however, detailed examinations are required to
determine the optimum distance and orientations of the external
M. Mohsenzadeh et al. Solar Energy 228 (2021) 594–611

Table 2
An overview of studies covered in this review on different geometries of basin and materials that were incorporated for heat absorption improvement.
Reference Specific design/modification Location Latitude Productivity Increase in Capital Water Experiment Peak solar
(◦ N) (kg m− 2 d-1) output (%) cost cost date radiation
(US $) (¢ L-1) (W m− 2)

El-Sebaii & El- Copper finned basin Tanta 30.0 5.7 30 387 3.9 Jun 940
Naggar, (2017)
Omara et al. Inclined basin/double-layer Kafr El- 31.0 5.9 114 120 2.7 Annu. 1000
(2013) wick Sheikh
Haddad et al. One-layer vertical rotating M’sila 35.0 7.2 15 337 1.1 Jun 950
(2017) wick
Haddad et al. One-layer vertical static wick M’sila 35.0 5.7 10 288 0.8 Jun 950
(2017)
El-Agouz, (2014) Stepped basin/external water Tanta 30.0 5.9 80 300 3.5 10 Aug 910
storage/cotton black wick
El-Agouz, (2014) Stepped basin Tanta 30.0 4.9 50 290 – 10 Aug 910
Dashtban and Stepped basin Zahedan 32.0 5.1 19 – – 01 Jun 1000
Tabrizi, (2011)
Hansen et al. Wire mesh stepped basin/ Kovilpatti 9.0 4.3 71 – – 20 Apr 940
(2015) coral fleece wick
Hansen et al. Stepped basin/ coral fleece Kovilpatti 9.0 3.9 57 – – 20 Apr 940
(2015) wick
Hansen et al. Single Flat basin/ coral fleece Kovilpatti 9.0 3.6 45 – – 20 Apr 940
(2015) wick layer
Elango & Multi-level basin/ stepped Kovilpatti 9.0 5.3 18 – – Mar-Apr 1000
Murugavel, basin/double slope cover
(2015)
Arunkumar et al. Floating porous foam Chennai 13.0 3.1 48 – 0.6 02 Jun 842
(2018)
Omara et al. V-Corrugated basin with wick Kafr El- 31.0 4.1 145 130 2.5 30 Jun 1120
(2016) layer/Int.* reflectors Sheikh
Omara et al. V-Corrugated basin with wick Kafr El- 31.0 3.8 90 122 3.6 30 Jun 1120
(2016) layer Sheikh
Omara et al. V-Corrugated basin without Kafr El- 31.0 3.5 55 – 4.2 30 Jun 1120
(2016) wick layer Sheikh
Manokar et al. Active solar still/FPC/ Virudhunagar 9.0 3.7 45 293 – 24 Apr 1000
(2018) inclined basin
Kabeel, (2009) Concave wick basin/pyramid Tanta 30.5 4.1 95 145 6.5 Jun 1000
cover
Muftah et al. Stepped finned basin/Ext. top Egypt 31.0 8.9 29 – – Aug 1100
(2018) reflector/Ext.* condenser
Alaian et al. (2016) Pin-finned wick Mansoura 30.0 4.7 23 – – 07 Apr 900
*
Int.: internal, Ext: external

reflectors with respect to PSS.
Another issue associating with external reflectors is their tendency
propensity to increase the temperature of the cover. The temperature of
the cover significantly affects the water yield in PSS with a greater
temperature difference between the bulk water and the cover leading to
a higher water condensation rate (Selvaraj and Natarajan, 2018). This
effect is worsened in summer when the congestion of the distillate
droplets is high. A similar issue does not occur for a PSS with internal
reflectors which makes them more desirable (El-Swify and Metias,
2002). It seems to be more effective to combine a PSS with an external
condenser or an extra built-in condensation surface if external reflectors
is going to be used, particularly for the operation during summer. This
has been discussed in detail in Section 6.
Flat plate reflectors also were used in PSS with a different basin
design such as tilted wick basin (Muftah et al, 2018), v-corrugated wick
basin (Arunkumar et al, 2019) and stepped basin (Tanaka and Nakatake,
2006). Fig. 3(a) shows PSS with stepped basins using internal and
external flat plate reflectors. For this arrangement, Omara et al. (2014)
reported a significant water yield of 8.1 kg m− 2 d-1 with 125% increase
compared to CPSS and UWC reduction from $ 0.049 L-1 to $ 0.031 L-1
with an assumed lifespan of 10 years.
In terms of cost considerations, using reflectors increases the initial
cost of PSS between 10% and 40%. Table 1 presents this cost range in
more details. Manual adjustment of external reflectors on a monthly
basis is recommended in remote areas instead of motorised control.
Studies have shown that the continuous setting of the reflectors at an
optimum angle using an electric motor would not improve the
performance significantly considering the extra cost associated with this
arrangement. In addition, external reflectors would take up more space
which is not a limitation in remote areas. Therefore, the use of flat plate
reflectors is an inexpensive way for the performance enhancement of
PSS.
4. Heat absorption Improvement: Basin design
In a passive solar still, the main proportion of the incident solar ra­
diation is absorbed by the basin at the bottom of PSS which holds bulk
water. While the basin absorbs the solar radiation, its temperature ex­
ceeds the water temperature and transfers heat to the bulk water
(Kalogirou, 2014). Improving the absorption properties of the basin and
increasing its contact area with water are the key to the performance
enhancement of PSS. Table 2 provides detailed information and data
from major studies that investigated various basin design improvements.
It includes the design specification and experiments location, and time
period for each study. Various studies examined different geometries for
building the basin with an extended surface area such as multi-layer,
pyramid, stepped, inclined, v-corrugated, concave, and vertical. In
other studies, a variety of methods have been used to increase the heat
transfer area with bulk water including fins, agitator, porous and
impermeable absorber layer, or wick material layer added to the basin.
4.1. Stepped basin
The typical flat basin is replaced with the stepped basin to increase

598
M. Mohsenzadeh et al.
Fig. 4. The schematics of PSS with different basin geometries. (a) Stepped basin (Kabeel et al, 2018), (b) doble-level basin double slope with stepped basin (Elango
and Murugavel, 2015), (c) double-level basin (Modi and Modi, 2019), and (d) Concave (Kabeel, 2009).
the contact area with water and to contain the same amount of bulk
water at a lower depth as shown in Fig. 4(a, b). Studies reported the
water yield improvement between 17% and 50% for PSS using a stepped
basin to increase the surface area (Gnanaraj and Velmurugan, 2020;
Muftah et al, 2018; Omara et al, 2014; Saadi et al, 2018; Shmroukh and
Ookawara, 2020; Tanaka and Nakatake, 2006). The details of these
studies are provided in Table 2. The geometry is also beneficial since the
average distance between water surface and the cover on the top is
shorter compared to the single basin design. Studies have shown an
increased likelihood of water vapour reaching the cover and condensing
on it (Jamil and Akhtar, 2017; Rashidi et al, 2018). In an experiment,
Omara et al. (2014) reported a 19% increase in daily water yield using a
stepped basin with 17% enhanced surface area. El-Agouz, (2014) ach­
ieved 53% increase where a layer of cotton absorber on the stepped
basin surface was used with continuous water circulation between the
basin and insulated water storage beneath. This approach extends the
water generation duration into the night time although water circulation
requires pump which increases UWC and the complexity of the PSS. The
study estimated UWC at $0.035 L-1 somewhat lower than that for CPSS
at $0.042 L-1.
Using a layer of wick material on the basin surface to permeate the
bulk water would increase the contact area. However, it is challenging to
stop the wick layer drying out or becoming soaked which is typically
done by controlling the capillarity of the wick material and the tilt angle
of the basin surface. Hansen et al. (2015) experimentally examined
different wick layers on a stepped basin. They showed that coral fleece
serves better compared to pulp paper or polystyrene sponges. El-Agouz,
(2014) also recognised the positive effect of wick layer over a black
painted basin and reported 33% increase in water yield by using a black
cotton wick layer. A wick layer can also improve the radiation properties
of the surface including absorptivity, emissivity, and reflectivity. The
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Solar Energy 228 (2021) 594–611
most convenient surface condition is that with greater absorptivity on
the visible spectrum of sunlight and a low emissivity on the basin tem­
perature ranges (Cengel et al, 2011).
Wick layers not only were examined on the surface of the stepped
basin or inclined basin but were used in unconventional ways as well.
Haddad et al. (2017) examined a rotating wick fabric belt like conveyor
system operating in a vertical position as shown in Fig. 5(e). The PSS
used in this experiment has transparent sidewalls to allow wick fabric to
receive solar radiation from all sides, however, with this non insulated
envelope, the PSS would lose a significant amount of heat to the
ambient. This should be considered whether the advantage of a see-
through wall would compensate for the extra heat loss or not. Their
study reported water yield of 7.2 kg m− 2 d− 1 and 5.0 kg m− 2 d− 1 during
summer and winter, respectively. This shows 15% and 51% increase
compared to CPSS when tested during the same periods. The study also
highlighted that running the system while the wick belt is not rotating
had less UWC at $0.008 L-1 compared to the rotating mode with UWC of
$0.011 L− 1.
4.2. Inclined basin
An inclined basin like a stepped basin increases the basin area and
reduces the distance between the water surface and the cover. The basin
is placed such that the back wall of PSS is elevated (Fig. 4(c)). Studies
reported the water yield improvement between 49% and 114% for PSS
using inclined basins with the details listed in Table 2 (Hansen et al,
2015; Gnanaraj and Velmurugan, 2020; Kaviti et al, 2016; Manokar et
al, 2018; Omara et al, 2013). As explained in Section 4.1, an inclined
basin requires an extra layer of wick material on the surface to keep a
uniform distribution of water (Hansen et al, 2015; Murugavel et al,
2010). Cotton cloth, black cotton, and coral fleece were examined.
M. Mohsenzadeh et al.
Fig. 5. The schematics of PSS with a basin incorporated with (a) straight fins (El-Sebaii and El-Naggar, 2017), (b) hollow fins with square cross-section (Jani and
Modi 2019), (c) floating porous foams (Haddad et al, 2017), (d) suspended plate (El-Bialy, 2014), (e) rotating wick fabric belt (Haddad et al, 2017), and (f) rotating
agitator shaft (Kumar et al, 2016) to improve the heat absorption of the PSS.
Omara et al. (2013) used a double layer linen woven geotextile wick in
their study. They reported the daily water yield of 5.86 kg m− 2 d-1 with
114% increase compared to CPSS and the UWC estimation at $0.027 L-1.
Wick layers were also applied on inclined basins with concave geometry
as shown in Fig. 4(d). Kabeel, (2009) reported 95% increase in water
yield for this design.
Studies have also used textured metal sheets such as rectangular
grooves and ridge, zig-zag baffle plate to make the inclined basin
(Anburaj et al., 2013; Nagarajan et al., 2017; Sathyamurthy et al., 2016).
This design helps spread water around the surface and increase the
contact area of the basin. Unlike a single flat basin, the inclined basin
cannot contain a large volume of water. It benefits PSS performance with
a higher evaporation rate due to the reduced thermal inertia of water in
the basin (Muftah et al, 2018). Studies further highlighted that the
capillarity of the wick material and the tilt angle of the basin determine
the rate of feed water to be supplied to the system (Haddad et al, 2017).
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Solar Energy 228 (2021) 594–611
4.3. Multi-level basin
Multi-level basin structure is usually built in two levels (Fig. 4(b, c))
where the upper basin is made of transparent material to allow solar
radiation to reach the lower basin. Using this design, the surface area of
bulk water is double up although the basin area to absorb the solar ra­
diation remains the same as for a single flat basin. The upper basin in this
structure acts as a condensation surface for the lower level and transfers
the released condensation heat of water vapour to the bulk water in the
upper level. Therefore, it improves the performance by capturing the
heat which usually loss through the cover of CPSS to the ambient air.
Studies reported a water yield improvement about 18% utilising this
design (Elango and Murugavel, 2015; Modi. J and Modi. K, 2019; Modi
et al, 2019; Rajaseenivasan et al, 2013). Elango and Murugavel, (2015)
proposed a two-level basin for double slope solar still where the upper
level of the basin was made up of transparent glass as shown in Fig. 4 (b).
They examined the performance for various depths of water where the
maximum water rate of 4.4 kg m− 2 d-1 was obtained for the water depth
M. Mohsenzadeh et al.
Fig. 6. The photo of (a) pin fins made of wick material (Alaian et al, 2016), (b) circular hollow fins (Jani and Modi 2019; Kumar et al, 2019), (c) round solid pieces of
carbon impregnated foams (Arunkumar et al, 2018), and (d) hierarchically nanostructured gel (HNG) floating porous absorber (Zhao et al, 2018).
of 0.01 m which showed an 18% increase in water yield compared to
CPSS. Modi. K and Modi. J, (2019) added wick material on the lower
basin (Fig. 4(c)). They found that jute cloth wick works better than black
cotton cloth. This experiment reports 18% and 21% increase in water
yield with the water depth of the lower basin of 0.01 m and 0.02 m
respectively.
Using an extra layer of the glass cover, however, can reduce the
overall transmissivity of PSS against solar radiation to be received at the
lower basin (Vasconcelos et al, 2016). This is an interesting topic for
further research to find more suitable and cost-effective transparent
materials for the upper basin. One of the key limitations of double-level
basin design is the sedimentation on the upper basin which obstructs the
incident solar radiation through to the lower basin. Rajaseenivasan et al.
(2013) noted that daily cleaning of the upper basin surface is necessary
and that this design is suitable for treating pure brackish water in the
upper basin.
4.4. Finned basin
Incorporating the basin with fins (Fig. 5(a, b)) boosts the basin-water
interface area and increases the thermal inertia of the basin to store
more heat since fins are usually made of metal. This approach was
examined in different studies using different geometries and materials
for the performance improvement of PSS. El-Sebaii et al. (2017) used
straight fins with a uniform cross-section on the basin of CPSS. Their
study tested different materials for fins and found similar results. They
suggested using inexpensive and corrosion-resistant materials such as
mica or glass instead of copper. This study reported 30% increase in
water yield. In a similar study, Velmurugan et al. (2008) reported 45%
increase in water yield. Alaian et al. (2016) used pin fins made of wick
material on the basin of a PSS shown in Fig. 6(a). The significant
advantage of wick material used on the structure of the fins is that water
can rise in the fins via capillary effect even with low depth of water in
the basin. The study reported 23% increase in water yield. Jani and
Modi, (2019) examined hollow fins (Fig. 5(b)) with a round and square
cross-section (Fig. 6(b)). They showed that round hollow fins obtained
54% more water yield compared to square fins with the same size and
numbers, however, the reason behind this outcome is unclear since,
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Solar Energy 228 (2021) 594–611
given the same size of fins in both geometries, it is unexpected to obtain
different performance outputs. Sathish Kumar et al. (2019) filled square
hollow fins with paraffin wax to increase the heat storage capacity of the
basin (Fig. 6(b)). The results showed 95% increase in water yield
compared to CPSS and 64% increase without fins filled with PCM. The
study also revealed that PSS generated more water with a lower depth of
bulk water in the basin.
Studies also examined fin parameters including height, thickness,
and density (number of fins per square meter of the basin surface). El-
Sebaii et al. (2015) reported much water yield for fins with larger sizes
both in height and thickness. It is inferred that a high mass of fins in the
basin improves the performance due to an increase in contact area, heat
storage capacity, and reduction in the thermal inertia of water mass.
However, the density of fins is limited due to increasing shadow on the
basin surface which leads to lower water yield.
4.5. Floating absorber and nanoparticles
Adding floating mass such as porous sponge or nanoparticles to the
bulk water inside the basin instead of wick material layer on the basin
surface is another approach to improve the solar radiation absorption
properties of solar still and its interface with the bulk water. The latter
beneficial impact of this approach would be defined under the concept
of “interfacial solar heating” (Rajasekhar and Eswaramoorthy, 2015).
Studies reported the water yield improvement about 47% for employing
porous sponges and 12% to 57% for nanoparticles (Arunkumar et al.,
2018; Kabeel et al., 2017a; Sahota and Tiwari, 2016a,b; Sharshir et al.,
2017; Wilson et al., 2019; Zhao et al., 2018; Zhou et al., 2016). The
details of these studies are provided in Table 2. Arunkumar et al. (2018)
used round pieces of carbon-impregnated floating foams in their ex­
periments as shown in Fig. 5(c) and Fig. 6(c). They reported 47% in­
crease in water yield compared to CPSS. studies show that the design
parameters of porous media including material, porosity, and the size of
pieces are important. Zhou et al. (2016) fabricated a floating porous
plasmonic absorber with aluminium nanoparticles to increase the solar
radiation absorptivity (≥96%). The structure was designed to store
absorbed heat close to its surface which provides a higher heat transfer
with water. Similarly, Zhao et al. (2018) engineered a hierarchically
M. Mohsenzadeh et al. Solar Energy 228 (2021) 594–611

Fig. 7. Typical effect of heat storage improvement on variation of bulk water temperature profile in CPSS with heat storage material (PCM).

nanostructured gel floating porous absorber based on Polyvinyl Alcohol molecules instead of single-molecule evaporation which needs consid­
and Polypyrrole (PPy) (Fig. 6(d)). They claimed that the structure en­ erably lower heat of evaporation. They reported a considerable evapo­
hances water evaporation by creating clustered evaporation of water ration rate of 18–23 kg m− 2 d-1. This would be a significant contribution

Table 3
An overview of studies covered in this review on the structure design of PSS for heat storage enhancement.
Reference Specific design/modification Location Latitude Productivity Increase in Capital Water Experiment Peak solar
(◦ N) (kg m− 2 d-1) output cost cost date radiation
(%) (US $) (¢ L-1) (W m− 2)

Dashtban & Stepped basin, paraffin wax as Zahedan 32.0 6.7 46 – – 01 Jun 1000
Tabrizi, (2011) PCM
Kabeel et al. Pyramid cover, V-corrugated Tanta 30.5 6.6 87 210 2.4 07 Oct 920
(2017b) basin, paraffin wax
Ansari et al. (2013) Stearic acid as PCM Errachidia 31.5 4.6 43 – – 15 Jun 900
Omara et al. Black sand bed basin Kafr El-sheikh 31.0 4.8 42 – 3.7 07 Aug 1100
(2014)
Kabeel et al. Graphite heat storage in the – – 7.7 75 – – 05 Sep 1050
(2018) basin
Deshmukh et al. Sand bed heat storage inside Chandrapur 19.5 2.5 3 – – 02 May 950
(2017) the basin
Tabrizi & Sharak, Sand bed heat storage in the Zahedan 29.5 3.0 75 – – Apr 1000
(2010) basin
Dumka & Mishra, Sand bed heat storage in the Madhya 23.5 2.0 4 – – – 970
(2018) basin Pradesh
Yousef & Hassan, SWF on basin, embedded pin New Borg El- 30.5 3.7 13 – 5.0 02 Sep 920
(2019) fins in PCM Arab
Yousef & Hassan, Embedded Pin fins in PCM New Borg El- 30.5 3.8 17 – 5.4 02 Sep 920
(2019) Arab
Cheng et al. (2019) Shaped-stabilized PCM on Hefei 31.0 3.4 43 – 3.0 06 Jun 880
basin
Kabeel et al. Graphite nanoparticles mixed Tanta 30.4 8.5 95 – – Aug-Oct 1100
(2019a) in paraffin wax
Rajasekhar et al. Al2O3 Nano-composite mixed Bangalore 12.5 4.3 55 – – 22 May 1200
(2015) in Paraffin wax
Rajasekhar et al. Paraffin wax as PCM Bangalore 12.5 4.2 50 – – 22 May 1200
(2015)
El-Bialy et al. Suspended 20 kg plate made New Borg El- 30.5 4.6 42 – – 04 Oct 800
(2014) of iron inside basin Arab
Samuel et al. Ball rock salt heat storage on – – 3.7 68 – 1.0 26 Mar –
(2016) basin
El-Sebaii et al. Paraffin wax as PCM Jeddah 21.0 9.0 80 – – 11 Jun 950
(2009)
Murugavel et al. Quartzite rocks layer Kovilpatti 9.0 2.1 6 – – Sep-Oct 900
(2010)
Khalifa & Hamood, Insulation layer 60 mm thick Iraq 33.0 3.3 82 – – Apr –
(2009)
Arunkumar et al. Bubble wrap insulation layer Chennai 13.1 2.3 21 – 0.5 02 Jul 842
(2018)
Arunkumar et al. Sawdust insulation layer Chennai 13.1 2.1 11 – 0.9 02 Jul 842
(2018)

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M. Mohsenzadeh et al.
Fig. 8. The schematics of PSS employing PCM beneath basin for heat storage improvement (a) stepped basin (Dashtban and Tabrizi, 2011), (b) V-corrugated basin
boosted with copper tubes (Shalaby et al, 2016), (c) single flat basin incorporated with pin fins embedded in PCM (Yousefand Hassan, 2019), and (d) V-corrugated
basin with pyramid cover (Kabeel et al., 2017b).
in implementing nanotechnology on the engineering of interfacial
porous media with high capillarity and coating the exterior surfaces
with plasmonic nanoparticles to enhance solar radiation absorption. It
could be an ultimate design for heat absorption enhancement; however,
further research is required to make them cost-effective and easy to
synthesise to be employed in a remote area.
Sometimes, floating foams can reduce the performance of the system
if they block the incident solar radiation reaching the basin. These
structures are not designed to have high thermal inertia to serve as heat
storage media for the PSS instead of the basin. Using nanoparticles
suspended in bulk water appears to enhance the radiation absorptivity
of the bulk water without obstructing the incident solar radiation
reaching the basin. Nanoparticles also increase the thermal conductivity
of the water (Sahota and Tiwari, 2016b). Sahota and Tiwari, (2016a)
used Al2O3 nanoparticles (0.12 %wt) in the bulk water of CPSS. The
thermal conductivity of the mixture was measured at 0.70 W m− 1 ◦ C− 1.
It was 17% more than that for pure water. With the improved thermal
properties of bulk water, this study reported a 12% increase in water
yield. Sharshir et al. (2017) examined graphite nanoparticles (1.0 %wt)
and copper oxide micro-flake nanoparticles (1.0 %wt) in bulk water of
PSS. Graphite outperformed copper oxide and exhibited 10% greater
water yield.
5. Heat storage Enhancement: Basin and envelope design
In conventional passive solar stills, the main proportion of the
distilled water is generated during the day while solar radiation is
available. Fig. 7 depicts how the temperature of bulk water in a CPSS,
typically changes with respect to the variation of incident solar radiation
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Solar Energy 228 (2021) 594–611
during the day and its consequence on water generation rate. When the
incident solar radiation flux reduces, the bulk water temperature falls
causing the evaporation rate to drop. This is because, the system has less
input energy, while the heat loss is still happening through the cover and
sidewalls, and the PSS does not have enough heat stored to compensate
for the heat loss. This temperature profile has a similar shape among
different studies, and is representative of the available heat energy in the
system. It usually begins at ambient temperature in the early morning;
and rises sharply before peaking just after midday; before subsequently
falling to a medium–low in the afternoon and continuing to decrease at a
moderate rate. The new designs for improving the heat storage potential
in solar stills aim to re-distribute the temperature profile to a new one
shown in Fig. 7 by storing the excess input heat during the daytime to be
used for the production of water after sunset, and hence, extending the
period of water generation. This reallocates the peak temperature during
the middle of the day to a lower temperature and extends the temper­
ature profile. By doing so, the heat loss during midday is reduced since
the temperature difference with the ambient air becomes smaller. In
addition, extending the water generation period to the night time can
increase the condensation rate because the ambient temperature is
lower at night with an increase in the temperature difference between
water vapour and the condensation surface.
In this regard, studies examined utilising phase change materials
(PCM) to store the excess thermal energy in the form of latent heat
(Kumar et al, 2019; Rajasekhar and Eswaramoorthy, 2015; Yousef and
Hassan, 2019). Paraffins (alkanes mixtures) and hydrated salts (Joulin et
al, 2009) are widely used in this application. Sensible heat storage
materials such as gravel, sand, graphite were also examined in studies
(Deshmukh and Thombre, 2017; Dumka and Mishra, 2018; El-Bialy,
M. Mohsenzadeh et al.
Fig. 9. The photos of latent and sensible heat storage materials used in CPSS (a) Paraffin wax & graphite nanoparticles (Kabeel et al., 2019a) (b) SSPCM blocks
(Paraffin wax, high-density polyethylene and expanded graphite (5 %wt)) (Cheng et al, 2019), (c) rock, brick, steel chips, and (d) concrete debris used in the basin
(Murugavel et al, 2010).
2014; Kaviti et al, 2016; Omara and Kabeel, 2014; Tabrizi and Sharak,
2010). These can store a considerable amount of heat and are readily
available in remote areas. Water itself was also used to store extra heat
as it has a high thermal capacity compared to many materials (El-Agouz,
2014). Moreover, in designing for heat storage improvement, it is
necessary to reduce the heat loss from the envelope of PSS which in­
cludes the bottom and the slide walls because the higher the tempera­
ture of the bulk water, the higher the rate of evaporation (Muftah et al,
2018). Several studies examined the performance of PSS with various
insulation materials (Arunkumar et al, 2018; Khalifa and Hamood,
2009). Table 3 provides detailed information and data from major
studies on various designs for heat storage improvements. It includes
design specifications, dates and the location of experiments for each
study.
5.1. Latent heat storage
The latent heat of fusion is usually much higher than the energy
required to increase the temperature by 1℃. At 1 atm, the latent heat of
fusion for water is 333.7 kJ kg− 1, however, its specific heat is only 4.2 kJ
kg− 1℃-1. PCMs in the structure of PSS (shown in Fig. 8) can store excess
heat during the peak hours of incident solar radiation and transfer it to
the bulk water during night-time. PCMs are inexpensive and ideal for the
performance enhancement of PSS in remote areas. El-Sebaii et al. (2009)
examined stearic acid PCM. The material has a melting point of 52◦ C and
a latent heat of 169 kJ kg− 1. They observed a significant increase in
water yield during night-time, yet a minor decrease during daytime. The
study reported 83% increase in water yield during the summer. Simi­
larly, Ansari et al. (2013) reported 43% increase in summer. This study
observed that the highest performance is obtained once the melting
point of the PCM is equal to the peak temperature of the basin.
PCM is used in different structures of PSS. Dashtban and Tabrizi,
(2011) used PCM beneath a stepped basin as shown in Fig. 8(a). They
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Solar Energy 228 (2021) 594–611
reported 31% increase in water yield compared to CPSS without PCM
during the summer in Zahedan, Iran. Kabeel et al. (2017b) tested a
pyramid PSS shown in Fig. 8(d) with PCM beneath the v-corrugated
basin. The experiment results in summer showed a water yield of 6.6 and
3.5 kg m− 2 d-1 with and without PCM. The UWC was estimated at $0.024
L-1. Shalaby et al. (2016) used a bundle of drilled copper tubes inside
PCM as shown in Fig. 8(b) “to accommodate for the increased volume of
the melted wax and to the emergence of the air bubbles from the wax.”
They reported the UWC of $0.083 L-1 and 12% increase in water yield.
The thermal conductivity of Paraffin wax is low (~0.38 W m− 1 K− 1).
Rajasekhar et al. (2015) mixed Al2O3 nanoparticles in Paraffin wax to
make a nano-composite PCM. Nanoparticles in the mixture increase the
thermal conductivity across the PCM. The experiments showed 55%
increase in water yield (4.35 kg m− 2 d-1) with a thermal efficiency of
45% which is 20% higher than CPSS. Kabeel et al. (2019a) mixed
graphite nanoparticles with paraffin wax (shown in Fig. 9(a)) to increase
the thermal conductivity. The mixture of Paraffin wax with graphite (20
%wt) improved the thermal efficiency of a CPSS from 32% to 65% with a
water yield of 8.52 kg m− 2 d-1. Yousef and Hassan, (2019) embedded pin
fins in paraffin wax shown in Fig. 8(c). The fins were attached to the
bottom of the basin as a heat sink. The experiment reported 17% in­
crease in water yield compared to CPSS and produced water at the rate
of 3.81 kg m− 2 d-1 with the thermal efficiency of 38% and UWC of
$0.054 L-1. Cheng et al. (2019) used shape-stabilized PCM (SSPCM)
composed of Paraffin wax, high-density polyethylene and expanded
graphite (5 %wt) placed in the basin of a CPSS as shown in Fig. 9(b). The
PCM composite, characterised with a stable shape, has a thermal con­
ductivity of 1.5 W m− 1 K− 1 and a solar absorptivity of 0.94 which led to
a 43% increase in water yield. The UWC of $0.030 L-1 and $0.024 L-1 for
CPSS with and without shaped-stabilized PCM were estimated. In this
arrangement, since the SSPCM is in direct contact with the bulk water in
the basin, there is a concern that melting PCM could contaminate water.
This method therefore requires further examination.
M. Mohsenzadeh et al. Solar Energy 228 (2021) 594–611

Table 4
An overview of studies covered in this review on condensation area of PSS for wate vapour condensation enhancement.
Reference Specific design/modification Location Latitude Productivity Increase in Capital Water Experiment Peak solar
(◦ N) (kg m− 2 d-1) output cost cost date radiation
(%) (US $) (¢ L-1) (W m− 2)

Arunkumar et al. Hemispherical cover/water-film Coimbatore 11.0 4.2 – 233 1.7 15 Apr 732
(2012) cover cooling
Arunkumar et al. Hemispherical cover only Coimbatore 11.0 3.6 – 210 1.8 15 Apr 732
(2012)
Ismail, (2009) Hemispherical cover Dhahran 26.0 5.7 – 548 – 15 May 975
Taamneh, (2012) Pyramid cover/Low-pressure Tafil 32.0 3.2 25 – – Jun 1000
evaporation chamber
Taamneh, (2012) Pyramid cover Tafil 32.0 2.6 0 – – Jun 1000
Ahmed et al. (2018) Built-in secondary condenser/2- Bahrain 26.0 1.3 38 – – Jan –
slot separator wall
Ahmed et al. (2018) Built-in secondary condenser/1- Bahrain 26.0 1.2 23 – – Jan –
slot separator wall
Kabeel et al., 2017a Ext.* condenser/low-pressure Egypt 31.1 3.6 106 – – 23 Sep 850
chamber/Cu2O nanoparticles
Kabeel et al., 2017a Ext. condenser/low-pressure Egypt 31.1 2.9 86 – – 24 Nov 750
chamber/Cu2O nanoparticles
Kabeel et al., 2017a Ext. condenser/low-pressure Egypt 31.1 2.5 42 – – 25 May 950
chamber
Al-Hamadani & Built-in secondary condenser/ Varanasi 25.0 5.7 33 – – 08 Jun 850
Shukla, (2013) PCM
Refalo et al. (2016) External condenser Msida 35.0 5.1 9 – – Aug –
Bhardwaj et al. Ext. multi-channel condenser Lab – – 65 – – – 625
(2015)
Kumar et al. (2016) Ext. condenser/low-pressure Kovilpatti 9.0 2.7 40 97 2.6 Apr 900
chamber/agitator in water
Moh’d A & Al- Built-in second condenser/Int.* – – 6.8 67 – – – 1100
Ammari, (2016) reflector/ PV cells on basin
Monowe et al. Ext. condenser/Ext. reflector/ Gaborone 24.3 S ◦
10.0 – – – 21 Dec –
(2011) low-pressure chamber
Sathyamurthy et al. Pyramid cover Chennai 13.5 4.3 – – – 02 Jan 840
(2014)
Sathyamurthy et al. Built-in secondary condenser/ Chennai 13.5 1.6 52 – – Jun 950
(2015) PCM
Sathyamurthy et al. Built-in secondary condenser Chennai 13.5 1.1 – – – Jun 950
(2015)
Ahsan et al. (2014) Plastic low weight pyramid Putrajaya 3.0 1.6 – 35 – 01 Feb 900
cover
Bhardwaj et al. Multi-channel plastic – – 0.8 – – – – 0
(2016) condensation surface/inflatable
PSS
Rahbar et al. (2016) Thermoelectric cooler on Semnan 35.3 3.0 – – – 27 Aug 1000
condensation surface
Dumka et al. (2019) Permanent ferrite ring magnets Madhya 23.3 1.4 49 – – – 1009
on the basin Pradesh
*
Ext.: external, Int.: internal

5.2. Sensible heat storage
Placing gravel, sand, or graphite in the basin is an easy way to in­
crease the heat storage capacity of PSS. It is inexpensive, durable, and
there are no contamination concerns associated with these materials
being in direct contact with the bulk water in contrast to PCMs (Desh­
mukh and Thombre, 2017; Dumka and Mishra, 2018; El-Bialy, 2014;
Kaviti et al, 2016; Omara and Kabeel, 2014; Tabrizi and Sharak, 2010).
Kalidasa et al. (2010) examined different materials such as quartzite
rock, naturally washed stones, red brick debris, concrete pieces, and
mild steel scarps shown in Fig. 9(c)&(d). Their study found that a layer
of quartzite rocks with a depth of 19 mm over the basin increased the
water yield by 5%. Kabeel et al. (2018) found that graphite was more
suitable than sand, glass balls, or black gravel to be used because of
higher thermal conductivity. Tabrizi and Sharak, (2010) used a sand bed
beneath the basin of CPSS. They achieved 3.0 kg m− 2 d-1 in water yield
showing 75% increase compared to PSS without sand bed. Similarly,
Omara and Kabeel, (2014) reported 42% increase in water yield for the
use of volcanic black sand covered the basin surface. The average
thermal efficiency of 49% and UWC of $0.035 L-1 were reported in this
study. Samuel et al. (2016) used rock salt encapsulated in plastic balls of
60 mm size placed in the basin. It increased the performance of CPSS by
68% with the water yield of 3.7 kg m− 2 d-1, with an estimated payback
period of 4.3 months.
The sensible heat storage materials also benefit the basin by
increasing the contact area with bulk water. Velmurugan et al. (2009)
used stainless steel sponge on the basin incorporated with fins. The
water yield increase of 15% was reported associated with the steel
sponge. El-Bialy, (2014) suspended a plate made of metal while it was
submerged in the bulk water above the basin surface as shown in Fig. 5
(d). He used different materials including copper, aluminium, stainless
steel, and mica with different water depths and observed the highest
performance was achieved with mica and an upper water mass of 10 kg
and lower mass of 70 kg. The study reported 42% increase in water yield
compared to CPSS.
5.3. Insulation layer of basin and walls
In heat storage improvement, design to reduce the heat loss from the
bottom and sidewalls of PSS by selecting an appropriate insulation layer
is necessary (Fath and Elsherbiny, 1993). The difference between an
insulated CPSS with a layer of 60 mm foam when compared to one with
no foam results in bulk water approximately 13℃ warmer and an
increased water yield of 80% (Bait and Si-Ameur, 2017). This highlights

605
M. Mohsenzadeh et al.
Fig. 10. The schematic of (a) hemispherical PSS (Arunkumar et al, 2012), (b) multi-channel cover (Bhardwaj et al, 2016), and the Photo of (c) triangular pyramid
PSS (Sathyamurthy et al, 2014), and (d) commercial conical PSS, Watercone Inc. (2020).
the importance of using an insulation layer for the PSS structure such as
Polystyrene foam (EPS), bubble-wrap, or sawdust (Arunkumar et al,
2018).
6. Vapour condensation Improvement: Condenser design
The distance and the temperature difference between the water
surface and the condensation surface affect the performance of PSS. For
water vapour condensation improvement, studies have examined
different designs of cover surface, and the evaporation chamber. A va­
riety of geometries have been used to make the top cover of PSS such as
double slope, hemispherical, and pyramid covers which increases the
available area for the condensation of water vapour and improves the
condensation rate (Ahsan et al, 2014; Andrew et al, 2014; Arunkumar et
al, 2012; Bait and Si-Ameur, 2017; Bhardwaj et al, 2015; Ismail, 2009;
Pinheiro et al, 2018; Sathyamurthy et al, 2014; Tiwari et al, 1986;
Watercone Inc., 2020). Directing some proportion of water vapour to an
external or built-in condenser characterising a larger area and lower
temperature also improves the condensation rate (Fath and Elsherbiny,
1993; Kabeel et al., 2017a; Kumar and Dwivedi, 2015; Moh’d A and Al-
Ammari, 2016; Ahmed et al., 2018).
In addition, studies explored different approaches to reduce the
temperature of the condensation surface and prepare greater tempera­
ture differences with bulk water (Andrew Jones et al., 2014; Kabeel
et al., 2019a; Pinheiro et al., 2018; Rahbar et al., 2015; Sathyamurthy
et al., 2014; Sharshir et al., 2017). This section aims to discuss different
approaches on this matter, identifies knowledge gaps, and gives insights
for future studies. Table 4 provides detailed information and data from
major studies that investigated various designs for condensation
improvement and includes design specifications, dates, and the location
of experiments for each study.
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Solar Energy 228 (2021) 594–611
6.1. Different geometries of the cover
A larger condensation surface area increases the chance of water
vapour molecules to reach the condensation surface and turn into liquid.
Studies explored replacing the transparent flat cover on top of CPSS with
different geometries such as double slope, hemispherical, pyramid,
conical, etc. made of transparent materials. Some of which are shown in
Fig. 10. Perhaps the closest geometry to the flat plate would be the
double slope cover which is widely used on PSS (Fig. 8(d)). This ge­
ometry increases the condensation rate by providing an extended and
cooler surface for water vapour. Normally, half of the cover stays in the
shade of the front slope and thereby, receives less heat energy from the
incident solar radiation causing lower temperature. This design is more
effective in warmer weather (Tiwari et al, 1986).
Arunkumar et al. (2012) used hemispherical cover on a CPSS shown
in Fig. 10(a). The water yield of 3.6 kg m− 2 d-1 with the thermal effi­
ciency of 34% was reported for this geometry. The cover added an extra
15% to the total cost of PSS with the estimated UWC of $0.017 L-1. The
study also employed a method creating a water film on the cover to cool
down it and improves the thermal efficiency by another 8%. The
outcome of different studies utilising hemispherical cover is provided in
Table 4. A pyramid cover also performs similar to a semi-hemisphere.
Sathyamurthy et al. (2014) examined effective factors on the perfor­
mance of a PSS using a triangular pyramid cover as shown in Fig. 10(c).
They observed higher water yield during windier days. For instance,
they reported 15% increase in water yield for changing the wind speed
from 1.5 m s− 1 to 4.5 m s− 1 on average. Kabeel et al. (2017b) found that
the pyramid glass cover has lower UWC compared to other geometries
studied in their work. They estimated a UWC of $0.014 L-1 and a water
yield of 4.2 kg m− 2 d-1. Geometries that make the condensation cover
closer to the bulk water surface benefits the condensation rate. Studies
showed that for the same temperature difference between bulk water
and the condensation surface, the lower the height of the evaporation
M. Mohsenzadeh et al.
Fig. 11. The schematic of PSS with (a) external condenser (Fath and Elsherbiny, 1993), (b) external condenser preheating feedwater (Kabeel et al., 2017a) (c) built-
in condenser with narrow openings on the separating wall (Ahmed et al, 2018), and (d) a built-in condenser with straight fins on the condensation surface (Moh’d A
and Al-Ammari, 2016).
chamber, the higher the rate of condensation (Andrew et al, 2014).
Using plastic materials allows building complex geometries at a low
cost. Watercone Inc, (2020) is a commercial portable PSS; it is light­
weight and inexpensive made of a plastic conical condensation surface
shown in Fig. 10(d). For the basin diameter of 0.8 m, it generates be­
tween 1.0 kg and 1.7 kg of water per day. Bhardwaj et al. (2016) tested a
cover with a multi-channel geometry shown in Fig. 10(b) which
increased the condensation area by 7.5 times compared to a flat cover.
The fabricated inflatable prototype made of a clear plastic sheet in this
work showed a significant reduction in UWC. They reported 65% in­
crease in water yield with an average thermal efficiency of 50%. They
indicated that the air movement inside the evaporation chamber
increased the water yield by 27%. For a similar design, Ahsan et al.
(2014) achieved 1.6 kg m− 2 d-1 of water yield with the capital cost of
$35. This is a significant alternative for remote areas or disaster-stricken
areas to fabricate plastic portable PSS which is low cost and easy to set
up.
6.2. Secondary condensation area
Employing an external or built-in condensation area in the structure
of PSS to discharge some proportion of the water vapour into an addi­
tional condenser area benefits the condensation rate. With this
arrangement, water vapour has an extended evaporation chamber to fill
and a larger surface with a lower temperature to condense. It moves via
natural circulation, diffusion, and purging around the main evaporation
chamber and the extra condenser space which help to increase the
evaporation rate on bulk water surface (Estahbanati et al, 2016). Studies
examined different designs of secondary condensation area to drive
vapour into the secondary area. This arrangement is somewhat more
complex and costly which is unfavourable for remote areas. Fig. 11
provides several PSS designs employing external and built-in
607
Solar Energy 228 (2021) 594–611
condensers.
Ahmed et al. (2018) replaced the back wall of a CPSS with a galva­
nized iron sheet and separated the evaporation chamber using a wall to
make a built-in condenser as shown in Fig. 11(c). They put only two
narrow slots on the separating wall between the evaporation chamber
and the secondary condenser area to avoid the back wall from receiving
solar radiation and getting warm. With this arrangement, the study re­
ported a 7℃ reduction on the back wall temperature and a 38% increase
in water yield compared to CPSS. Moh’d A and Al-Ammari, (2016) used
straight fins as a heat sink on both sides of the condensation surface as
shown in Fig. 10(d) and reported a 68% increase in water yield. External
condensers outperform built-in condenser types by preheating the input
saltwater as shown in Fig. 10(b). Studies examined external condensers
used an exhaust fan to drive vapour into the secondary condenser space
(El-Samadony et al., 2015; El-Swify and Metias, 2002; Kabeel et al.,
2017a; Kalogirou, 2014; Kumar et al., 2016; Monowe et al., 2011; Rufuss
et al., 2016; Tanaka, 2011). They reported about 42% increase in water
yield compared to a CPSS with no external condenser.
6.3. Improving the conditions for condensation
Cooling the condensation surface to reach a larger temperature dif­
ference with the bulk water has been examined before. Studies used
different methods to cool down the cover during the day (Arunkumar et
al, 2012; Rahbar et al, 2015; Sharshir et al, 2017). Sharshir et al. (2017)
used a water film cooling over the glass cover of CPSS and reduced the
temperature of the cover between 4 ◦ C and 19 ◦ C and reported a 7%
increase in water yield. Rahbar et al. (2016) used a thermoelectric cooler
(TEC) on the condensation surface of a small size CPSS. 72% of the total
water yield was condensed under the TEC which covered about a quarter
of the condensation surface.
Studies used permanent magnets placed on the basin surface as an
M. Mohsenzadeh et al.
Fig. 12. Suitable designs of components for performance improvement of passive solar stills in remote areas. UWC denotes unit water cost.
approach to increase the difference between the partial pressure of
vapour near bulk water and the condensation surface (Cai et al, 2009;
Dumka et al, 2019; Guo et al, 2012; Holysz et al, 2007; Wang et al,
2018). Dumka et al. (2019) reported 80% increase at the vapour pres­
sure difference using ferrite ring magnets and 49% increase in water
yield as the consequence of using magnets in a CPSS. The magnets
benefit the thermal storage capacity of the PSS by additional thermal
inertia to the system which was observed consequently on the extended
water generation period of CPSS.
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Solar Energy 228 (2021) 594–611
7. Identifying the most suitable designs of components and
recommendations for future research
Fig. 12 presents the suitable designs of components discussed in this
review for performance improvement of passive solar stills in remote
areas. Based on the results summarized in Tables 1- 4, the figure com­
pares the water yield increase and the estimated reduction in unit water
cost (UWC) associated with different designs. It is shown that in
designing for increased solar radiation collection, the placement of
external flat plate reflectors at a close distance to PSS is recommended as
it considerably increases the incident solar radiation on the cover
without shading the CPSS whilst remaining easy to deploy with no need
for the modification of the CPSS. However, utilizing both internal and
M. Mohsenzadeh et al.
external reflectors have the most potential to increase water yield and
reduce UWC of CPSS. Further work is needed to determine the optimum
orientation of external reflectors particularly for those placed at a close
distance. The main issues that have been identified in this review, which
should be considered in future studies, include:
- the undesirable effect of external reflectors on the extra temperature
increase of the cover;
- the obstruction of internal reflectors to solar radiation due to the
formation of distillate droplets on its surface; and
- the reliability of external reflectors against wind gusts in remote
areas.
Among the different approaches for basin design improvement
depicted in Fig. 12, the concave wick basin shows a significant effect on
the PSS with a 95% increase in water yield and a 20% reduction in UWC
in return for an extra 17% on the capital cost of the CPSS. The wick layer
on the surface of the basin has a significant potential for improving solar
radiation absorption and the contact area with water. Only having an
additional wick layer on the basin of a CPSS under a controlled rate of
wetness can increase the water yield by 35% with only 5% additional
cost. This represents a simple easy and low-cost solution to improve the
performance of a CPSS. However, ensuring the wick layer does not
drying out or becoming completely soaked in water is still a challenge.
Further work is required on the application of wick material and the
most appropriate tilt angle of the basin to address this challenge.
Additionally, the outcome of recent studies shows the benefits of
implementing nanotechnology for making interfacial porous media with
high capillarity, coated with plasmonic nanoparticles. This design could
become the best approach for heat absorption enhancement, yet further
research is required.
Another focus of previous studies is to extend the water generation
period of PSS (beyond the time that solar radiation is available) and to
induce a steady rate of water yield. This can be achieved by storing the
excess input heat during the daytime to be used for the production of
water after sunset. This review highlights the benefits of using insulation
layers on the walls to reduce heat loss and recommends PCM materials
for the most effective energy storage compared to other methods
assessed in this review. As Fig. 12 shows, the arrangement can increase
the water yield by 55% with 16% reduction in UWC, but this is
achievable only with nanocomposite PCMs. More studies are required to
find less costly PCMs with high thermal conductivity which are simple-
to-fabricate by remote communities. Based on the studies reviewed, this
review recommends examining the combination of Paraffin and metal
sponges or chips as a potential alternative in future studies.
In design for vapour condensation improvement, the hemispherical
cover is more convenient due to its ease of fabrication and low capital
cost compared to other cover geometries investigated in this article. A
variety of methods were considered to reduce the temperature of the
condensation surface such as the use of a secondary condenser, water-
film cooling, thermoelectric cooling, etc. But these were found to not
only increase the complexity of the PSS, but also require electricity input
which might not be available in remote areas.
Recent advancements in the fabrication of inflatable geometries
using transparent plastic films show great potential for capital cost
reduction of the PSS based on different studies conducted in recent
years. These materials and geometries could replace conventional ma­
terials (such as steel and glass) with more sustainable and recyclable
materials.
8. Conclusions
This article has presented a review of performance improvement
methods and water cost reduction approaches for passive solar stills
associated with new designs and modifications dignified for remote
areas. Several knowledge gaps and opportunities for future research
609
Solar Energy 228 (2021) 594–611
have been identified to advance the development of passive solar stills.
The new designs of components were categorised into four processes
covering all the steps that take place in the solar thermal desalination
process to generate drinking water. The individual effect of each
component on performance parameters (water yield, thermal efficiency,
and unit water cost) was reported and discussed. The details of the
studies were reviewed, compiled, and presented in tables to give a broad
view of activities in the area, and to provide future studies with data for
validation purposes.
The most effective designs of components with respect to their
application in remote or disaster-stricken areas with no access to power
infrastructure were determined. In addition, issues around the structural
design complexity and operational reliability associated with new de­
signs were presented. This article found the following items as the most
convenient design improvements for remote areas—with the focus of
water yield increase, cost reduction, and being simple-to-imple­
ment—and elaborated the research avenues for further work in future
studies:
• The internal reflectors combined with external reflectors placed at a
close distance from PSS in an optimum orientation, for insolation
collection improvement;
• Concave basin covered with a layer of wick fabric under the
controlled level of wetness, for heat absorption improvement;
• Hemispherical cover fabricated with recyclable transparent plastic
materials placed on the top of the PSS, for water vapour condensa­
tion improvement; and
• Nanocomposite phase change materials placed beneath the basin
incorporated with fins embedded, for heat storage improvement.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Milad Mohsenzadeh: Conceptualization, Methodology, Data cura­
tion, Writing – original draft, Visualization. Lu Aye: Supervision,
Writing – review & editing, Project administration, Funding acquisition.
Philip Christopher: Validation, Supervision, Writing – review &
editing.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
Milad Mohsenzadeh would like to gratefully acknowledge the
financial support for this research provided by The University of Mel­
bourne through the Melbourne Research Scholarship award.
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