FOUNDATION OF SPECIAL AND INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

This course deals with philosophies, theories and legal bases of inclusive and special
needs education, typical and atypical development of children, learning characteristics of
students with special educational needs (gifted and talented, learners with difficulty
seeing, learners with difficulty hearing, learners with difficulty communicating, learners
with difficulty walking/moving, learners with difficulty remembering/focusing, learners
with difficulty with self-care) and strategies in teaching and managing these learners in
the regular inclusive class.

After completing this course, the student must be able to:

LO1. Discuss the legal, theoretical, and philosophical foundations of inclusive and
special needs education.
LO2. Explain the role of special needs education in inclusive education.
LO3. Describe the nature and learning characteristics of students with additional
needs; and
LO4. Articulate general instructrional and classroom management strategies that
work best in inclusive classes.

To ensure the accomplishment of the learning outcomes, this course will cover the
following topics for you to master:

Chapter 1: Foundations of Special Education

In this chapter, your focus is on the definition and categories of Exceptionality. You will
be presented with the brief historical, philosophical, and legal backgrounds of Special
Education that will serve as your springboard in discovering the core and essence of
Special Education in promoting the welfare of children with additional needs.

Chapter 2: Components of Special Needs Education

Special Needs Education can be intimidating to beginning teachers, especially to
student teachers. To ease your apprehension about handling students with Special
Needs, this chapter will walk you through the step-by-step process of Special
Education. You might be suprised to know that that many professionals are part of this
process, but it should be comforting that you are not alone in your advocacy as a
regular classroom teacher in implementing Special Education.
Chapter 3: Introduction to Inclusive Education
Inclusive education is not a mere trend, in this chapter you will dive deeper into its real
meaning and significance, especially in the context of the Philippines. Just like a
warrior preparing for war, you will be oriented about the enemies that you might
encounter in implementing Inclusive education. But do not be discouraged, as you have
greater alliances that will empower you in your quest to spreading a culture of inclusion
in your classroom.

Chapter 4: Learners with Additional Needs

This is the last and the longest chapter as it contains the basic information of the eleven
categories of exceptional children. Each lesson presents the definition, identification,
psychological and behavioral characteristics, and educational approaches of a
category of exceptionality. The goal of this chapter is to help you become familiar with
every category and prepare yourself with strategies that you can use to make sure that
no child will be left behind forever.

Do NOT write on the handout. Handle it with care for the interest of the next users.
Handouts will be returned after the final examinations.
The username of your social media accounts like Facebook and Messenger must be
your real complete name. Use a profile picture that will show your face, wearing a
decent attire. Creativity and originality is NOT prohibited, but you are encouraged to
be modest as an undergraduate education students.
Practice faithfulness in small things. Those who cannot be faithful in small things
cannot be trusted with big things. Always remember that you are accountable for your
actions. Cheating and plagiarism are taken seriously.
For smooth and fast communication, maintain your active contact number. Do not be
changing your mobile numbers if unnecessary.
Above all, your safety and health are our concern. Always maintain the minimum
health guidelines provided by DOH and IATF. Wear face mask, bring your own
sanitizers, and maintain a 2-meter physical distancing.
Other policies will be discussed during the online class orientation.

This handout was compiled to be your guide and reference. Do not limit yourself with
this reference and try to explore more sources as you see fit. You might experience
bumps on the way, but with the help of your course facilitator and your enthusiasm, you
will finish this with flying colors.
1. Manage your time well. Schedule properly your reading assignments and your activity
accomplishments. Have your planner or calendar of activities ready. Remember you
have other handouts to read this semester.
2. Focus your attention. Make sure that you do things one at a time. Read the material over
and over until you are able to get the point of the lesson. If you do not understand the
lesson, you can read other materials found in other resources like the internet or books.
Do not forget, I am here to help and assist you. You can reach me through platforms I
will be giving you.
3. Give your best. Do not over nor underestimate this course, and work on your learning
tasks with utmost excellence. In doing the assessment tasks whether formative or
summative, target the highest standards because you are an ESSUnian.
4. Submit your outputs and answer online quizzes on time.
5. Be patient. I will do my best to give you my feedback on your work to ensure that you
are on the right track. Be patient with your instructor, but most of all, be patient with
yourself. Many things can be beyond your control, but you can also control how you will
react to things that you cannot change. Choose to hope, cling to hope, and channel hope
to those around you. When you feel hopeless, you can always get down on your knees.
6. Work Independently. It is expected that you work on the activities on your own. Your
family members and friends may support you but the activities must be done by you. As
ESSUnians, we always strive to exhibit our core values, which are Excellence, Integrity,
and Accountability.
7. Stay committed, if not motivated. Whatever knowledge or skill you are gaining from this
course will definitely help you in your career. Enjoy what you are doing and everything
else will follow. Do not be discouraged even when you are faced with family, financial,
nor health problems…but even if hope seemed to be out of reach—keep on going. The
going is tough—but you are tougher!
8. Contact me. If you need my help and guidance, do not hesitate to contact me thru email,
messenger, or SMS. As much as possible, send me a message during the times assigned
to the course ONLY during the weekdays. Remember, I am here to ensure that we go
through the completion of the course together.
 Weeks Topic Learning Outcomes Page No.
Week 1 Course Orientation
CHAPTER 1 Foundation of Special Education 9
Week 2 Lesson 1 10
Exceptionality and Special Education
Lesson 2 11
Historical and Sociocultural Foundations of Special
Education
Week 3 Lesson 3 13
Philosophical Foundation of Special Education
Lesson 4 14
Legal Foundation of Special Education
CHAPTER 2 Components of Special Needs Education 17
Week 4-5 Lesson 1 18
The Core of Special Education
Lesson 2 19
Special Education Process
Week 6 Lesson 3 27
Assessing Exceptionality
Lesson 4 29
Placement Options, Services, and Key Players in Special
Education
CHAPTER 3 Introduction to Inclusive Education 43
Week 7 Lesson 1 46
Inclusive Education: Its Pros and Cons
Lesson 2 47
Inclusive Education in the Philippines
Week 8 Lesson 3 49
Barriers and Supports to Inclusive Education
Week 9 MIDTERM EXAM
CHAPTER 4 Learners with Additional Needs 52
Week 10 Lesson 1 53
Learners with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities
Week 11 Lesson 2 58
Learners with Learning Disabilities
Week 12 Lesson 3 63
Learners with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
(ADHD)
Week 13 Lesson 4 65
Learners with Emotional or Behavioral Disorders
Week 14 Lesson 5 67
Learners with Autism Spectrum Disorder
Week 15 Lesson 6 69
Learners with Communication Disorders
Week 16 Lesson 7 70
Learners Who are Deaf and Hard of Hearing
Lesson 8 71
Learners with Blindness or Low Vision
Week 17 Lesson 9 75
Learners with Low-Incidence, Multiple, and Severe
Disabilities
Lesson 10 76
Learners with Physical Disabilities and Other Health
Impairments
Lesson 11 77
Learners with Special Gifts and Talents
Week 18 FINAL EXAM

To pass the course, you must:

1. Read all the course readings and watch the instructional videos.
2. Answer the weekly quizzes via Google classroom.
3. Submit the midterm and final projects.
4. Pass the midterm and final examinations.
NOTE: Class requirement is will be discussed with the class.

There will be four (4) rating periods: Preliminary Midterm, Midterm, Pre-Finals and
Finals.
1. The grades for each rating period shall be computed as:
60% - Class Standing (Chapter Exercises, Requirement/s)
40%- Major Examination (Midterms/Finals)
-------------------------------------------------------------
Grade for the corresponding rating period
2. Grade Point Average = (Midterm G. + Final G.)/2

• Ainscow, M. 1999. Understanding the Development of Inclusive Schools. Falmer

Press.
• Booth, T. & Ainscow, M. 2005. From Them to Us: An International Study of Inclusion
in Education. Taylor & Francis e-Library.
• Booth, T. & Statham, J. 2005. Developing Inclusive Teacher Education. Taylor &
Francis e-Library.
• Booth, T. & Statham, J. 2005. The Nature of Special Education. Taylor & Francis e-
Library.
• Child and Youth Welfare Code, P.D. No. 603, s.1974.
• Department of Education – Special Education Division. Handbook of Special
Education.
• Department of Education – Special Education Division. Policies and Guidelines for
Special Education.
• DepEd Orders
• Gargiulo, R. & Kilgo, J. 2005. Young Children with Special Needs. 2nd edition.
DELMAR CENGAGE Learning.
• Hallahan, D. P. & Kauffman, J. M. 2006. Exceptional Learners: Introduction to
Special Education. 10th Edition. Pearson.
• Hughes, M. T. & Talbott, E. 2017. The Wiley Handbook of Diversity in Special
Education
• Kauffman, J. M., & Hallahan, D. P. 2011. Handbook of Special Education. Taylor &
Francis.
• Republic Acts 7277; 9442; 10533
• Managing Children with Special Needs (Learning Disability, ADHD, Autism). 2009.
Rex Bookstore, Inc.
• Rix, J. Nind, M. Sheehy, K. Simmons, K., & Walsh, C. 2010. Equality, Participation
and Inclusion 1: Diverse perspectives. Taylor & Francis e-Library.
• Rix, J. Nind, M. Sheehy, K. Simmons, K., & Walsh, C. 2010. Equality, Participation
and Inclusion 2: Diverse contexts. Taylor & Francis e-Library.
• Santrock, J. W. 2011. Life-Span Development. 13th Edition. Mc-Graw Hill.
• UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities
• UNESCO. 1994. Salamanca Report.
CHAPTER 1 FOUNDATIONS OF SPECIAL EDUCATION
Lesson 1 EXCEPTIONALITY AND SPECIAL EDUCATION
Lesson 2 HISTORICAL AND SOCIOCULTURAL FOUNDATIONS OF SPED
Lesson 3 PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF SPED
Lesson 4 LEGAL FOUNDATIONS OF SPED

Chapter Goal
The purpose of this chapter is to discuss exceptionality and its categories, also
to give an introduction of special education as cornerstone in teaching learners
with exceptionalities.
Chapter Objectives
After reading and reviewing this chapter, you should be able to
1. Define exceptional children and special education.
2. Explain the difference between impairment, disability, and handicap.
3. Discuss the contributions of Special Education pioneers.
4. Give a brief historical background of Special Education in the Philippines.
5. Explain the philosophical cornerstone of Special Education.
6. Discuss the importance of legal knowledge in protecting the welfare of
exceptional children.
CHAPTER 1 FOUNDATIONS OF SPECIAL EDUCATION (SPED)

“Every child deserves a champion: an adult who will never give up on them, who
understands the power of connection and insists they become the best they can possibly
be.” -Rita Pierson, Educator

A good teacher believes in the ability of his/her student—that the student is able to achieve,
maximize his/her abilities, provided appropriate support and accepting environment. All
teachers must be aware of the different exceptionalities, and the culture of inclusivity must
be shared and practiced in and out of the classrooms. This will ensure that ALL types of
students will be able to thrive in school, not just survive inside the classroom but in the
real world.

In this chapter, you will be introduced to the reality of disability and the different
exceptionalities. You will also read on the different facets of special education: its
historical and sociocultural, philosophical, and legal foundations. These things you must
take to heart because they are not mere concepts, exceptional children exist and they need
quality education, quality educators.

Lesson 1 EXCEPTIONALITY AND SPECIAL EDUCATION

Who are EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN?

• Exceptional children are those whose physical attributes and/or learning abilities differ
from the norm, either above or below, to such an extent that an individualized program
of special education is necessary (Heward, Morgan, & Konrad, 2017).
• Exceptional children are those who require special education and related services if they
are to realize their full human potential (Kauffman & Hallahan, 2005a).
• Exceptional children include children who experience difficulties in learning as well as
those whose performance is so advanced (Heward, Morgan, & Konrad, 2017).

Impairment
• Impairment refers to the loss or reduced function of a particular body part or organ (e.g.
missing limb) (Heward, Morgan, & Konrad, 2017).

Disability
• A disability exists when an impairment limits a person’s ability to perform certain tasks
in the same way that most people (Heward, Morgan, & Konrad, 2017).
• A disability is an inability to do something (Kauffman & Hallahan, 2005a).
Handicap
• A handicap refers to the problems a person with a disability encounters when interacting
with the environment (Heward, Morgan, & Konrad, 2017).
• A handicap is an imposed disadvantage on an individual (Kauffman & Hallahan, 2005a).

SPECIAL EDUCATION
• Special education is especially designed instruction that meets the unusual needs of an
exceptional student (Kauffman & Hallahan, 2005a).
• Special Education is individually planned, specialized, intensive, goal-directed
instruction (Heward, Morgan, & Konrad, 2017).

Categories of Exceptional Children

• Intellectual Differences, including children who are intellectually superior (gifted) and
children who are slow to learn (have intellectual and developmental disabilities).
• Communication Differences, including Autism, Deaf and Hard of Hearing, Language
Impairment and Learning Disability
• Behavioral Differences, including children who are emotionally disturbed or socially
maladjusted.
• Multiple and Severe Handicapping Conditions, including children with combinations of
impairments (such as cerebral palsy and mental retardation, or deafness and blindness).
• Physical Differences, including Physical Disability and Blind and Low Vision

Lesson 2 HISTORICAL AND SOCIOCULTURAL FOUNDATIONS OF SPED

Pioneering Contributors to the Development of Special Education

Jacob Rodrigues Pereine (1715–1780)

Introduced the idea that persons who were deaf could be taught to communicate.
Developed an early form of sign language. Provided inspiration and encouragement for the
work of Itard and Seguin.

Jean-Marc Gaspard Itard (1774–1838)

A French doctor who secured lasting fame because of his systematic efforts to educate an
adolescent thought to be severely mentally retarded. Recognized the importance of
sensory stimulation.
Louis Braille (1809–1852)
A French educator, himself blind, who developed a tactile system of reading and writing
for people who were blind. His system, based on a cell of six embossed dots, is still used
today. This standardized code is known as Standard English Braille.

Edouard Seguin (1812–1880)

A pupil of Itard, Seguin was a French physician responsible for developing teaching
methods for children with mental retardation. His training emphasized sensorimotor
activities. After immigrating to the United States, he helped to found an organization that
was the forerunner of the American Association on Intellectual and Developmental
Disabilities.

Francis Galton (1822–1911)

Scientist concerned with individual differences. As a result of studying eminent persons,
he believed that genius is solely the result of heredity. Those with superior abilities are
born, not made.

Alexander Graham Bell (1847–1922)

Pioneering advocate of educating children with disabilities in public schools. As a teacher
of students with hearing impairments, Bell promoted the use of residual hearing and
developing the speaking skills of students who are deaf.

Alfred Binet (1857–1911)

A French psychologist who constructed the first standardized developmental assessment
scale capable of quantifying intelligence. The original purpose of this test was to identify
students who might profit from a special education and not to classify individuals on the
basis of ability. Also originated the concept of mental age with his student Theodore
Simon.

Maria Montessori (1870–1952)

Achieved worldwide recognition for her pioneering work with young children and
youngsters with mental retardation. First female to earn a medical degree in Italy. Expert
in early childhood education. Demonstrated that children are capable of learning at a very
early age when surrounded with manipulative materials in a rich and stimulating
environment. Believed that children learn best by direct sensory experience.

Lewis Terman (1877–1956)

An American educator and psychologist who revised Binet’s original assessment
instrument. The result was the publication of the Stanford-Binet Scale of Intelligence in
1916. Terman developed the notion of intelligence quotient, or IQ. Also famous for lifelong
study of gifted individuals. Considered the grandfather of gifted education.
Brief History of SPED In The Philippines

1907 - the establishment of the Insular School for the Deaf and the Blind, a residential
school located in Pasay City, Metro Manila by Dr. Delia Delight Rice, an American educator
1956 - a more formal training of teachers for children with mental retardation, hearing
impairment and visual impairment was offered at Baguio Vacation Normal School
1970 - The Insular School for the Deaf and the Blind was reorganized into two separate
government special schools: the Philippine National School for the Blind and the Philippine
School for the Deaf; training for teachers with behavioral problems started
1971 - DepEd issued a Memo on the duties of SPED Teacher for the blind

Lesson 3 PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF SPED

Every exceptional learner has a right to an education program that is suitable to his needs.
Special education shares with regular education basic responsibilities of the educational
system to fulfill the right of the child to develop his potential.

Revolutionary Ideas of First Special Educators

• Belief that every child should be educated to the greatest extent possible, because every
child can improve to some degree
• Carefully sequenced series of educational tasks, beginning with tasks the child can
perform and gradually leading to more complex learning
• Tutoring in functional skills, to make the child as self-sufficient and productive as
possible in everyday life
• Individualized instruction, in which the child’s characteristics, rather than prescribed
academic content, provide the basis for teaching techniques
• Immediate reward for correct performance, providing reinforcement for desirable
behavior
• Meticulous arrangement of the child’s environment, so that the structure of the
environment and the child’s experience of it lead naturally to learning
• Emphasis on stimulation and awakening of the child’s senses, to make the child more
aware of and responsive to educational stimuli
Lesson 4 LEGAL FOUNDATIONS OF SPED

In the Philippines:

Care and Protection of Disabled Children (C.A. 3203) - the rights of every child in
the Philippines to live in an environment conducive to his physical, moral and intellectual
development and the duty of the government to promote the full growth of every child.
Accessibility Law (Batas Pambansa Blg. 344) – requiring certain buildings,
institutions, establishments and public utilities to install accessible facilities and other
devices, including transportation and communication devices.
Amendments to the Accessibility Law - providing stricter identification of specific
individuals and offices liable for violations with increased penalty and the added
accessibility requirements with regard to public transportation.
White Cane Act (R.A. 6759) - declared the 1st day of August each year as "White
Cane Safety Day," white cane being a symbol of the need of blind persons.
Child and Youth Welfare Code (Presidential Decree No. 603) – protects and
supports children with special needs by addressing different areas where they can be
assisted, improved and be developed to cope with life's demands and be integrated into
society to become useful citizens of the country.
The Economic Independence of Disabled Persons Act (S.B. 1730) - requires that all
governmental agencies, instrumentalities and government owned and controlled
corporations to source at least ten percent of their supplies and equipment requirements
from cooperatives of PWDs that are engaged in the manufacturing and fabrication in order
to support their economic independence.
The Magna Carta for Disabled Persons (R.A. 7277) - affirms the full participation
and total integration of persons with disabilities into the mainstream of our society by
giving them equal opportunities to develop their skills and potentials and affording them
equal access to the basic services extended by the government.
Section 12, Chapter 2 of R.A. 7277. ACCESS TO QUALITY EDUCATION - The State
shall ensure that disabled persons are provided with adequate access to quality cducation
and ample opportunities to develop their skills. It shall take appropriate steps to make
such education accessible to all disabled persons. It shall be unlawful for any learning
institution to deny a disabled person admission to any course it offers by reason of
handicap or disability.
The State shall take into consideration the special requirements of disabled persons
in the formulation of educational policies and programs. It shall encourage learning
institution to take into account the special needs of disabled persons with respect to the
use of school facilities, class schedules, physical education requirements, and other
pertinent consideration.
 The State shall promote the provision by learning institutions, especially higher
learning institutions, of auxiliary services that will facilitate the learning process for
disabled persons.
Section 1.2, Rule III of R.A.7277. FORMAL EDUCATION - To provide learners with
special needs with access to basic education, learning institutions shall offer integrated
education. In order to ensure that quality education is accessible, the following
components namely, curriculum, educational programs, teaching methods and services
shall be given importance by learning institutions.
Section 46 of R.A. 7277. PENAL CAUSE –
a. Any person who violates any provision of this Act shall suffer the following
penalties:
1. for the first violation, a fine of not less than Fifty thousand pesos (P50,000.00)
but not exceeding One hundred thousand pesos (P100,000.00) or imprisonment
of not less than six (6) months but not more than two (2) years, or both at the
discretion of the court; and
2. for subsequent violation, a fine of not less than one hundred thousand pesos
(P100,000.00) but not exceeding Two hundred thousand pesos (P200,000.00) or
imprisonment for not less than two (2) years but not more than six (6) years, or
both at the discretion of the court.
b. Any person who abuses the privileges granted herein shall be punished with
imprisonment of not less than six (6) months or a fine of not less than Five thousand pesos
(P5,000.00) but not more than Fifty thousand pesos (P50,000.00), or both, at the
discretion of the court.
c. If the violator is a corporation, organization or any similar entity, the officials
thereof directly involved shall be liable therefor.
d. If the violator is an alien or a foreigner, he shall be deported immediately after
service of sentence without further deportation proceedings.
Reference: http://www.apcdproject.org/countryprofile/philippines/situation.html
The Philippine Education Act of 1982 - In this act, the need for vocational training
is further enshrined.
The Philippine Action Plan (1990-2000) in Support for Eduacation for All has
focused its policies and strategies to specific groups of people that include the rural poor,
those in the urban slums, cultural communities, the disabled, and the educationally
disadvantaged as well as the gifted.
DECS ORDER NO. 26 s 1997 mandates the following:
• Organize at least one (1) SPED Center in the Region or Division, which will cater to
Children with Special Needs (CSNs)
• Organize SPED programs in all districts in schools where there are identified CSNs
• Expand the role/function of SPED Centers:
• Support children with special needs who are integrated in regular schools
• Assist in the conduct of in-service training
 • Conduct continuous assessment of CSN
• Initiate and conduct regional/division/district-based training
• Plan incentives to sustain the continuing interest in the implementation of the
program through the following initiatives:
• DECS Order No. 5 s 1998 - Reclassification of Regular Teacher and Principal
Items to SPED Teacher and Special School Principal Items
• R.A. No. 6758 (Prescribing a Revised Compensation and Position Classification
System in the Government)

In the US:

The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) - states that children with
disabilities are to be educated to the maximum extent with children who do not have
disabilities.
Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) - prohibits discrimination on the basis of
disability in private sector employment; services rendered by state and local governments;
places of public accommodations; transportation; telecommunications relay systems.
Rehabilitation Act 504 - No otherwise qualified individual with disabilities in the
United States... shall solely by reason of his disabilities," be excluded from participation
in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any program, or
activity receiving Federal financial assistance..."
No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act was signed on Jan. 8, 2002 which reauthorized
and replaced the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965, the federal framework
for how public education throughout the US is provided. Its overall aim is to have all
students performing at proficient levels in the two educational cornerstones, Reading and
Math, by year 2014.
Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEA 2004) outlined
changes to IDEA 1997 wherein one of them states that benchmarks and short-term
objectives written into the IEPs are no longer required for many learners, reducing the
amount of IEP paperwork.
CHAPTER 2 COMPONENTS OF SPECIAL NEEDS EDUCATION
Lesson 1 THE CORE OF SPECIAL EDUCATION

Lesson 2 SPECIAL EDUCATION PROCESS

Lesson 3 ASSESSING EXCEPTIONALITY

Lesson 4 PLACEMENT OPTIONS, SERVICES,

AND KEY PLAYERS IN SPECIAL EDUCATION

Chapter Goal
The purpose of this chapter is to explain the process behind Special Education
to help you build awareness on how to properly place a child under a SPED
program. This will also clarify the important role that you play in Special
Education as a regular classroom teacher.
Chapter Objectives
After reading and reviewing this chapter, you should be able to
1. Discuss the definition, goal, philosophy, and objectives of Special
Education.
2. Describe the Special Education process.
3. Discuss the contributions of Special Education pioneers.
4. Give a brief historical background of Special Education in the Philippines.
5. Explain the philosophical cornerstone of Special Education.
6. Discuss the importance of legal knowledge in protecting the welfare of
exceptional children.
CHAPTER 2 COMPONENTS OF SPECIAL NEEDS EDUCATION

“Different, not less.” -Temple Grandin

You are studying to be a regular classroom teacher, but being in a regular class does not
mean that you will only have regular students. One way or another, you will come across
an exceptional child and you will be given a wonderful gift—to touch a life, a soul who may
have a disability to the eyes of the world but is priceless to the eyes of GOD.

This chapter wills serve as your Special Education Primer. If you read it for learning, you
will be able to enumerate the different steps in the Special Education process, and explain
the role that a regular classroom teacher plays in acommodating all children.

Key Terms
Mainstreaming—the social and instructional integration of students with disabilities into
educational programs whose primary purpose is to serve typically developing individuals.
Para-teacher—refers to an individual who works closely with a certified classroom teacher
to provide additional assistance to students.
Adaptive Skills—are defined as practical, everyday skills needed to function and meet the
demands of one’s environment, including the skills necessary to effectively and
independently take care of oneself and to interact with other people.

Lesson 1 THE CORE OF SPECIAL EDUCATION

Definition

SPECIAL EDUCATION means specially designed instruction that meets the unusual needs
of an exceptional student and that might require special materials, teaching techniques,
or equipment and/or facilities.

Philosophy
Every learner with special needs has a right to an education program that is suitable to his
needs. Special education shares with regular education basic responsibilities of the
educational system to fulfill the right of the child to develop his potential.

Goal
The ultimate goal of special education shall be the integration or mainstreaming of
learners with special needs into the regular school system and eventually into the
community.
Objectives
• Provide equal opportunities for all learners with special needs to acquire the knowledge,
skills, and values necessary for them to adapt to a changing world.
• Develop life skills in all learners to ensure their active and sustained participation in the
learning process through relevant programs, projects and enabling policies.
• Promote the optimal use of information technology to increase the capability of learners
to pursue their own learning.
• Develop learners who actively participate in the economic growth and development of
the country; and
• Safeguard the rights of all types of special learners

Lesson 2 SPECIAL EDUCATION PROCESS

Children to be admitted in the special class must submit a current assessment report made
by a developmental pediatrician or a SPED diagnostician or other appropriate
professionals with expertise and experience in the field of assessment for the
identification of disability. In the absence of a current assessment report, these chidlre
need to undergo a psychoeducational assessment to be conducted by these professionals
to determine the appropriate identification as to the type of disability, classification and
placement, current performance level and educational need, to determine and evaluate
teaching programs and strategies, to determine related services (ancillary of auxiliary) and
for the development of Individualized Education Programs (IEP).

Parents must give their informed consent before their child may be evaluated. Upon
implementation of the recommendation stated in the assessment, the SPED teacher must
make quarterly progress report about the performance of the admitted child.

These goals and objectives must be discussed along with the current performance level
and achievements of the child during the scheduled quarterly Parent-Teacher Conference.
Continuous assessment process must be done at least once a year and so with the review
and the required revision of the IEP together with the members of the interdisciplinary
team involved in its preliminary design. Further developments of the child, basing from the
recommendations from the assessment conducted, can recommend to request for a
possible elevation in educational placement that can either be in the integration scheme,
mainstreaming or inclusion program in the regular class.

For children enrolled in the regular class suspected to manifest "differentness" or to exhibit
some educational performance problems in the areas of behavioral, academic, attendance,
social or health, the following procedures should be taken:
 a. Establish a parent-teacher conference wherein the teacher will discuss their
concerns and the necessary strategies they plan to implement and both should
arrive and agree to the final action plan.
b. This action plan must be implemented.

Referral Process

c. If more intervention is needed, the learner would be referred to the consultation

team/learner study team/learner intervention team composed of the regular class
teacher, school counselor, SPED Resource Teacher, school nurse, principal, school
psychologist/psychometrician, Guidance Counselor, Speech/Language
Pathologist, Occupational Therapist, Adaptive P.E. Teacher/Motor Skills Teacher,
and any appropriate person or as invited by the team when planning for a specific
learner. The teacher must inform the parents in advance before doing their referral.
The school counselor coordinates and facilitates the consultation plan. It is the
responsibility of the Regular Class Teacher to sign up on the calendar and schedule
time to attend the initial consultation team meeting. The Regular Class Teacher
must bring work samples to the meeting and to fill out a referral form. This
consultation meeting is initially made to discuss the necessary intervention/
modification plan to meet the needs of the learner. This must be properly
documented.

d. The Regular Class Teacher must contact the concerned parent to be invited to the
follow-up meeting with the consultation team to share and discuss the observations
made and the intervention plan.

NOTE: Not all individuals who are referred to the consultation team are referred for
academic problems nor are candidates for special education.

e. Once the consultation team/learner study team/learner intervention team has tried
everything possible and the issues still exist, another written referral must be made
to be sent to a multidisciplinary team that will be responsible for the formal
thorough assessment. This written referral should include the reason as to why a
possible disability exists, descriptions of attempts to remediate the child's
behaviors, and performance prior to the referral should all be included. Another
follow-up meeting with the consultation team for the parent must be made to be
informed of this referral for assessment because of suspected disability. The
referral states that the child may have a disability that adversely affects educational
performance. This referral does not necessarily mean that the child has a disability.
It simply signals that the child is having learning difficulties and there is a concern
 that the problem be due to a disability. Once the evaluation/assessment report/s
has/have been made, the recommendations from these reports are used to identify
the proper educational placement, to provide any related services (ancillary or
auxiliary) that they may qualify, and therefore to design the Individualized
Educational Programs to meet the needs of these learners.

f. Implementation of the program, periodic monitoring, and continuous evaluation

from a SPED Teacher follow that will lead to the review and revision of the program.
Then the cycle repeats itself and goes back to the implementation until such time
that the child will no longer need the special education program.
 REFERRAL FOR CONSULTATION TEAM/LEARNER STUDY TEAM/
LEARNER INTERVENTION TEAM FORM

IDENTIFYING INFORMATION:
Name of the Learner: _________________________________________________________________
(Surname, First, M. I.)
Address: _____________________________________________________________________________
Learner's Number: __________________ Grade/Year: ____________ Section: _______________
Name of the Adviser: _________________________________________________________________
Father's Name: _______________________________________________________________________
Home Phone: ________________________________ Office Phone: __________________________
Mother's Name: ______________________________________________________________________
Home Phone: ________________________________ Office Phone: __________________________

CHECKLIST OF ITEMS THAT APPEARS TO DESCRIBE THE LEARNER:

HEALTH/PHYSICAL FACTORS
______________________ 1. Health problems ___________ frequent complaints
______________________ 2. Frequent absences/truancy
______________________ 3. Appears pale, listless, apathetic
______________________ 4. Extremely active and restless _________ fidgets
______________________ 5. Possible deficit: vision/hearing
______________________ 6. Poor motor coordination: _________ fine _________ gross
______________________ 7. Growth or development lag
______________________ 8. Physical injuries (not from physical abuse)

SPEECH/LANGUAGE FACTORS
______________________ 1. Limited speaking vocabulary
______________________ 2. Difficulty relating own ideas
______________________ 3. Incomplete sentences poor grammar
______________________ 4. Responses are inappropriate
______________________ 5. Difficulty following directions
______________________ 6. Articulation: mispronunciation of speech sounds
______________________ 7. Stuttering: speech blocks, breaks, poor rhythm
______________________ 8. Voice: quality is hoarse, harsh, too soft

EDUCATION FACTORS
______________________ 1. Academic difficulties:
_________ Reading _________ Math _________ Written Language
______________________ 2. Poor retention of subject matter
______________________ 3. Poor handwriting or reversals _________ messy work
______________________ 4. Difficulty staying on task _________ inattentive
______________________ 5. Difficulty comprehending directions _________ subject matter
______________________ 6. Difficulty changing activities
______________________ 7. Easily discouraged, often frustrated
______________________ 8. Work completion:
_________ rushed _________ slow _________ fails to finish

PERSONAL/SOCIAL FACTORS
______________________ 1. Generally withdrawn, timid, fearful
______________________ 2. Poor self-control _________ temper outbursts
_________ inappropriate language
______________________ 3. Poor peer relations
_________ fights _________ disturbs others
______________________ 4. Seems unhappy
_________ moody _________ cries easily
______________________ 5. Feelings of inadequacy, low self-concept
______________________ 6. Fantasizes _________ exaggerates _________ lies
______________________ 7. Challenges authority
_________ defiant _________ impulsive
______________________ 8. Shows little empathy/concern for others

LEARNER'S STRENGTHS:
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________ ____________________________
Signature of the Adviser Date Signed

Taken from the book How to Reach and Teach ADD/ADHD Children
 Parent Consent for Evaluation

To the Parent/Guardian of: ___________________________________________________________

Birth Date: ___________________________________________________________________________
School: _____________________________________________________ Grade: _________________

We would like to inform you that your child ________________________________________ has

been referred for individual resting because of the suspicion of disability. Testing results
will help us in determining your child's educational needs and in planning the most
appropriate program. The evaluation procedures and/or tests may include the following:
Intelligence
Communication Language/Speech
Physical
Behavior/Emotional
Academic
Vocational
Other
Before we can begin testing, it is necessary that the school's consultation team have your
written permission to evaluate your child. You have the opportunity to discuss the need
for this testing and the possibilities for special educational services with the school
principal.
I grant permission for the evaluation(s) mentioned above. __________
I do not grant permission for the evaluation(s) mentioned above. __________

Date: _________________________ Parent's Signature: _____________________________________

Date: _________________________ Administrator: _________________________________________
Taken from The Special Educators Survival Guide, 2nd Edition, 2004
by Roger Pierangelo, Ph.D.
 REFERRAL TO THE MEMBERS OF THE DISCIPLINARY TEAM RESPONSIBLE
FOR FORMAL ASSESSMENT FROM THE SCHOOL STAFF
To: ___________________________________________________________________________________
From: ____________________________________ Title of Position: ___________________________
School: __________________________________________ Date: _______________________________

The following learner is being referred to the school's consultation team/learner study
team/learner intervention team for suspicion of a disability:

Learner's Name: ________________________________ Sex: __________ Grade: _______________

Parent/Guardian Name: _______________________________________________________________
Address: ______________________________________________________________________________
Telephone: ______________________________ Date of Birth: _______________________________
Current Program Placement: __________________________________________________________
Adviser: _______________________________ Guidance Counselor: __________________________

Reasons for referral: Describe the specific reason and/or needs that indicate the suspicion
of a disability. Specify reason why referral is considered appropriate and necessary
(For example: Ben is being referred for a formal assessment as the result of
suspected learning disability. The school has attempted a variety of prereferral strategies
but has been unable to change Ben's level of impaired performance. While he is a bright
boy, and articulates appropriately, his written expression is well below average and
continues to impair his performance. Ben also needs a great deal of encouragement and
monitoring in the classroom. His performance still falls far below those of his classmates.)
Describe recent attempts to remediate the pupil's performance prior to referral,
including regular education interventions such as remedial reading and math, teaching
modifications, behavior modifications, speech improvement, parent conferences, and
so on, and the results of those interventions.
(For example: The referral is considered necessary at this time because Ben
continues to do poorly in school despite numerous interventions such as classroom
modifications, parent training and conferences, portfolio assessment, observation,
remedial reading and math intervention, and changes in teaching strategies and
management. The results of these intervention strategies have been unsuccessful and
have even added to Ben's sense of frustration and lack of confidence.)
Is there an attendance problem? Yes ________ No ________
Did learner repeat a grade? Yes ________ No ________
If yes, when? ______________________________________
Language spoken at home: _____________________________________________________
Has school staff informed parent/guardian of referral for formal assessment?
Yes _____________ No _____________
By whom? ______________________________________________________________________
 What was the reaction of the parent/guardian to the referral? ___________________

To be completed by the School Nurse: Medical Report Summary

Any medication: Yes ___________ No ___________
If yes, specify: ________________________________________________________________
Health Problem? Yes ___________ No ___________
If yes, specify: ________________________________________________________________
Scoliosis screening: Positive ___________ Negative ___________
Date of last physical examination: ____________________________________________
Vision results: ______________ Hearing results: ______________
Relevant medical information: ________________________________________________
School Nurse's Signature: __________________________________________________________
Principal's Signature: _______________________________________________________________

To be completed by the Appropriate Administrator:

Date Received: _____________________ Signature: ______________________________
Chairperson: ________________________________________________________________
Date of notice and consent sent to parent/guardian: __________________________
Parent consent for formal assessment received: ______________________________
Date agreement to withdraw referral received: ________________________________

Taken from The Special Educators Survival Guide, 2nd Edition, 2004
By Roger Pierangelo, Ph.D.
Lesson 3 ASSESSING EXCEPTIONALITY

The Members of the Multidisciplinary Team Responsible for Formal Assessment

Physical Therapist - evaluates a child who is experiencing problems in gross motor

functioning, living and self-help skills, and vocational skills necessary for functioning in
certain settings. This professional may screen, evaluate, provide direct services, or consult
with the teacher, parent, or school.

Occupational Therapist - evaluates a child who may be experiencing problems in

fine motor skills and in living and self-help skills, for example. This professional may
screen, evaluate, provide direct services, consult with the teacher, parent, or school, and
assist in obtaining appropriate assistive technology or equipment.

Speech Language Pathologist - screens for speech and language developmental

problems, provides a full evaluation on a suspected disability, provides direct services, and
consults with staff and parents.

Audiologist - will evaluate a learner's hearing for possible impairment, and as a

result of the findings, may refer the learner for medical consultation or treatment. The
audiologist may also help learners and parents obtain equipment, such as hearing aids,
that may improve the child's ability to function in school.

SPED Diagnostician - refers to a trained SPED Specialist who conducts

Psychoeducational Assessment and strategies such as standardized tests, checklists,
records, forms, inventory, scales alongside interviews, observation and informal skill
survey and/or portfolio assessment. He also prepares the intervention plan/priorities the
service givers like tutors, therapists and SPED Teachers used in addressing the needs
of special children.

Developmental Pediatrician – is a medical doctor who specializes in the diagnosis

and treatment of children with behavioral, communication or mental problems. These
include cerebral palsy, autism, learning disabilities, ADHD, Learning Disability, and the like.

Neurologist - is a medical doctor or osteopath who has trained in the diagnosis

and treatment of nervous system disorder, including diseases of the brain, spinal cord,
nerves and muscles.

Psychologist - evaluates and diagnoses learners with a wide range of learning,

social, emotional, or developmental problems. This professional may also consult with
parents and teachers to help develop the most appropriate educational programs for
learners with disabilities and other problems.

Psychiatrist - is a physician who diagnoses and treats learners with psychological,

emotional, behavioral and developmental or organic problems. This professional can
prescribe medication. The psychiatrist usually does not administer tests.

Ophthalmologist – is a medical doctor who evaluates and treats learners with vision
problems. This professional may, for example, perform eye surgery, prescribe glasses or
medication, or suggest special modifications in teaching, classroom materials, and
seating arrangements.

Special Education Teacher - conducts educational evaluations of learners with

suspected disabilities in specific categories. For example: a teacher of the visually
impaired will evaluate the academic as well as mobility and orientation skills of a referred
learner.

The Assessment
The members of the multidisciplinary team responsible for formal assessment have
several evaluation options to choose from, depending on the specializations of the
members. In the Philippine setting, assessments for identification of disability were made
by the developmental pediatrician or a SPED Diagnostician. This assessment is made
through observation interviews; examination of school records and history, checklists;
rating scales; tests (formal or informal; standardized or nonstandardized);
health/developmental history from parents; vision and hearing prescreening academic,
cognitive, psychological, perceptual-motor and other developmental skill testing work
habits (e.g., Organization, Distractibility, Attention Span, Independence, Motivation);
product outputs of the learner; and/or speech/language and motor skills testing by
appropriate professionals.

Types of Evaluation Commonly used in the Philippine Setting

Psychoeducational Assessment
Developmental Pediatric Assessment
Occupational Therapy Evaluation
Psychological Evaluation
Speech and Language Evaluation
Physical Therapy Evaluation
Neurological Evaluation
Audiological Evaluation
Psychiatric Evaluation
Visual Training Evaluation
Lesson 4 PLACEMENT OPTIONS, SERVICES, AND KEY PLAYERS IN SPECIAL
EDUCATION

Educational Placement Alternatives

Special learners should be moved away from the most segregated plans and up to
the most integrated plans as soon as possible, i.e., not more than two (2) years after initial
placement in a segregated setup (Camara, 2002).

Dizon’s concept of normalization is the process of restoring the special learner to

his maximum or near maximum capacity through the educational program variants of:
a. Integration - consists of placing the special learner in the regular class in one or
more subjects, so that he can interact with regular children with the SPED class as
his station; may include tutorials and involve ancillary or auxiliary services.

b. Mainstreaming - refers to the placement of the special child in the regular class
after meeting specific admission requirements so that interaction with other
children is provided; may include teaching by a shadow teacher in the regular class,
pull-out for one-on-one instruction and individualization in the special class; may
involve ancillary and/or auxiliary services and individualized teaching in or outside
the class.

c. Inclusion - wherein the special learner is placed in the regular class based on age;
regardless of background, disability and degree of severity. There is no pull-out and
no shadow teaching; may involve auxiliary services and individualization within the
class without pull-out.

The possible placement options are the following:

1. Special Education Class – with learners who are 2 to 10 years old and the maximum
size may vary from 4 to 7 with one SPED Teacher and one teacher aide.

NOTE: Placement in a special class shall be temporary and not terminal, thus a continuous
assessment process is essential.

2. Resource Class has a specially trained SPED Teacher who provides instruction to
exceptional learners for part of the school day, either individually or in small groups.
Learners with special needs come here for one or several periods during the school
day to receive individualized instruction. The learner may be pulled out from the
 regular class to receive individualized instruction in this room on certain subject
areas but the stay must not exceed 50% of the child's schedule in school.

3. Self-contained Class has learners who are with other individuals with special needs
for all or most of the school day but may still have the opportunity to interact with
regular learners at certain times, such as during recess or on the school service to
school. It serves learners with severe and multiple disabilities. It is being managed
by a SPED Teacher.

NOTE: The proposed case load for a resource class or self-contained class must have a
maximum of only 5 learners with special needs.

4. Integrated/Mainstreamed/Inclusive Class has the following functions inside the

regular classroom that:
• Establishes and maintains a warm accepting classroom community that embraces
discriminating and honor differences;
• Complements a multilateral and multimodality classroom;
• Prepares and supports teachers to teach interestingly; and
• Provides ongoing support for teachers in their clasrooms and breaking down
barriers of professional isolation.

NOTE: A maximum of only 2 learners with special needs with the same or different type of
handicapping condition shall be integrated/mainstreamed/included in a regular
class at any given time. For maximum effciency of individualized instruction, the
proposed class size must have 10-15 learners (regular learners plus learners with
special needs) only.

5. Occupational Therapy Class - wherein occupational therapy session is being held.

6. Physical Therapy Class - wherein physical therapy session is being held.

Services/Supports/Therapies Offered Inside/Outside the School

Ancillary services – those provided in house and by paraprofessionals,

psychologists and counselors, physical and occupational therapists, speech therapists
and similar professionals who are employed by the school.

Auxiliary services – the same services provided by those not employed by the
school.
These ancillary or auxilary services may be in the form of:

Medical Services - provided by a licensed physician to determine a childs medically

related handicapping condition which results in the child's need for special education and
related services.

School Health Services – provided by a qualified school nurse or other qualified

person.

Parent Counseling and Training – assisting parents in understanding the special

needs of their child and providing parents with information about child development.
Occupational Therapy – are services intended for:
• Improving, developing or restoring functions impaired or lost through illness, injury
or deprivation;
• Improving ability to perform tasks for independent functioning when functions are
impaired or lost;
• Prevention, through early intervention, initial or further impairment or lose of
function; and
• Assessment of hand functioning and sensory skills and its deficits.

Physical Therapy - emphasizes assessment and therapy in gross motor areas.

Psychological/Psychometrician Services – are services primarily for:

• Administering psychological and educational tests, and other assessment
procedures;
• Interpreting assessment results;
• Obtaining, integrating, and interpreting information about child behavior and
condition related to learning;
• Consulting with other staff members in planning school programs to meet the
special needs of children as indicated by psychological tests, interviews and
behavioral evaluations; and
• Planning and managing a program of psychological services, including
psychological counseling for children and parents.

Speech Pathology – are services provided for the:

• Identification of children with speech or language disorders;
• Diagnosis and appraisal of specific speech or language disorders;
• Referral for medical or other professional attention necessary for the habilitation of
speech and language disorders, prevention of communicative disorders; and
 • Counseling and guidance of parents, children and teachers regarding speech and
language disorders.

General Considerations for Regular Teachers

• Get to know the learner. Learn about the learner's strengths, weaknesses and
interests. Talk with the SPED specialists at your school, and read about the learner's
disability so that you wil feel comfortable, prepared and confident.
• Focus on learner's actual skill deficits and behaviors rather than the learners special
education label.
• Create lessons and activities that help increase the learners self-esteem.
• Plan your day, set structure and routine.
• Ensure that the learner understands all of your directions.
• Break down skills into sub-skills by teaching first the prerequisite then by breaking
down new lesson into sub-skills.
• Develop specific, achievable objectives for both learning and social behavior
• Promote social interaction by including the special learner to any activity, modifying
activity to make him participate.
• Give assignments and evaluate performance based on the learners current level of
functioning, rather than the level of other learners in your class.
• Deal with behavioral problems by setting firm, fair rules and by enforcíng them
consistenitly and impartially.
• Ask for advice from SPED specialists and if needed, support and help from parents.

Roles and Responsibilities of Active Professionals Involved in Special Education

The School Administrator or Principal

• Promote successful collaboration between special and regular educators.
• Allow extra planning time for teachers who handle mainstreamed learners.
• Excuse teachers from some duties so they can meet with others.
• Provide time for teachers and auxiliary support personnel who work with the same
mainstreamed children to meet, discuss and coordinate their work.
• Encourage regular clasroom teachers and supportive services personnel to visit and
observe each other while at work with the mainstreamed child.
• Provide faculty and other school personnel with general information concerning
dhildren with special needs and how they could best help these children in the
regular school setting.
• Inform parents of regular school children of the school's supportive stance toward
mainstreamed learners.
 • During faculty meetings or in service training activities, provide time for teachers
handling mainstreamed learners and/or supportive services personnel to share their
experiences with mainstreamed children.
• Limit the clerical and non-instructional tasks of teachers with mainstreamed
learners.
• Provide implementation and maintenance of effective collaboraive arrangements.
• Provide access to necessary training opportunities for staft members who are
implementing the program.
• Maintain a good awareness of an individual teachers strengths and preferences and
should be able to make a good match for learners and teachers.
• Address issues such as scheduling, clas-sizing, funding, development and
adaptation of materials.
• Provide consultation with parents of mainstreamed children.

The Regular Educator

• View the learner as a regular member of the class, not a visitor.
• Get to know all about children with exceptionalities.
• Obtain knowledge about specific handicapping conditions and special learner
capabilities.
• Specify the lesson's instructional goals.
• Plan the instructional program for the big classes.
• Assist in the design of supportive services programs.
• Share lesson plans and materials with supportive services.
• Observe support service professionals classrooms.
• Communicate instructional goals and learner's progress to parents.
• Use similar behavior managemnent techniques as others in the team so that
everyone responds in the same manner to learner's behavior
• Compile folders of learner's work for sharing with other members of the team.
• Participate in staff development sessions that facilitate the coordination of services
• Provide knowledge of the regular curriculumis scope and sequence.
• Provide knowledge of child development.
• Create a classroom environment that shows respect for all learners.
• Work closely with other support services personnel.
• Select a group size that is most appropriate to the child and the lessons.
• Observe learner interactions to ensure that the learning situation is running
smoothly
• Identify the roles of professional team members and plan for the use of available
resources.
• Adapt materials and instructional methodologies.
• Physically arrange the classroom.
 • Provide appropriate learning materials.
• Modify teaching techniques, course content, evaluation and grading procedures to
accommodate the learner's learning needs.
• See and use the expertise of others in making necessary adaptations.
• Incorporate IEP goals into typical activities and interactions according to the team's
instructional plans.

The Special Educator asumes the primary responsibility for preparing the learner for
entry into the mainstream.
• Assist the interdisciplinary team in developing an IEP by providing data concerning
the learner's academic and social skills, readiness for mainstreaming and reactions
to specific instructional techniques and materials
• Consult with the regular classroom teacher concerning instructional modifications,
grading alternatives, teaching devices and peer acceptance.
• Prepare the learner for entry into the mainstream on inclusion program
(responsibility to the mainstream/inclusion teacher).
• Assist the regular teacher in assessing the characteristics of the learning
environment.
• Assist the regular teacher in assessing the characteristics of the personal and social
relations in the classroom.
• Provide suggestions for necessary modifications.
• Help in locating available resources.
• Be familiar with the regular class curriculum.
• Align assessment procedures, curriculum and instructional strategies with those
employed in the regular classroom program.
• Offer knowledge of behavior management and ensure that similar behavior
management techniques are used by all members of the team.
• Teach study skills and learning strategies using the materials (e.g.. textbooks) of
the regular education program.
• Communicate learner's progress and instruçtional goals to parents.
• Compile samples of the learner's work.
• Maintain records and exchange information with the classroom teacher on a regular
basis.
• Understand pertinent medical records concerning the children.
• Prepare and recommend appropriate materials for the mainstreamed child.
• Reinforce the work of the classroom teacher and do intensive teachine of certain
phases of a subject as needed.
• Participate in staff development sessions to facilitate the coordination of services.
The School Psychologist or Guidance Counselor
• Carry out test related tasks complete a thorough assessment.
• Analyze and interpret assessment data.
• Observe learners in class and review other professionals who work with the learner.
• Assist classroom teachers in designing, implementing and evaluating intervention
techniques and behavior management systems.
• Coordinate, assess and monitor the mainstreamed or included child and report
progress to other team members.
• Provide insights concerning the learners social and emotional development self-
concept, attitude towards school, and social interactions with others.

The Support Service Personnel (in the fields of OT, SP, PT, Psychology and Medicine)
• Discuss with classroom teachers therapy concepts relating to the child that may be
reinforced in the mainstreamed setting
• Determine specific area needs of children through assessment (i.e., OT, PT).
• Provide services to teach child and family based on their individual needs.
• Deliver direct services so that they may maximize the child's independence and
development in a variety of areas.
• Train family members in providing appropriate living and learning environment for
the child.
• Help parents access relevant community services.
• Evaluate the effectiveness of services delivered.
• Use similar behavior management strategies as others in the team.
• Participate in sessions that facilitate the coordination of services.
• Ensure functional approaches to addressing therapy needs in typical activities and
interactions.
• Deliver services to remediate problems such as speech, gross-motor skills and
adaptive skils.
• Assist both regular and special educators.

Lesson 4 The IEP and Curricular Adaptations and Accommodations for Exceptional
Learners

Individualized Education Program (EP)

An Individualized Education Program (IEP) is a systematic, purposive and

developmental educational programming of curricular and instructional priorities and
contents designed to meet a child's special needs and aimed at ensuring mastery of
learning of target skills and behaviors (Dizon, 1999). Each learner referred to Special
Education must have an IEP A meeting must be set up with all the members of the
interdisciplinary team needed for the design of the IEP.

The members of the interdisciplinary team are the following:

a. Learner
b. Parent
c. General Education Teacher (if the child is attending a regular class)
d. Special Education Teachers
e. Related Services Professionals
f. Nonschool-Agency Representatives
g. Other Relevant Professionals

The IEP must be in effect at the beginning of each school year and before the special
education and related services are provided for the learners. It must be implemented as
soon as possible following the IEP meeting, allowing no delay between the time an IEP is
finalized and the beginning of the services. In order to avoid extended delays in services,
the IEP meeting must be held within 30 calendar days after the learner is found to need
SPED and related services. If the identified learner is being placed into the school or
classroom for the first time and has not previously had an IE, then the IEP must be
developed before the placement decision is made. The learner may be placed in a
temporary evaluation placement for the year. The parents must agree to the trial
placement before it is carried out and must be involved throughout the process of
developing, reviewing, and revising the IEP.
The IEP team meets at least once a year to review and revise the IEP. Parents do
have a right to a copy of their child's IEP Parents also can expect the school to provide for
regular reporting of their child through the general reporting procedures (e.g, parent-
teacher conferences, report cards, parent letters, and notes).

There are certain things that must be included in the IEP document:
• Present levels of the child's academic achievement and functiona performance
including how the child's disability affects involvement in regular education
curriculum. This is an important part of the IEP and will provide guidance in the
development of annual goals.
• Annual Goals. Based on the child's evaluation and present level of pertormance,
there should be measurable academic and functional goals that should address all
educational needs. The annual goals will tell what your child will accomplish when
the services specified in the IEP have ended. Short-term goals or benchmarks are
required for those learners taking an alternate assessment aligned to alternate
achievement standards.
 • How progress will be reported to parents. Progress toward IEP goals must be
reported at least as often as reports are provided to parents of learner without
disability.
• Related Services and Supplementary Aids.The IEP will clearly state what related
services your child will receive and what supplemental aids will be provided. Related
services are considered necessary when needed to advance the attaining of annual
goals and to allow the child to make progress in the general education curriculum.
• Dates of Service. The IEP will have beginning and ending dates. The IDEA states that
an IEP meeting must be held at least annually. An IEP meeting may be called at
anytime at the request of a team member including the parent.
• Accommodations made to the General Education Curriculum, including
accommodations on the required assessments.
• The extent to which your child will be included in activities with non-disabled peers.
• A transition plan when the learner turns 16 years old, and annually thereafter. If a
learner's behavior regularly interferes with learning (of self or others) there should
be a behavior plan included in the IEP that is positive in nature and based on a
functional assessment of behavior.

Adaptations

They are adjustments in curriculum, instructional components, environmental

elements, and requirements/expectations ofthe learner that may be needed. Adaptations
include accommodations and modifications.
Purpose: to help increase a learnersperformance, achievement and socialemotional
behavional functioning

Accommodations

They do not fundamentally change the performance standards, instructional level

or the content of expected learning outcome but include adjustments such as:
• Providing extended time to complete tasks; and
• Providing visual supports, writing tools/supports, and preferential seating.

Modifications

They do change in some way what the learner is learning (content or part of the
curriculum), change to some degree the performance standards, the expectations for that
learner.
Example: Modification of testing (oral instead of written), for modification of materials
(allow the use of multiplication tables/charts)
Examples of permissible accommodations:
 • Reading instructions or items (except for reading tests)
o (For example, reading the science portion of the exam ofa learner with a
significant reading disability would be allowable since the science test is
intended to measure science knowledge, not reading skill. However, reading
the whole exam to a learner is never allowable.);
• More practice tests or examples;
• Small group or individual testing
• Extra time, breaks during the test session, or multiple sessions; and
• Any others that DO NOT compromise test validity.
Examples of accommodations that have the potential to invalidate the test:
• Reading a reading test to the learner, as we have already mentioned;
• Using a calculator on a mathematics test designed to measure mental computation;
• Using spelling tools on writing tests that score the correctness of spellings;
• Using a dictionary when taking a reading comprehension or other test that
measures vocabulary knowledge, such as the WCRT; and
• Paraphrasing that changes the meaning of the text.
(For example, providing definitions or synonyms for words in a question or reading
selection on the 3rd grade exam would invalidate the test results since testing
vocabulary comprehension is one of the purposes of the test.)

Accommodating All Children in the Early Childhood Classroom

The activities and materials used in most early childhood classrooms are designed
to meet the needs of many children with or without disabilities. When they do not meet the
specific needs of a child, they can be adapted or expanded to accommodate that child's
individual needs. The purpose of an adaptation is to assist children in compensating for
intellectual, physical, or behavioral challenges. They allow children to use their current
skills while promoting the acquisition of new skills. Adaptations can make the difference
between a child merely being present in the class and a child being actively involved.

Developing adaptations and accommodations for a child with special needs is a

continuous process that involves each child's collaborative team. The first Sten is assess
the child's abilities and the environment where the child will be spending time. Once the
goals and objectives are identified and expectations for the childs participation in that
environment are established, the team selects or creates adaptations and
accommodations that address those needs. Once implemented, their effectiveness should
be assessed on an ongoing basis and revised, as needed.

To meet the specific needs of a child, changes may need to be made in one or more
of the following instructional conditions. Remember, when the child can participate in an
activity, as it is, no changes need to be made.
 Instructional groupings or atrangements - For any given activity, there are a number
of instructional arrangements in which to choose from: large groups, small groups,
cooperative learning groups, peer partners, one-to-one instruction, and/or independent
tasks.

Lesson format - The format of a lesson may be altered to meet the needs of a child
by including more opportunities for whole class discussions, games, role-playing, activity-
based lessons, experiential lessons, demonstrations, and/or thematic lesson organization.

Teaching strategies - A change in teaching strategies can infuence a child's ability

to participate.
Examples incdude: simplifying directions, addition ofvisual information, use of
concrete materials/examples, sequencing learning tasks from easy to hard, repeated
opportunities to practice skills, changes in the schedule of reinforcement, elaboration or
shaping of responses, verbal prompts and/or direct physical assistance.

Curricular goals and learning outcomes – To match the needs of a child within the
context of an activity, it may be appropriate to individualize the learning objectives. This
can often be accomplished using the same activities and materials. If children are working
on a classification concept by sorting blocks, a child with a disability could participate in
the same activity but with focus on reaching, grasping, and releasing skills.

Adaptations to the method for responding – Sometimes children may understand

a concept yet need an adaptation in the way they demonstrate that knowledge. Use of
augmentative communication systems, eye gaze, and demonstrations may better allow a
child to demonstrate his/her skills.

Environmental conditions – The environmental arrangement is an important aspect

of any early childhood setting. Changes in lighting, noise level, visual and auditory input,
physical
arrangement of the room or equipment, and accessibility of materials are important
considerations.

Modification of instructional materials – It is sometimes necessary to physically

adapt instructional or play materials to facilitate a child's participation. Materials can be
physically adapted by increasing: stability (DycemTM or VelcroTM on materials), ease of
handling (adding handles, making materials larger), accessibility (developing a hand splint
to hold materials, attaching an elastic cord or string to objects so they can be easily moved
or retrieved), visual clarity or distinctiveness (adding contrast or specialized lighting), or
size.
 Level of personal assistance – A child's need for assistance may range from
periodic spot checks to close continuous supervision. Assistance may vary from day to
day and be provided by adults or peers.

An alternative activity – This curricular adaptation should be used as a last choice

when the above conditions cannot be used to meet a child's need.

Accommodations in the Classroom

In order to accommodate some, of the needs of children and staf, some simple
adaptations have been made in the classroom and throughout the building

Picture Schedule - The classroom schedule is visually posted on the wall in the
classroom using line drawings that some St. Ben's teachers had drawn for the children to
be reminded, to anticipate what will happen next, and to emotionally and physically
prepare for the next step. Also, sometimes you may be able to avoid unnecessary power
struggle" with a child by showing the picture schedule and saying"This picture says...”
rather than “I say...”

Children’s Jobs – The classroom job chart is also represented with drawings in a
prominent place for children to use.

Social Stories – These are line drawings that describe two socially conflicting
situations a child may encounter in the classroom. With those social stories more socially
appropriate behaviors can be offered for a child to stimulare in advance, as well as a
consequence or what a child will have to do if the child uses an inappropriate method to
solve a problem that the child faces. (*The consequence of using inappropriate behaviors
will vary situation by situation, and a classroom by a classroom.)

Language Aprons – All staff members have an apron which is equipped with
pictures so that everyone can assist children with speech and language delays through the
use of pictures.

Lowered Handrails – A second, lower set of handrails has been added on the
stairway so that children can reach them comfortably.

Stair Guides – Yellow tape has been placed on cach step to show the children to
walk in a single file on one side of the staircase.
 Rail Guides – Green tape has been added to guard rails to show the children where
to hold on when moving up and down the stairs.

Computer Mouse – The computer mouse has been replaced with a ball for easier
computer use.

Classroom Area Marking – A visual storybook line has been added to define play
area boundaries.

uColor Coded Chairs – Chairs have been color coded to help children know which
tables they belong to and so children can be asked to move to a certain color chair or table.
 SPED SYSTEM

CHILDREN WITH SUSPECTED DISABILITY

ASSESSMENT
to identify disability, to recommend intervention and placement

PLACEMENT PROGRAMS
(EDUCATIONAL PLACEMENT ALTERNATIVES)

PHYSICAL PLANT
(PHYSICAL LAYOUT)

INDIVIDUALIZED EDUCATION PROGRAM (IEP) DEVELOPMENT

CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT AND INSTRUCTION

MANAGEMENT AND SUPERVISION OF SPED STUDENTS

FLOW CHART OF SPED SYSTEM AS ILLUSTRATED

BY A.S. DIMAPILIS, 2006
CHAPTER 3 INTRODUCTION TO INCLUSIVE EDUCATION
Lesson 1 INCLUSIVE EDUCATION: ITS PROS AND CONS
Lesson 2 INCLUSIVE EDUCATION IN THE PHILIPPINES
Lesson 3 BARRIERS AND SUPPORTS TO INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

Chapter Goal
The purpose of this chapter is to discuss and examine the advantages and
disadvantages of Inclusive Education. This also features Inclusive Education in
the Philippines and the issues surrounding its implementation. The most
important lesson in this chapter are the stumbling blocks and aids in Inclusion,
it will complement the learnings on Special education from the previous
chapter.

Chapter Objectives
After reading and reviewing this chapter, you should be able to
1. Define inclusion and inclusive education.
2. Judge the importance of inclusive education by weighing its advantages
and disadvantages to students with our without disabilities.
3. Discuss the different barriers to Inclusive education and the supports that
can counter them.
Source: www.diversecitylabs.com
CHAPTER 3 INTRODUCTION TO INCLUSIVE EDUCATION
“Our job is to teach the students we have. Not the ones we would like to have. Not the ones
we used to have. Those we have right now. All of them.” -Dr. Kevin Maxwell
Inclusive education is not only for children with disabilities, but also street children,
abused children, child laborers, Muslim children, and children of indigenous people. And
every child, with or without disability, deserves the highest quality of education. The
College of Education prepares you not only for employment but for the future of the
children whom you will be teaching when you become part of the teaching profession one
day. Being an educator is not just a job, it is a vocation that embraces all children
regardless of color, gender, religion, or socio-economic status. Are you prepared for the
responsibility of teaching these children for the real world? Are your ready to you nurture
them for excellence and resiliency?

Lesson 1 INCLUSIVE EDUCATION: ITS PROS AND CONS

DEFINITION
Inclusion
—the process of integrating children with disabilities into the academic and social
activities of regular schools and general education classes (Heward, Morgan, & Konrad,
2017).

—refers to educational situations in which children with disabilities are educated with
same-age peers; one major goal is social integration (Kirk, Gallagher, Coleman, &
Anastasiow, 2009).

Remember: Inclusion is not a program but a guiding philosophy for making decisions
about where and how we educate students (Causton & Theoharis).

Inclusive Education
—means integrating students with disabilities with peers who do not have disabilities by
using neighborhood schools, general education classrooms, and age-appropriate peers to
maximize LRE and increase students’ access to the general education curriculum.
Inclusive education practices include using universal design, differentiating (adapting)
instruction, and providing assistive technology.
Benefits for Students with Disabilities
• Friendships
• Peer roles models for academic and social skills
• Greater access to general curriculum
• Higher expectations
• Increased community feel for the parents.
Benefits for Students Without Disabilities
• Increased appreciation for individuals’ differences
• Respect for all people
• Opportunities to teach skills already mastered
• Opportunities for various educational resources
• More teachers in the classroom to provide assistance
Challenges for Students With Disabilities
• Less one-on-one attention.
• Students can have trouble adapting.
• Environment allows for more distractions.
• Child may feel singled out.
• Often paired with one-on-one aids that have little training.
Challenges for Students Without Disabilities
• More opportunity to get distracted.
• More likely to act out because other students are not getting disciplined.
• More likely to not receive the attention they deserve.

Lesson 2 INCLUSIVE EDUCATION IN THE PHILIPPINES

Facts and Figures
• In the Philippines, there are at least 375,952 recorded school-aged children with
disability as of 2010.
• However, only 1 in every 3 children with disability is in school.
• Among those attending school, only 1 in every 7 goes to a Special Education class.
Meanwhile, 5,916 are included in regular classes.
PHILIPPINE MODEL OF INCLUSION
Partial mainstreaming towards inclusion
- students are educated in regular classes at least half the day
- receive additional help or specialized services
- pull-out
Full mainstreaming or inclusion
- complete regular instruction
- receive all special services in general classroom
Current Issues
• Increasing the holding power of schools over these children
• Making existing resources and other support systems adaptable and suitable to the
needs of inclusive education
• Mobilizing parents and other duty bearers in supporting inclusive education
• Providing post-school support to fully integrate and enable disadvantaged children to
participate in gainful employment or productive work.
Lessons Learned
Creates positive social and attitudinal changes in both regular and disadvantaged
children such as:
• Reducing and eliminating prejudices against disabled children
• Improving self-concept or self-esteem
• Growth in social cognition
• Encouraging greater participation in social progress
Challenges
• Inclusion may result in overcrowding and lowering of quality of education
Economic Benefits
• Leads to higher participation rate, cohort-survival or completion rate
• There are higher simple and functional literacy rates.
• There is higher employment participation rate.
• Enable children to become independent and productive in later years
Economic Challenges
• Inclusion education entails additional resources over and above those provided to
regular schools.
• Per pupil cost is relatively higher than the regular pupil.

Lesson 3 BARRIERS AND SUPPORTS TO INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

The Biggest Barriers to Inclusive Education
Despite the many benefits of inclusive education, there still are many obstacles to its
implementation. Here is a list of some of the biggest barriers that advocates should be
aware of:
Attitudes—Old attitudes die hard, and many still resists the accommodation of students
with disabilities and learning issues, as well as those from minority cultures. Prejudices
against those with differences can lead to discrimination, which inhibits the educational
process.
Barriers—Many schools do not have the facilities to properly accommodate students with
special needs, and local governments lack either the funds or the resolve to provide
financial help.
Curriculum—A rigid curriculum that does not allow for experimentation or the use of
different teaching methods can be an enormous barrier to inclusion. Implementation of
Universal Design for Learning can be a remedy for stagnant coursework.
Teachers—Teacher who are not trained, who are unwilling, or unenthusiastic about
working with students with disabilities are a barrier to successful inclusion. Training often
falls short of real effectiveness, and instructors already straining under large workloads
may resent the added duties of coming up with different approaches for the same lessons.
Funding—Adequate funding is a necessity for inclusion, and yet it is rare. Schools often
lack trained teachers and other staff members, educational materials and general support.
Sadly, lack of resources is pervasive throughout many educational systems.
Expectations—Too often, students face discrimination and low expectations.
Organization of the Education System—Centralized education systems are rarely
conducive to positive change and initiative. Decisions come from the school system’s
high-level authorities whose initiatives focus on employee compliance more than quality
learning. The tope levels of the organization may have little or no idea about the realities
that teachers face on a daily basis.

12 Inclusion Supports
1. Individual Education Program/Plan
The individualized education program (IEP) is the legal document that describes the
educational services a student receives. IEPs vary greatly in format and detail from one
child to another and from one school district to another.
2. Differentiation
Differentiation means planning instruction to meet individual needs.
Differentiated instruction aims to:
-Improve learning outcomes
-Increase engagement
-Help students learn more efficiently and with deeper understanding
-Increase self-awareness
-Inspire a love of learning
Teachers can differentiate through content, process, product, and affect/environment.
Also, according to their student’s readiness, interests, and learning profile.
3. Universal Design for Learning
Universal design for learning (UDL) is a framework to improve and optimize teaching and
learning for all people based on scientific insights into how humans learn.
I. Provide Multiple Means of Representation
Goal: Resourceful, Knowledgeable Learners
II. Provide Multiple Means of Action and Expression
Goal: Strategic, Goal-directed Learners
III. Provide Multiple Means of Engagement
 Goal: Purposeful, Motivated Learning
4. Teacher Training
“Teacher training refers to policies, procedure, and processes aimed at empowering
teachers with the knowledge, abilities, and attitudes, in an integrated way, necessary for
the development of their profession”.
5. Peers
Peers can provide important support for a child with special needs, both by providing
practical help and by forming friendships.
6. Accommodation
-used to describe an alteration of environment, curriculum format, or equipment that
allows an individual with a disability to gain access to content and/or complete assigned
tasks.
7. Modification
-used to describe a change in the curriculum. It is made for students with disabilities
who are unable to comprehend all of the content an instructor is teaching.
8. Paraprofessionals
A paraprofessional is an educational worker who is not licensed to teach, but performs
many duties both individually with students and organizationally in the classroom.
CHAPTER 4 LEARNERS WITH ADDITIONAL NEEDS
Lesson 1 LEARNERS WITH INTELLECTUAL AND DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIES
Lesson 2 LEARNERS WITH LEARNING DISABILITIES
Lesson 3 LEARNERS WITH ATTENTION DEFICIT HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER (ADHD)
Lesson 4 LEARNERS WITH EMOTIONAL OR BEHAVIORAL DISORDERS
Lesson 5 LEARNERS WITH AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDER
Lesson 6 LEARNERS WITH COMMUNICATION DISORDERS
Lesson 7 LEARNERS WHO ARE DEAF AND HARD OF HEARING
Lesson 8 LEARNERS WITH BLINDNESS OR LOW VISION
Lesson 9 LEARNERS WITH PHYSICAL DISABILITIES AND OTHER HEALTH
IMPAIRMENTS
Lesson 10 LEARNERS WITH LOW-INCIDENCE, MULTIPLE, AND SEVERE DISABILITIES
Lesson 11 LEARNERS WITH SPECIAL GIFTS AND TALENTS

Chapter Goal:
The purpose of this chapter describes the learning characteristics of learners with
additional needs, and presents principles of teaching and learning and strategies
appropriate to their developmental level and educational needs.
Objectives:
1. Describe the nature and learning characteristics of students with additional needs;
and
2. Articulate appropriate instructional and classroom management strategies that
work best for each category of exceptionality.
CHAPTER 4 LEARNERS WITH ADDITIONAL NEEDS
“Students need to belong, before they can truly achieve.” -Anonymous
This chapter focuses on building your knowledge of exceptional learners. Knowing these
educational learners and the ways that you can effectively deal with them in the classroom
will make you more confident and effective in implementing inclusive education.
As you embark on this journey, please remember that you do not read this chapter just to
get passing grades, but to really learn something that can make a difference in the life of
your future students.
Have fun learning!

Lesson 1 LEARNERS WITH INTELLECTUAL AND DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIES

1. Definition
Intellectual disability pertains to limitations in thinking. Developmental disability means
that the limitations hinder the normal development of functions. In practice, most
professionals simply use the shorter term—intellectual disability. Developmental disability
or impairment is a collective term for a number of different conditions or diagnoses with
the common characteristic that the ability to learn and to cope within society is impaired.
The American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (AAIDD) defines
Intellectual disability as follows:
[Intellectual disability] is a disability characterized by significant limitations both in
intellectual functioning and in adaptive behavior as expressed in conceptual, social, and
practical adaptive skills. This disability originates before age 18. (AAMR Ad Hoc
Committee on Terminology and Classification, 2010, p.1).
The AAIDD definition emphasizes the following points: Intellectual disability concerns
BOTH INTELLECTUAL FUNCTIONING and ADAPTIVE BEHAVIOR, and a person with
intellectual disabilities CAN IMPROVE in terms of intellectual functioning and adaptive
behavior.
Professionals considered adaptive behavior alongside IQ because some students might
have poor academic performance or might score poorly in IQ tests but still be
“streetwise”—able to adapt with a complicated transport system, with a part-time job, with
peers.
Adaptive behavior involves social intelligence and practical intelligence (Greenspan,
2006b). Social intelligence is the ability to understand and interpret people and social
interactions, such as being able to “read” when someone is angry and not being easily
deceived or manipulated. Practical intelligence is the ability to deal with everyday
challenges, such as washing the dishes, cooking one’s meals, using transportation
systems, making change, and performing tasks in particular job situations.
Intellectual disabilities can be divided into four general levels:
• Mild Intellectual Disability (IQ of about 50 to 70) – The learner will listen and talk, but
may find it difficult to understand certain concepts and have some limitations with
expressing themselves. S/he will usually be socially well adjusted (if growing up in an
inclusive community), and be able to live independently after finishing their schooling.
• Moderate Intellectual Disability (IQ of about 35 to 50) – The learner can talk,
communicate and participate actively in classroom activities. S/he will also gain from
learning some activities of daily living (ADL), or independent living skills, as well as
social skills.
• Severe Intellectual Disability (IQ of about 20 to 35) - The learner can understand simple
communication through signs and mimic, but has limited ability to express oneself
through spoken language. Even if many experience great difficulties in independent
living, some level of independence can be reached.
• Profound Intellectual Disability (IQ below about 20) - Communicative skills are very
limited. Communication is often made through non-verbal sounds. However, some
learners may have limited ability to speak. Most of the learners concerned will need
care and attention day and night (24 hours).
Causes of Developmental Impairment
• Problems during pregnancy: An infection in the mother during the pregnancy can
damage the fetus (Rubella and German measles are common examples), attempted but
failed abortions (in some countries, abortions are attempted by using herbs or
traditional massages that can be unsuccessful and sometimes damage the fetus), lack
of nutrition during pregnancy, consumption of alcohol and drugs during the pregnancy,
and the HIV virus, if it is not treated properly with antiretroviral drugs (ARV), can also
damage the growing brain of the fetus.
• Problems at birth: Lack of oxygen during labour and birth, premature birth, low birth-
weight, and jaundice can all result in developmental impairment.
• Problems with nourishment: Iodine deficiency and malnutrition (during infancy and
childhood) can lead to developmental impairment.
• Health and environmental problems: Whooping cough, measles and meningitis, as well
as exposure to polluted water and poison (lead and mercury), can lead to
developmental impairment.
• Social problems/causes: Physical, mental or sexual abuse, deprivation of love and
affection, and uncaring institutionalization, can cause developmental impairment.
• Chromosomal disorders include Down syndrome, Fragile X syndrome, Prader-Willi
syndrome, and Williams syndrome. Down syndrome and Williams syndrome typically
result from chromosomal abnormalities; Fragile X syndrome and Prader-Willi
syndrome are inherited.
Down’s Syndrome
Down’s syndrome is the most common form of genetic syndrome. Down’s syndrome
affects girls and boys of all races, and from all religious, cultural, social and economic
backgrounds. It is usually not an inherited condition. In the vast majority of cases of Down
syndrome, the 21st set of chromosomes (the normal human cell contains 23 pairs of
chromosomes) is a triplet rather than a pair; hence, the most common form of Down
syndrome is also referred to as trisomy 21. Down syndrome is the most common form of
intellectual disability that is present at birth (Beirne-Smith, Patton, & Kim, 2006).
2. Identification
What methods of assessment are used to identify individuals with intellectual disabilities?
Individual IQ tests are used to assess intelligence. The following cautions are important:
(1) An individual’s IQ score can change; (2) all IQ tests are culturally biased to some extent;
(3) the younger the child, the less valid are the results; and (4) the ability to live a
successful and fulfilling life does not depend solely on IQ.
Adaptive behavior measures usually involve a parent, teacher, or other professional
answering questions related to the person’s independence and daily living skills and
maladaptive behavior.
3. Psychological and Behavioral Characteristics
With some learners, their intellectual disability may seem quite obvious; however, there
are physical conditions and impairments that may make a learner “appear” to have an
intellectual disability.
With many learners, their intellectual disability is first identified after having been observed
in classroom situations. Even then, it can be difficult to be certain. More important than
what sort of impairment the learner may have is how we identify and remove the barriers
to learning, development and participation they experience in school, at home and in the
community.
These are some signs that may indicate that the learner has an intellectual disability– that
the learner displays one or two of these signs does not mean that they have an intellectual
disability. They should be used with caution, as there is much variation in learners’
development:
• The learner experiences difficulties understanding what the teachers are saying even if
all the other learners seem to understand quite well.
• The learner talks differently from the other learners in the class, or does not talk at all.
• The learner moves, speaks and learns more slowly than most of her/his peers.
• The speech of the learner is not understood by anyone else than her/his immediate
family.
• The learner does not interact well with other learners her/his age.
• The learner has poor motor coordination, is clumsy and moves very differently from
other learners her/his age.
• The learner has a short attention span.
• The learner has poor short- and/or long-term memory.
• The learner is hyperactive, aggressive or disruptive.
• The learner is apathetic and indifferent.
• The learner has difficulties copying shapes, such as circles and squares.
• The learner mixes up letters (although this is quite common among all school
beginners).
• The learner has problems when doing simple jigsaw puzzles and foam boards.
4. Educational Approaches
• Use simple words and sentences when giving instructions. Check that s/he has
understood.
• Use real objects that the learner can feel and handle, rather than just working abstractly
with pen and paper. This is important for all learners, especially for learners with
disabilities.
• Do one activity at a time with the learner. Make it clear when one activity is finished
and another one is starting.
• Break a task down into small steps or learning objectives. The learner should start with
an activity that s/he can do already before moving on to something that is more
difficult. Go back one step if the learner encounters problems.
• Try to link the tasks to the learner experience and everyday life (this is important for all
learners).
• Give extra practice by repeating the task a few times. This will ensure that the learner
masters the skill. It will help increase her/his self-confidence; however, repetitions
should not be exaggerated.
• Repeat a few main tasks with certain intervals so that they become “habits” to prevent
skills from being forgotten.
• Ask other learners (who are doing well academically) to help and assist their
classmates with intellectual disability as part of their own social, emotional, and
academic development, which is also mutually enriching.
• Be generous with praise (honest praise) and encouragement when the learner is
successful and able to master new skills, as well as when s/he is trying (and working)
very hard.
• Motivate the other learners in the class to include the learner with Intellectual disability
in out-of-class play and sport activities, which is also mutually enriching.
• Ignore undesirable behavior if the child is doing it to get your attention. Give praise
and attention when the child’s behavior is good.
The three main principles for teaching learners with developmental impairment:
1. Divide skill development into small steps and allow for slow progression.
2. Make frequent repetitions.
3. Give a lot of praise and motivation.
Lesson 2 LEARNERS WITH LEARNING DISABILITIES
1. Definition
Specific learning disability is defined in IDEA as a disorder in one or more of the basic
psychological processes involved in understanding or in using language, spoken or
written, which may manifest in an imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell,
or perform mathematical calculations and is not caused by a sensory, motor, or intellectual
disability; an emotional disturbance; or environmental or economic disadvantage.
In operationalizing this definition, most states require three criteria: (a) a severe
discrepancy between the student’s intellectual ability and academic achievement, (b) the
student’s difficulties are not the result of another known condition that can cause learning
problems, and (c) the need for special education services to succeed in school.
2. Identification
Four forms of assessment are frequently used with student with learning disabilities:
• Norm-referenced tests compare a child’s score with the scores of age mates who have
taken the same test.
• Criterion-referenced tests, which compare a child’s score with a predetermined mastery
level, are useful in identifying specific skills the child has learned as well as skills that
require instruction.
• Curriculum-based measurement (CBM) is a formative assessment method that measures
a student’s progress in the actual curriculum in which she is participating.
• Direct and daily measurement involves assessing a student’s performance on a specific
skill each time it is taught.
• Response to intervention (RTI) assesses a low-achieving student’s response to
increasingly intensive, scientifically validated instruction to determine whether the
student’s learning difficulties are the result of poor or insufficient instruction or of a
disability for which special education is needed. A learner’s failure to progress in
response to scientifically validated instruction eliminates instructional quality as a
viable explanation for poor academic growth and suggests evidence of a disability.
Learners who respond favorably to RTI’s increasingly intensive instruction benefit from
the preventive aspect of the approach.
3. Psychological and Behavioral Characteristics
Difficulty reading is the most common characteristic of students with learning disabilities.
It is estimated that 90% of all children identified with learning disabilities are referred for
special education services because of reading problems.
Many students with learning disabilities show one or more of the following characteristics:
written language deficits, math underachievement, poor social skills, attention deficits and
hyperactivity, behavior problems, and low self-esteem or self-efficacy. The fundamental,
defining characteristic of students with learning disabilities is specific and significant
achievement deficits in the presence of adequate overall intelligence.
In addition to their academic and social skills deficits, students with learning disabilities
possess positive attributes and interests that teachers should identify and try to
strengthen.
Dyscalculia
Learners with dyscalculia have difficulties learning the most basic aspect of arithmetic
skills. The difficulty lies in the reception, comprehension, or production of quantitative and
spatial information (the physical location of objects and the metric relationships between
objects).
Learners with dyscalculia may therefore have difficulty in understanding simple number
concepts, lack an intuitive grasp of numbers and have problems learning number facts and
procedures.
Dyscalculia is in some ways like “dyslexia for numbers.” Very little is known about the
prevalence of dyscalculia, causes or treatment. Most learners with dyscalculia have
cognitive and language abilities that are well within what is considered the “normal” range.
They may excel in non-mathematical subjects.
Dysgraphia
“Dysgraphia“ is a learning disability resulting from the difficulty in expressing thoughts in
writing and graphing. It generally refers to extremely poor handwriting. Dysgraphia is a
neurological disorder characterized by writing disabilities. Specifically, the disorder
causes a person's writing to be distorted or incorrect. In children, the disorder generally
emerges when they are first introduced to writing. They make inappropriately sized and
spaced letters, or write wrong or misspelled words, despite thorough instruction. Learners
with the disorder may have other learning disabilities, however, they usually have no social
or other academic problems. Cases of dysgraphia in adults generally occur after some
trauma. In addition to poor handwriting, dysgraphia is characterized by wrong or odd
spelling, and production of words that are not correct (i.e., using ”boy” for ”child”). The
cause of the disorder is unknown.
Treatment for dysgraphia varies and may include treatment for motor disorders to help
control writing movements. Other treatments may address impaired memory or other
neurological problems. Some physicians recommend that individuals with dysgraphia use
computers to avoid the problems of handwriting. Some individuals with dysgraphia
improve their writing ability, but for others, the disorder persists.
Dyslexia
Learners with dyslexia experience difficulties affecting the learning process in aspects of
literacy and, sometimes, numeracy. A persistent weakness may also be identified in short-
term and working memory, speed of processing, sequencing skills, auditory and/or visual
perception, spoken language and motor skills.
Many learners with dyslexia do not only experience barriers, but they will also have special
abilities, which include: good visuospatial skills, creative thinking and intuitive
understanding. These abilities help to reduce some of the barriers to learning that they
face.
Identifying Learners with Dyslexia and Other Reading or Writing Difficulties
Throughout their schooling careers, a learner with dyslexia may:
• Appear bright and able, but can’t get their thoughts down on paper
• Have areas in which they excel, particularly in drama, art and debating
• Be clumsy
• Act as the “class clown” to mask what they see as their academic failure
• Become withdrawn and isolated, sit at the back and not participate in class
• Be able to do one thing at a time very well, but cannot remember an entire list
• Look “glazed” when language is spoken too quickly
• Go home exhausted at the end of a normal day because they have had to put so much
effort into learning
• Be bullied
Dyslexia cannot be diagnosed by using just one simple test. Dyslexia can be mild,
moderate, severe, or profound. The effect of dyslexia will be different from one child to
another. Although dyslexia is one of the most common reasons for why a bright student
will struggle with reading, spelling, or written composition, it is important to know that it
is not the only reason.
Dyspraxia
Learners with dyspraxia are affected by an impairment or immaturity of the organization
of movement, often appearing clumsy. Gross and fine motor skills (related to balance and
co-ordination) and fine motor skills (relating to manipulation of objects) are hard to learn
and difficult to retain and generalize. Writing is therefore particularly difficult and time
consuming. Computer keyboard skills are also difficult to acquire, as well as playing the
flute and many other musical instruments.
Pronunciation may also be affected, and people with dyspraxia may be over/under
sensitive to noise, light and touch. They may have poor awareness of body posture and
position, and misread social cues. In addition, they may share many of the characteristics
common to other learners with special learning difficulties.
4. Educational Approaches
• Students with learning disabilities require intensive and frequent individualized
interventions characterized by small group or one-to-one instruction, explicit instruction
focused on critical academic tool skills, high rates of active student engagement with
motivating materials and activities, frequent practice, and systematic feedback.
• Research does not support matching instruction to students’ learning styles and using
cognitively focused instruction (e.g., “brain gym” exercises, attention training).
• Strategy instruction teaches students learning strategies so they can guide themselves
successfully through specific tasks or general problems.
• Evidence-based practices for teaching reading comprehension include answering
questions, using self-questioning to monitor comprehension, completing graphic
organizers, examining text structure, and summarizing
• Self-regulated strategy development is an effective intervention for teaching writing
skills such as planning, organizing, and drafting to students with learning disabilities
• Elementary and secondary students with learning disabilities benefit from math
instruction that progresses in a concrete– representational–abstract sequence.
• Content enhancements such as graphic organizers and visual displays, note-taking
strategies, and mnemonics modify the organization and delivery of curriculum content so
that students can better access, interact with, comprehend, and retain the information.
Practical Tips for Teaching Learners with Dyslexia
• The teacher should make sure that all the learners in the class feel valued and
important – including those learners who experience barriers to learning, development
and participation.
• Encourage and motivate all the learners in the class to do the best they can.
• Have high expectations for intellectual stimulation (do not underestimate the learners
concerned), but reasonable expectations for written responses and reading skills.
• Explain things many times and in many different ways – sometimes to the whole class,
to a smaller group of learners (as many will benefit from this), as well as individually to
the learner with dyslexia.
• When you give instructions, be deliberate and use few and accurate words, and make
simple sentences. Allow time for the meaning of the words to “sink in.” Make sure that
all the learners have understood by asking them to explain it back to you or to another
learner.
• Guide the learners about how to tackle tasks systematically. Learners with dyslexia will
often need to be taught things that other learners learn automatically without your help
(this will benefit many other learners experiencing barriers to learning, as well). This
might include: how to clean up their desk; put away their books after they have finished
with them; get dressed properly; remind them to look for something they have
misplaced; pack their school bag; and tie their shoelaces. It is important that you (as a
teacher) and their parents recognize the importance of taking time to teach these skills
in a calm, systematic and repeated regular routine.
• Try to evaluate written assignments together with the learner. If possible, focus on what
the learner has done right (content, spelling, grammar, sentence structure). Select
some of the main errors and concentrate on those, instead of overwhelming the learner
with corrections.
• When you evaluate (grade or mark) a written assignment in a learner’s absence, use
two colors for corrections and suggestions – one for content and another for spelling
and presentation. Only spelling that has been taught specifically should be corrected.
• While you are looking at learner’s work, try to understand the reasons for their mistakes
and give them the chance to explain their difficulties to you. This will help you to know
what they need to be taught or to practice.
• Watch out for signs of falling confidence and self-esteem.
• Enable all the learners in the class to show their skills and knowledge.
• Allow them to share their interests with their friends, tell stories and participate in
drama and dance. Learners will dyslexia will often “shine” orally - teachers should
encourage this as it builds confidence and self-esteem.
• Remember that learners with dyslexia have to work much harder than many of the other
learners in the class. Look out for fatigue and make sure that they get enough rest by
doing tasks they master well, and with which they feel comfortable.
• Be generous with praise (honest praise) and encouragement when the learner is
successful, shows progress and masters new skills, as well as when s/he is trying (and
working) very hard (even if the expected results are not met).

Lesson 3 LEARNERS WITH ATTENTION DEFICIT HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER (ADHD)

1. Definition
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a neurological condition related, in part,
to the brain's chemistry and anatomy. ADHD manifests itself as a persistent pattern of
inattention and/or hyperactivity/impulsivity that occurs more frequently and more
severely than is typically observed in people at comparable levels of development.
2. Identification
Professionals usually use four methods of assessment: (1) a medical examination, (2) a
clinical interview, (3) teacher and parent rating scales, and (4) behavioral observations.
The behavioral observations can be done in the classroom and/or in the clinician’s office.
3. Psychological and Behavioral Characteristics
ADHD is a condition that becomes apparent in some children in pre-school and early
school years. It is hard for these children to control their behavior and/or pay attention. It
is estimated that between 3 to 5 percent of children have ADHD. This means that in a
classroom of 30 children, it is likely that at least one child will have ADHD.
The principal characteristics of ADHD are:
• Inattention: trouble paying attention to details, difficulty sustaining attention,
problems with organization, distractible
• Hyperactivity: fidgeting, leaving seat at inappropriate times, talking excessively
• Impulsivity: problems awaiting one’s turn, interrupting others.
These symptoms appear early in a child’s life. Many other children may have these
symptoms (but at a low level) or the symptoms may be caused by another disorder. It is,
thus, important that a child receives a thorough examination and appropriate diagnosis by
a well-qualified professional.
It can be difficult for parents and teachers to differentiate between lack of attention and
restlessness. Many younger children have difficulties sitting still, being attentive and
concentrating on theoretical tasks – this does not mean that they have ADHD.
4. Educational Approaches
Allow learners with ADHD to move while learning. Many learners with ADHD need to be
moving while listening. If we require them to sit still while learning, they will use all their
concentration on sitting still and very little (if anything) for learning. However, if we allow
them to choose their own motion, it will almost certainly be very distracting to the teachers
and other learners in the classroom. It is, thus, important to choose activities for them.
Allow learners with ADHD to respond orally. Writing is sheer torture for many learners with
ADHD. When doing mathematics, jumping from the “math calculating” part of the brain to
the “put thoughts down in writing” part of the brain can for many seem like an impossible
task. The child may take a section of writing and recopy it with no problem. S/he can
dictate each and every step of a complicated math problem with great ease. Yet tie the
two together, and a 5-minute task may turns into 45 minutes.
Integrate motion into most learning activities. When learning spelling and mathematics,
the learners can play a game where they line up in the classroom according to how long
their names are:
JOSHUA will stand in front of MIKA and ANA because his name has 6 letters, but
NATHANIEL will be standing in front of JOSHUA because his name has 9 letters, MICHAEL
will have to stand between NATHANIEL and JOSHUA because her name has 7 letters, and
so on. This is a good game to play to help young learners learn both spelling and
mathematics, and to be physically active at the same time. The game can be played inside
the classroom, as well as in the school yard.
Give your students a checklist of the things that need to be done every day. This helps
learners with ADHD to be accountable and develop responsibility. Many learners with
ADHD want to know what is going to happen next. They do not necessarily like surprises,
and it gives them great satisfaction and a sense of accomplishment when they can tick off
each assignment as it's completed.
Lesson 4 LEARNERS WITH EMOTIONAL OR BEHAVIORAL DISORDERS
1. Definition
Emotional or behavioral Disorders is difficult to define properly. Many of the children and
youth referred to with this term have complex and chronic difficulties, which place them
at risk of school and wider social exclusion.
What is considered socially acceptable behavior will vary enormously from one cultural,
religious and traditional context to another. Emotional or behavioral disorders are
therefore strongly influenced by the background and situation of the learners concerned.
Learners with different disabilities may develop emotional or behavioral disorders if their
individual (leading) needs are not addressed properly by parents and teachers.
2. Identification
Teacher judgment plays the most significant role in assessing if a learner has emotional
or behavioral disorders. Most students are below average in tested intelligence and
academic achievement and exhibit externalizing (aggressive toward others) or
internalizing (immature, withdrawn, depressed) behavior or a combination of the two.
3. Psychological and Behavioral Characteristics
What characterizes children with emotional or behavioral disorders?
• Children with social difficulties experience barriers in contact, play, and interaction with
other children and/or adults.
• Learners with emotional difficulties struggle with their feelings (amongst others: fears,
sadness. loneliness, moods and depression).
• Learners with behavioral difficulties experience difficulties in controlling their own
behavior, while parents and teachers are often challenged and provoked by impulsive,
aggressive and unpredictable behavior.
Additionally, learners with emotional or behavioral disorders:
• Generally behave unusually
• May respond in an extreme fashion to a variety of social, personal, emotional or
physical circumstances
• Have low self-image, anxiety, depression or withdrawal
• May show resentment, vindictiveness or defiance
• Can be silent or may threaten, interrupt, argue or swear
• Can act clingy or refuse contact
• May fail to attend classes, or be frequently absent from school
• May fail to observe rules or be disruptive, destructive, aggressive or violent
• Are often unable or unwilling to work without direct supervision
• Are restless and unable to concentrate
• Are often unable and/or unwilling to complete tasks and follow instructions
4. Educational Approaches
We should try to find out why the learner experiences difficulties. It is important to respond
based on an informed assessment of the situation. We should discuss it with the learner
and, if necessary, with her/his parents to try to come up with a strategy to solve the
problem together.
Learners should be challenged (intellectually, socially, emotionally and physically)
according to their individual abilities. If we consistently give tasks to learners that are too
complicated for them to master, or too easy, too boring, or irrelevant for their lives, some
learners may react by “misbehaving” to provoke a response, get attention or create a
distraction for their feeling of “failure.”
We should make sure all learners feel appreciated and valued, regardless of their abilities,
disabilities or backgrounds. If learners feel ignored, some may “misbehave” to get
attention.
We should clearly explain the consequences that different behavior and actions will have.
This way, learners will realize/understand that they do not only choose their behavior, but
also influence the response to that behavior. The responsibility for the response is,
therefore, transferred from parents and teachers to the learners themselves because they
will have to experience the consequences of their actions. The response should be
measured and in accordance with the information the learners received before they made
their decision to act a certain way.
We should develop a set of manageable rules for each of the learners in the class. Start
with just a few because otherwise they will be overwhelmed. These rules should be
developed in collaboration with the learner and her/his parents.
Lesson 5 LEARNERS WITH AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDERS
1. Definition
The term autistic spectrum disorder (ASD) is an umbrella term that encompasses the
terms autism, Asperger’s syndrome (also known as high functioning autism), autistic
disorder and classic autism (also known as Kanner’s autism). The information in this unit
is relevant for learners with autism and Asperger’s syndrome.
ASD is a group of related neurodevelopmental disorders of childhood marked by persistent
deficits in social communication and interaction and by restricted, repetitive patterns of
behavior and interests. Asperger syndrome is marked by impairments in all social areas,
particularly an inability to understand how to interact socially. Learners with Asperger
syndrome do not have general language delay, and most have average or above-average
intelligence.
Autism spectrum disorders classification recommended by Diagnostic and Statistical
Manual of Mental Disorders-V (DSM-V) workgroup:
• Autism: extreme social withdrawal and impairment in communication; often includes
stereotyped movements, resistance to change, and unusual responses to sensory
experiences; usually manifests before 3 years of age
• Asperger syndrome (or Asperger disorder): much like mild autism, but without significant
impairments in cognition and language
• Childhood disintegrative disorder: normal development for at least 2 and up to 10 years
followed by significant loss of skills; much more prevalent in males
• Pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS): persons who
display behaviors typical of autism but to a lesser degree and/or with an onset later than
3 years of age
2. Identification
No medical test for ASD is available; a diagnosis is most often made according to criteria
in the DSM. Autism can be reliably diagnosed at 18 months of age, with research currently
developing methods for detecting warning signs in children at 6 months of age. Screening
babies for early warning signs of autism is critical because early diagnosis is correlated
with dramatically better outcomes. Signs that warrant concern during the first 18 months
of life include lack of pointing or gestures, infrequent or poor imitation, no single words by
16 months, lack of smiling, not responding to name, lack of joint attention, and loss of
previously acquired language or social skills.
3. Psychological and Behavioral Characteristics
The APA recommends that in order to be diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder, the
individual must meet the following three criteria:
1. Clinically significant, persistent deficits in social communication and interactions, as
manifest by all of the following:
a. Marked deficits in nonverbal and verbal communication used for social interaction;
b. Lack of social reciprocity [give-and-take];
c. Failure to develop and maintain peer relationships appropriate to developmental level
2. Restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, and activities, as manifested by at
least TWO of the following:
a. Stereotyped motor or verbal behaviors, or unusual sensory behaviors
b. Excessive adherence to routines and ritualized patterns of behavior
c. Restricted, fixated interests
3. Symptoms must be present in early childhood (but may not become fully manifest until
social demands exceed limited capacities) (American Psychiatric Association: DSM-V
Development, 2010).
All children (and adults) with an autistic spectrum disorder have difficulties in three main
areas: (1) Social understanding and social behavior; (2) Social communication (verbal and
non-verbal); and (3) Rigidity of thinking and difficulties with social imagination.
4. Educational Approaches
• Learners with autism are among the most difficult to teach of all students; they require
carefully planned, meticulously delivered, and continually evaluated and analyzed
instruction.
• Visual activity schedules—a series of images, photos, icons, or video clips depicting
activities a learner can perform, presented in sequence—can help learners with autism
independently select and carry out a sequence of activities in the classroom, home, or
community.
• Social stories, which explain social situations and the expected behaviors of the people
involved in a format understandable to a student with ASD, can decrease a learner’s
anxiety about an event, improve his behavior, and help him understand events from the
perspective of others.
Lesson 6 LEARNERS WITH COMMUNICATION DISORDERS
1. Definition
• A communication disorder is “an impairment in the ability to receive, send, process, and
comprehend concepts or verbal, nonverbal and graphic symbol systems” (ASHA, 1993,
p. 40).
• A child has a speech impairment if his speech draws unfavorable attention to itself,
interferes with the ability to communicate, or causes social or interpersonal problems.
• The three basic types of speech impairments are articulation disorders (errors in the
production of speech sounds), fluency disorders (difficulties with the flow or rhythm of
speech), and voice disorders (problems with the quality or use of one’s voice).
• Some learners have trouble understanding language (receptive language disorders),
others have trouble using language to communicate (expressive language disorders),
and still others have language delays.
• Speech or language differences based on cultural or regional dialects are not
communication disorders. However, learners who use a different dialect may also have
speech or language disorders.
2. Identification
Assessment of a suspected communication disorder may include some or all of the
following components: (a) case history and physical examination, (b) articulation test, (c)
hearing test, (d) auditory discrimination test, (e) phonological awareness and processing,
(f) vocabulary and overall language development test, (g) assessment of language
function, (h) language samples, and (i) observation in natural settings
3. Psychological and Behavioral Characteristics
• Four basic kinds of speech-sound errors exist: distortions, substitutions, omissions, and
additions.
• A child with an articulation disorder cannot produce a given sound physically.
• A child with a phonological disorder can produce a given sound and does so correctly in
some instances but not at other times.
• Stuttering, the most common fluency disorder, is marked by rapid-fire repetitions of
consonant or vowel sounds, especially at the beginnings of words, prolongations,
hesitations, interjections, and complete verbal blocks.
• A voice disorder is characterized by abnormal vocal quality, pitch, loudness, resonance,
or duration for the speaker’s age and sex.
• Language impairments involve problems in phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics,
or pragmatics; they are usually classified as either receptive or expressive.
4. Educational Approaches
The classroom teacher needs to work with others in three main areas:
• Facilitating the social uses of language
• Question asking
• Teaching literacy: Reading and written language
Lesson 7 LEARNERS WHO ARE DEAF OR HARD OF HEARING
1. Definition
Professionals with a physiological perspective use a decibel loss of 90 dB or greater as
the cutoff for deafness. Those with an educational perspective classify individuals as deaf
if they can’t process linguistic information, with or without a hearing aid; they classify
individuals as hard of hearing if they can process this information with the help of a hearing
aid.
Congenital versus adventitious deafness refers to being born deaf versus acquiring
deafness after birth; prelingual deafness versus postlingual deafness refers to deafness
occurring before versus after speech and language development.
Sentiment is growing in the Deaf community that those who are deaf should be considered
as a cultural/linguistic minority rather than disabled.
2. Identification
Screening tests for infants often measure otoacoustic emissions, low-intensity sound
emitted from the cochlea when stimulated. Pure-tone audiometry assesses decibel
(intensity) and hertz (frequency) levels. Speech audiometry assesses the ability to detect
and understand speech.
3. Psychological and Behavioral Characteristics
Deaf learners —especially those with a pre-lingual hearing loss of 90 dB or greater—are at
a great disadvantage in acquiring English literacy skills. The speech of many learners with
hearing loss may be difficult to understand because they omit speech sounds, speak too
loudly or softly, speak in a high pitch, speak with limited inflection, or speak too quickly or
too slowly. As a group, students who are deaf and hard of hearing lag far behind their
hearing peers in academic achievement, and the achievement gap usually widens as they
get older. Learners with severe to profound hearing losses often report feeling isolated and
unhappy in school, particularly when their socialization with other learners with hearing
loss is limited.
4. Educational Approaches
• The oral/aural approach views speech as essential if students are to function in the
hearing world; much emphasis is given to amplification; auditory training;
speechreading; the use of technological aids; and, above all, talking.
• Total communication uses speech and simultaneous manual communication via signs
and fingerspelling.
• In the bilingual-bicultural approach, deafness is viewed as a cultural and linguistic
difference, not a disability, and Filipino Sign Language (FSL) is used as the language of
instruction.
Lesson 8 LEARNERS WITH BLINDNESS OR LOW VISION
1. Definition
Those using a legal definition use visual acuity and field of vision:
• Blindness is visual acuity of 20/200 or less in the better eye with correction; low vision
is 20/70 to 20/200.
• Blindness is a field of vision no greater than 20 degrees.
Those using an educational definition use method of reading:
• Blindness is needing to use braille or aural methods.
• Low vision is being able to read print (enlarged or magnified).
2. Identification
Visual acuity for far distances is most often measured by using the Snellen chart.
Measures are also available for measuring visual acuity for near distances. Vision teachers
can perform functional assessments to determine how students use their vision in
everyday situations.
3. Psychological and Behavioral Characteristics
• Language development is largely unaffected, although subtle developmental delays
can occur, especially in infancy.
• Individuals may experience early delays in conceptual development, which do not last
long.
• Motor delays in infancy are common; it is important that adults encourage infants to
explore their environment to help overcome these delays.
• Studies suggest that some students who are blind experience low academic
achievement, which is most likely due to low expectations or lack of exposure to braille.
• Phonological awareness is important for learning to read print or braille.
• Any social adjustment problems that people with visual impairment have are largely
due to sighted society’s reactions to blindness.
4. Educational Approaches
• Select books with good print quality and layout. The text should ideally be left-aligned
(with an even left margin, and an uneven right margin). This will make it easier for
learners with low vision to read, with a minimum of assistive devices. It will also benefit
other learners who struggle with reading.
• Books and other reading material should be provided in Braille for those who depend
on Braille for reading and writing. The books should be provided for free or at the same
price as sighted learners pay for their books (in ink print).
• Learners who write Braille should have access to writing frames and stylus for free, or
at the same price as pen and pencils.
• Appropriate visual devices should be provided to learners with low vision based on their
individual needs as well as availability of devices.
• Orientation and mobility (O&M) training should be provided – how to move about with
a white cane, use trailing techniques as well as touch and protection techniques,
effective use of landmarks (including sound and echo), guiding techniques (human
guide) as well as techniques for free movement in space.
• Space awareness activities – enable learners with visual impairment to move about in
open space in order to feel confident and in control over their own bodies and
movements.
• Activities of daily living (ADL) – many learners with visual impairment need training in
performing daily tasks that for most other learners are learnt by mimicking and copying
their parents, siblings and peers. These are, amongst others: going to the toilet,
washing, dressing, tying shoelaces, eating and drinking without spilling, pouring a glass
of water, and using cutlery (or sticks).
• If you have learners with albinism in your class, please make sure that their eyes and
skin is protected from the sun when playing outside or having physical education,
ideally with long sleeves, long trousers, skirts with stockings, caps and sun glasses,
because their skin will burn easily in the sun. Learners with albinism are therefore
extremely vulnerable to skin cancer.
• Seat the learners with visual impairment so that they can hear well because they will
depend more on their hearing than most other learners, both for learning and
participation.
• If some classrooms in the school are noisier than others – (noise from busy roads,
trains, airports or factories), the school should be flexible and move the class who has
learners with visual impairment (as well as classes who have learners with hearing
impairment or other disabilities) to a less noisy classroom.
• We should seat learners with low vision so that they can maximize the use of their
residual vision as well as prevent them from being blinded by light (reflection from
sunshine and other light sources).
• Many learners who are blind have some light perception and feel bothered by light,
while others will benefit from light because they will be able to use their light perception
for mobility purposes.
• The seating arrangements should be fixed or at least not changed too frequently, so
that the learners can orient themselves and find the way to their seats independently,
as well as know where all their friends are seated (located).
• Prevent the classroom, especially floor areas, from being cluttered to ease mobility for
the learners concerned and prevent accidents and injuries.
• Likewise, important objects in the classroom (books, learning material and devises)
should not be moved around too much. Have fixed places so that learners with visual
impairment can find things independently.
• Think about a “goal” that should be set for the learner with visual impairment (what
should be learned throughout the school year), and try to find ways and strategies to
help the learner achieve this goal. This will help you to plan for when you might need
external support from an itinerant resource teacher, or an assistant teacher (if these
are available), how the other learners in the class can help out, and what kind of
adjusted teaching and learning material would be needed. Remember it may take time
to get hold of books in Braille, an abacus or other material – if these are at all available.
Spend some time to explain to the learner with visual impairment about the process of
learning in class before they start, especially in classes where series of different
 activities are required, such as in science experiments, physical education, cooking and
crafts classes. It is also important to explain and show how different equipment that is
used in the class works because learners with visual impairment might not be able to
follow the general instructions.
• Read everything that is written on the blackboard aloud and slowly.
• Try to speak while facing the learners (not away from them) because learners with
visual impairment greatly depend on their hearing to receive information, and they need
to hear you clearly.
• Involve the other learners in the class to help out. Explaining a visual concept to a
person who cannot see is an interesting challenge for most sighted learners (and
adults). It can help them to see things from different perspectives and deepen their
understanding of shapes, colors and functions. Assisting their friends with visual
impairment will contribute greatly to their social, emotional and academic
development, and be mutually enriching.
• Encourage the class to think about how to include their peers with visual impairment
in physical education programmes. Inclusion is not just the responsibility of teachers,
but also of students. Through physical education, learners can learn how to include
their peers with disabilities in after-school activities, as well. This is one of the most
important points in inclusive education because learners with visual impairment tend
to be excluded from most after-school activities, even when they are included in regular
classroom activities.
• Produce tactile learning material as part of “class projects.” If the learners make tactile
maps, for example, it will help all learners learn geography better, especially learners
who depend on oral and tactile information for learning.
• Use real objects that the learner can feel and handle, rather than just working abstractly
with pen and paper. This is important for all learners, but especially for learners with
disabilities.
• It is difficult for a learner with visual impairment to understand the concept of “things,”
especially very large and very small things. Therefore, provide as many opportunities
as possible for the learners to touch different “things.” If a big tree has fallen down or
been cut down near the school, take the learners there to see and touch it. This will
provide better understanding of size, height and length for all the learners in the class,
not “just” for the learner with visual impairment.
• Remember that it takes much, much longer to write Braille characters than ink letters
– one character can have up to five dots. Those dots are embossed separately, when
using a stylus and a writing-frame.
Lesson 9 LEARNERS WITH LOW-INCIDENCE, MULTIPLE, AND SEVERE DISABILITIES
1. Definition
Low-incidence, multiple, and severe disabilities are those that occur relatively infrequently
and require extensive support in more than one major life activity, such as mobility,
communication, self-care, independent living, employment, and self-sufficiency. Probably
1% or fewer of all learners have such low-incidence, multiple, or severe disabilities.
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is injury to the brain resulting in total or partial disability or
psychosocial maladjustment that affects educational performance. It may be the result of
closed head injuries or open head injuries. It may affect cognition, language, memory,
attention, reasoning, abstract thinking, judgment, problem solving, sensory or perceptual
and motor disabilities, psychosocial behavior, physical functions, information processing,
or speech—all of which are important in school.
Deaf-blindness is defined by significant impairments in both hearing and seeing, although
the individual may have some residual hearing or sight. Deaf-blindness may be caused by
a variety of genetic and chromosomal syndromes, prenatal conditions, and postnatal
conditions. The person who is deaf-blind has difficulty accessing information,
communicating, and navigating the environment. Deaf-blindness requires direct teaching,
predictable, structured routines, and emphasis on communication and mobility.
2. Educational Approaches for Children with Deafblindness
• The first step would be to find out how much residual hearing and/or vision the child
has, if any.
• If the learner has residual vision and/or hearing, we need to try to make use of it to
create communication and encourage learning, development and participation.
• We should attempt to invite and develop communication by offering our hands under
the learner’s hands, instead of just shaping her/his hands into formal signs. Signs may
not yet have any meaning for her/him.
• If a child has very few signs, we should accept her/his signs by imitating them under
her/his hands, then modelling the sign for what we think s/he is trying to tell us (again
with our hands under her/his).
• If the child has sufficient functional vision, we should model the signs within her/his
field of vision.
• We should try to build on the child’s own communication by developing a more formal
system when the child is ready. This approach will also foster a trusting relationship
with the child by giving more control to the child and allowing her/him to learn the
power of her/his communication.
Lesson 10 LEARNERS WITH PHYSICAL DISABILITIES AND OTHER HEALTH
IMPAIRMENTS
1. Definition
Learners with physical disabilities or other health impairments are those whose physical
limitations or health problems interfere with school attendance or learning to such an
extent that they require special services, training, equipment, materials, or facilities. It may
be congenital or acquired, acute or chronic, episodic or progressive, and accompanied by
other disabilities, such as intellectual disability and emotional or behavioral disorders, or
special gifts or talents.
Major categories are neuromotor impairments, orthopedic or musculoskeletal disorders,
and other conditions that affect health or physical abilities.
2. Identification
Some major neuromotor impairments include:
• All involve damage to the brain before, during, or soon after birth or damage to the spinal
cord.
• Cerebral palsy, characterized by paralysis, weakness, uncoordination, and/or other motor
dysfunction, sometimes by intellectual disability or other disabilities
• Seizure disorder, an abnormal electrical discharge in the brain
• Spina bifida, the failure of the spinal column to close during fetal development
Some major orthopedic and musculoskeletal disorders include:
• Muscular dystrophy, a degenerative disease causing a progressive weakening and
wasting away of muscle
• Juvenile rheumatoid arthritis, acute inflammation around the joints that may cause
chronic pain and other complications
Other conditions that affect health or physical ability include:
• Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS), now one of the most common causes of malformation and
intellectual disability, caused by the mother’s abuse of alcohol during pregnancy
• AIDS, a life-threatening viral infection that often involves neurological complications
such as intellectual disability, seizures, cerebral palsy, and emotional or behavioral
disorders
• Accident
3. Educational Approaches
• Education must make the most of the student’s assets.
• Education should be as normal as possible and equip the student for daily living as well
as employment or further education.
Lesson 11 LEARNERS WITH SPECIAL GIFTS AND TALENTS
1. Definition
The US federal government defines gifted and talented (GT) learners as those who
demonstrate evidence of high-achievement capability in areas such as intellectual,
creative, artistic, or leadership capacity or in specific academic fields and who need
services and activities not ordinarily provided by the school to fully develop these
capabilities.
2. Identification and Assessment
Comprehensive and equitable identification of GT students includes a combination of
intelligence tests; achievement measures; checklists; teacher, parent, community, and
peer nominations; self-nomination; and leisure interests.
3. Psychological and Behavioral Characteristics
Learning and intellectual characteristics of GT students include the ability to:
° Rapidly acquire, retain, and use large amounts of information.
° Relate one idea to another.
° Make sound judgments.
° Appreciate multiple and opposing points of view.
° Perceive the operation of larger systems of knowledge that others may not recognize.
° Acquire and manipulate abstract symbol systems.
° Solve problems by reframing the question and creating novel solutions.
Characteristics of highly gifted students with IQs of 145 and above include
° Intense intellectual curiosity
° Fascination with words and ideas
° Perfectionism and need for precision
° Learning with great intuitive leaps
° Intense need for mental stimulation and challenge
° Difficulty conforming to the thinking of others
° Early moral and existential concerns
° Tendency toward introversion
Many gifted learners are highly creative. Although there is no standard definition of
creativity, most researchers and educators agree that fluency, flexibility, originality, and
elaboration are important dimensions.
Gifted students display both inter- and intra-individual differences. Asynchrony is a term
used to describe disparate rates of intellectual, emotional, social, and physical growth or
development displayed by some gifted learners.
4. Educational Approaches
• Curricula for GT students should be academically rigorous, thematic and
interdisciplinary, and responsive to the learning characteristics of gifted students.
• Differentiation refers to a variety of strategies for providing curricula and instructional
practices appropriate to the different needs, interests, readiness, and learning profiles of
students.
• Acceleration is the general term for a variety of methods for increasing the speed with
which a student progresses through the curriculum or school.
• Curriculum compacting involves compressing instructional content so students have
time to work on more challenging materials.
• Enrichment means probing or studying a subject in greater depth than would occur in the
general education curriculum.
• Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives provides a framework for differentiating
curriculum by asking questions and assigning activities that require students to
demonstrate different types of knowledge.
• Tiered lessons provide extensions of the same basic lesson for groups of students of
differing abilities.
• Inquiry-based learning is an evidence-based practice for teaching science that engages
students in asking research questions, planning investigations, collecting and analyzing
data, deriving explanations, and communicating their findings.
• Problem-based learning is a collaborative problem-solving activity that challenges
students to seek solutions to real world problems.
• Project-based learning is an instructional activity in which students work together for an
extended period of time to investigate an authentic question and produce a project
(e.g., a product or presentation) that answers the question.
• Gifted educators recommend a wide range of leadership activities that include learning
about leadership in the classroom, interacting with leaders, and engaging in
opportunities to be a leader.
• Options for learning outside school include internships and mentorships, special courses
and workshops in the community, summer programs, competitions and fairs, and
international experiences.