PHYSICS AND MODELING OF

MICROELECTRONIC DEVICES
MEL G631
Lecture -4
21-08-2023
BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus
Typical Energy Bands (Insulator,
Semiconductor, Metal)

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Direct and Indirect
Semiconductors
When a single electron is assumed to travel through a perfectly periodic lattice,
the wave function of the electron is assumed to be in the form of a plane
wave moving in the x-direction with propagation constant (or wave vector) k.

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 Direct and Indirect
Semiconductors

(a) Direct Semiconductor (GaAs) : an electron in the conduction band can fall
to an empty state in the valence band, giving off the energy difference (Eg)
as a photon of light. Thus, this semiconductor material is used for light
emitters and lasers.

(b) Indirect Semiconductor (Si) : an electron in the conduction band minimum

in Si can not fall directly to the valence band maximum. Instead, it must
undergo a momentum change as well as changing its energy. The indirect
transition involves a change in k, and the energy is generally given up as
heat to the lattice rather than as an emitted photon.

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 Energy Bands Variation vs.
Composition (x)

Figure 3—6
Variation of direct and indirect conduction bands in AIGaAs as a function of composition: (a) the ( E,k)
diagram for GaAs, showing three minima in the conduction band; (b) AIAs band diagram; (c) positions of
the three conduction band minima in AIx Ga1- x As as x varies over the range of compositions from
GaAs ( x = 0) to AIAs ( x = 1). The smallest band gap, Eg (shown in color), follows the direct band to 5
x = 0.38, and then follows the indirect X band. BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus
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Charge Carriers in Semiconductors

• Consideration of Current Conductions :

- Metals : Metal atoms are imbedded in a “sea” of free electrons, and these electrons
can move as a group under the influence of an electric field.
- Semiconductors : Since the semiconductors has a filled valence band and an empty
conduction band at 0K, the increase of electrons in conduction band by thermal
excitations across the band gap must be considered as the temp. is raised. In addition,
after electrons are excited to the conduction band, the empty states left in the valence
band can contribute to the conduction process. Also, the introduction of impurities is
considered to have an important effect on the energy band structure and on the
availability of charge carriers.

• Electrons & Holes : As the temp. is raised from 0K, some electrons in the V.B. receive
enough thermal energy to be excited across the band gap to the C.B., and this results in
a semiconductor with some electrons in an otherwise empty C.B. and some unoccupied
states (called holes) in an otherwise filled V.B.

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Electron-hole pairs in semiconductor

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Electron-Hole Pair (EHP)

• EHP = A pair of conduction band electron and valence band hole created by the excitation of a
valence band electron to the conduction band.
- Equilibrium number of EHPs in pure Si at RT = 1.5 1010 EHP/cm3
- Si atom density = 5 x 1022 atoms/cm3
→ Very few electrons are free to move about via the many available empty states
In the filled valence band, all available energy states are occupied. For every electron
moving with a given velocity, there is an equal and opposite electron motion elsewhere in
the band. If we apply an electric field, the net current is zero because for every electron j
moving with velocity vj, there is a corresponding electron j´ with velocity -vj.
N
With N electrons/cm3 in the band, the current density J :
J = ( − q ) Vi = 0
i
(filled band),
If we create a hole by removing the j-th electron, the net current J in V.B. will be,
N
J = (−q) Vi − (−q)V j = qV j (j-th electron missing)
i
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 Hole movement in a Semiconductor

http://www.radartutorial.eu/21.semiconducto
rs/hl06.en.html

8/21/2023
BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus
 Intrinsic Semiconductor Materials

When a Si valence electron is broken away from its position in the bonding
structure and it becomes free to move around in the lattice, a conduction electron
is created, leaving behind a broken bond (as a hole). In this case, the band gap
energy (Eg) is just the energy required to break the bond.

At steady state, since the carrier concentration should be maintained steady,

there must be recombination of EHPs at the same rate at which they are
generated. In equilibrium state, ri = gi (EHPs/cm3-s) and
if n0 = equilibrium conc. of electrons and p0 = equilibrium conc. of holes, then
r = n p = n = g
i r 0 0
2
r i i
( 
= r recombination constant )

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Bonding Model of Si : Qualitatively

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 Extrinsic Semiconductor Material

Extrinsic Material: the semiconductor crystal where the equilibrium carrier

concentrations n0 and p0 are different from the intrinsic carrier concentration ni (due to
impurity doping).

Impurities or lattice defects are introduced into otherwise perfect crystal, which in turn,
create additional levels in the energy band structure usually within the band gap.

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 Extrinsic Semiconductor Material

•Column V elements (donor impurities: P, As, Sb):

•A “donor” energy level formation near conduction band (C.B.) → n-type material n0 >>
( p0 , ni)
* The material doped with donor impurities can have a considerable conc. of electrons in
C.B. (due to the donor energy level), even when the temperature is too low to generate
an appreciable intrinsic EHP concentration. This donor energy level is filled with
electrons at 0K, and very small thermal energy can cause these electrons to excite to C.B.
At 50-100K, almost all electrons in the donor impurity level are donated to C.B.

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Energy Band diagram of a n-type
Semiconductor

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Donor Ionization –
Energy Band Diagram

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 The Law of Mass Action
The Norwegian scientists Cato M. Guldberg and Peter Waage created this law between 1864 and 1879

The law of Mass action asserts that at a constant temperature, the product of
the number of electrons in the conduction band and the number of holes in
the valence band remains constant, regardless of the quantity of donor and
acceptor impurities added.

It is expressed Mathematically as
np = ni2 = constant
Where ni is the intrinsic carrier concentration
n is number of electrons in the conduction band
p is number of holes in the valence band

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Donor Doping –
Electron and Hole Densities

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Thank You

BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus