Early civilizations: The concept of chance and probability can be

traced back to ancient civilizations such as Babylon, Egypt, and

China. These cultures engaged in games of chance, gambling,
and divination. Although they lacked formal mathematical
tools, they intuitively understood the notion of likelihood and
uncertainty.

Gerolamo Cardano (1501-1576): An Italian mathematician, physician, and gambler, Cardano,

wrote the book "Liber de Ludo Aleae" (The Book on Games of Chance) in 1564. In this work,
he discussed the mathematics of gambling and the concept of probability. Cardano's
contributions laid the groundwork for future developments in probability.

20th Century: Probability theory saw tremendous growth in the 20th century, with the
formalization of measure-theoretic probability by mathematicians like Andrey Kolmogorov.
This framework provided a rigorous foundation for probability theory, making it more
powerful and applicable in various fields, including statistics, physics, and engineering.

CONCEPT OF ZERO

The concept of zero as a mathematical digit has a long and intriguing history that spans
different civilizations. The ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia and Egypt used a positional
numeral system but lacked a symbol for zero.

Influence of Gupta mathematicians: During the Gupta Empire (c. 4th to 6th centuries CE),
Indian mathematicians made significant advances. Scholars like Aryabhata (c. 476-550 CE)
and Brahmagupta (c. 598-668 CE) played a crucial role in furthering the concept of zero.
They used a circle or dot to represent zero and recognized its significance as a placeholder in
positional numeral systems.

Transmission to the Islamic world: The Indian numeral system, along with the concept of
zero, was transmitted to the Islamic world through trade and cultural exchange. Persian and
Arab scholars, such as Al-Khwarizmi and Al-Kindi, were influenced by Indian mathematical
works and began adopting and using the Indian-Arabic numeral system, including the digit
for zero.

Introduction to Europe: The knowledge of zero reached Europe during the Middle Ages
through translations of Arabic mathematical texts. The works of Arab mathematicians, which
included the use of zero as a numeral, played a significant role in introducing the concept to
European scholars.

CHANGES IN MATH

1. Invention of Numerical Systems: The development of numerical systems,

including the concept of zero and place value notation by ancient civilizations,
revolutionized counting and arithmetic, providing the foundation for all
mathematical operations.
2. Founding of Geometry: The work of Euclid in "Elements" (c. 300 BCE) laid the
axiomatic basis for plane geometry and established a systematic approach to
mathematical proofs, becoming a cornerstone of mathematics for centuries.
3. Introduction of Algebra: The work of Islamic mathematicians, such as Al-
Khwarizmi (c. 780-850), led to the introduction of algebra, which dealt with
solving equations using symbols and provided a powerful tool for various
mathematical problems.

Universal Language: Mathematics is often considered a universal language. The

fundamental principles and concepts in mathematics are the same regardless of the
language used to express them. Mathematical symbols and notation transcend
language barriers, allowing mathematicians and scientists from different countries to
communicate effectively.

Historical Contributions: Different languages have played crucial roles in the

historical development of mathematics. For example, Arabic mathematicians
preserved and expanded upon ancient Greek and Indian mathematical knowledge
during the Islamic Golden Age. Sanskrit texts in ancient India contained foundational
mathematical ideas. Latin served as the language of scholarly communication during
the European Renaissance.

1. Development of Mathematical Terminology: Different languages have

contributed to the development of mathematical terminology. As new
mathematical concepts are discovered or imported from other cultures, they
are often given names in various languages, leading to a rich multilingual
mathematical vocabulary.
2. Mathematical Literature and Research: Mathematical research and literature
are published in various languages. Journals, papers, and books in multiple
languages contribute to the dissemination of knowledge and foster
collaboration among mathematicians worldwide.
 3. Mathematical Cultures: Different regions and languages have unique
mathematical cultures, which encompass both historical traditions and
contemporary research interests. Each mathematical culture brings its distinct
perspectives and contributions to the global mathematical community.

: What do we mean by a “fair” game? Is it fair that casinos should make a profit?

Knowledge framework: Mathematics

Scope/applications

 mathematics concerned with quantity, shape, space and change—difficult

to define
 used to create models in the natural and human sciences
 the possibility of a mathematical treatment is taken by many to be
the sign of intellectual rigor—for example, in economics or psychology
 possesses qualities such as beauty and elegance—sometimes thought of
as an art form
 seems to be broadly universal and not tied to a particular culture
 mathematical truths seem to be certain and timeless

Concepts/language

 uses a precisely defined set of symbols standing for abstract things

like sets and relations
 key terms such as axiom, deduction rule, conjecture, theorem, proof

Methodology

 uses pure reason from axioms to produce proofs of

mathematical theorems
 a statement in mathematics is true if and only if it is proved
 mathematics does not seem to rely on sense perception of the world
 mathematicians require intuition and imagination in order to
prove theorems

Historical development
  seminal developments such as negative or irrational numbers have led to
big changes in the way we view the world
 numbers and geometry particularly important in historical development
of other fields such as painting, architecture and music

Links to personal knowledge

 maths ability often taken to be a proxy for intelligence with consequences

for individual self-esteem
 much scope for major contributions to mathematics by
talented individuals who cannot always explain the source of their
insights, often ascribing them to intuition, imagination or emotion

credits bhavi