Module: Electronics I Module Number: 610/650221-222

th
Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, 9 ed., Boylestad and Nashelsky

Philadelphia University
Faculty of Engineering
Communication and Electronics Engineering

Introduction
Charged particles:
- Negative charge of an electron is 1.610-19 (C) Coulomb.
- Mass of an electron is 9.1110-31 kg.
- Some calculations:
Find the number of electrons per second flow in 1pA.
The charge of an electron is 1.610-19 C
1
 The number of electrons in 1 C = 19
= 61018 Electron
1.6  10

But, the current of 1A= the flow of 1C/second

 There are 6106 Electron/s flow in 1pA.
- The current in a metal is due to the flow of –ve charges, whereas in a
semiconductor is due to the movement of both –ve and +ve charges (electrons
and holes).

- The valence electrons in a metal move from one level to another energy level
under the influence of external energy.

Fig. 1.3 Atomic structure of (a) silicon; (b) germanium; and (c) gallium and arsenic.

Lecturer: Dr. Omar Daoud Part I ١

 Module: Electronics I Module Number: 610/650221-222
th
Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, 9 ed., Boylestad and Nashelsky

Fig. 1.6 Energy levels: (a) discrete levels in isolated atomic structures; (b) conduction and
valence bands of an insulator, a semiconductor, and a conductor.

- The valence electrons in a metal do not belong to any particular atom. The
movement is random and the net movement of electrons across any cross-
sectional area is zero, hence, no current flows in the metal without applying
external field.
- The conductivity of a metal or a semiconductor is proportional to the
concentration of free electrons, since

Nq
J   nq  nqE  E A
AL
where,
I
L
J  A/m2, current density.
A
N electrons in length L of a conductor
L
 m/s, the velocity to travel L distance in T seconds.
T
N
n concentration of electrons.
AL
nq   charge density.
 mobility of electrons.
   conductivity

- The concentration, n , of free electrons for

1) A good conductor is 1028 electrons/ m3.
2) An insulator is 107 electrons/m3.
3) A semiconductor 107  n  1028 electrons/m3.

- The electron volt (1eV) is the applied work to move one electron in 1V
potential. (1eV=1.610-19 Joul)

Lecturer: Dr. Omar Daoud Part I ٢

Module: Electronics I Module Number: 610/650221-222
th
Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, 9 ed., Boylestad and Nashelsky

Semiconductor Materials:
Intrinsic Semiconductors:
- It is a single-crystal semiconductor material with no other types of atoms
within the crystal (the densities of electrons and holes are equal).
- The thermally generated electrons and holes are the only sources of such
particles, then the intrinsic carrier concentration could be found as
  Eg 
3 2  
 2 KT


ni  BT e  

where:
3 2 
 2m e K 
- B: is the coefficient related to the specific semiconductor material= 2   2

 h 
- Eg: is the bandgap energy (eV)
- K: is the Boltzmann's constants (86×10-6eV/K)
- me: mass of electrons (9.1×10-31kg)
- h: is the Planck's constant (6.626×10-34Joules-seconds)

Material Eg(eV) B(cm-3K-3/2)

Silicon (Si) 1.1 5.23×1015
Gallium arsenide (GaAs) 1.4 2.10×1014
Germanium (Ge) 0.66 1.66×1015

Extrinsic Semiconductors:
- Because the electrons and holes concentrations in an intrinsic semiconductor
are relatively small, only very small
currents are possible.
- The characteristics of a
semiconductor material can be
altered significantly by the addition
of specific impurity atoms to the
relatively pure semiconductor
material.
- In this course, the Si is the material
used most frequently as the base
(substrate). Because Ge, Si, gaAs
share a similar covalent bonding, the Fig. 1.4 Covalent bonding of the silicon atom

Lecturer: Dr. Omar Daoud Part I ٣

Module: Electronics I Module Number: 610/650221-222
th
Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, 9 ed., Boylestad and Nashelsky

discussion could be easily extended to include the use of them.

- An n-type (Donor) material is created

by introducing impurity elements that
have five valence electrons
(pentavalent), such as
 Antimony,
 Arsenic,
 Phosphorus.

- The required energy to detach the

fifth electron from the atom is
Fig. 1.7 Antimony impurity in n-type
 0.01 eV for the Ge material material.
 0.05 eV for the Si material.
- The p-type material (Acceptor) is
formed by doping pure germanium or
silicon crystal with impurity atoms
having three valence electrons, such
as
 Boron,
 Gallium,
 Indium.
Fig. 1.9 Boron impurity in p-type
material.
- If a valence electron acquire sufficient
kinetic energy to break its covalent
bond and fills the void created by a
hole, then a vacancy, or a hole, will
be created in the covalent bond that
released that electron.

Fig. 1.10 Electron versus hole flow.

Lecturer: Dr. Omar Daoud Part I ٤

Module: Electronics I Module Number: 610/650221-222
th
Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, 9 ed., Boylestad and Nashelsky

- In an n-type material the electron is called the majority carriers and the hole
the minority carriers. This is due to that the number of holes has not changed
significantly and the number of electrons far outweighs the number of holes
and vice versa.

Fig. 1.11 (a) n-type material; (b) p-type material.

- A fundamental relationship between the electrons and holes concentrations in

a semiconductor in thermal equilibrium is given by
no p o  ni2
where:
- no: is the thermal equilibrium concentration of free electrons.
- po: is the thermal equilibrium concentration of free electrons.
- ni: is the intrinsic carrier concentration.
- If the donor concentration Nd is much larger than the intrinsic concentration, then

ni2
no  N d  po 
Nd
- If the acceptor concentration Na is much larger than the intrinsic concentration,
then

ni2
p o  N a  no 
Na

Lecturer: Dr. Omar Daoud Part I ٥

Module: Electronics I Module Number: 610/650221-222
th
Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, 9 ed., Boylestad and Nashelsky

Ex: Calculate the drift current density for a given semiconductor. Consider silicon at
T=300K doped with arsenic atoms at a concentration of Nd=8×1015cm-3. Assume
mobility value of µn=1350cm2/V-s and µp=480cm2/V-s and the applied electric field
is 100V/cm.

Solution:
- The electron and hole concentrations are
no  N d  8  1015 cm 3

Then p o 
ni2


1.5  1010 2

 2.81  10 4 cm 3
Nd 8  1015
- But,

  e n n  e p p  e n n  1.6  10 
19
13508  10 15
  1.73  cm 1

- Then, the drift current density is

J  E  1.73100  173 A / cm 2

The Diode Structure

- At the instant that the two
materials are joined, the electrons
and holes in the region of the
junction will combine resulting in
a lack of free carriers in the region
near the junction.
 a semiconductor diode.
- There are three different cases to study
 No applied Bias
- The term bias refers to the application of an external voltage
across the two terminals to extract a response.
- Since VD = 0V, then there is no external voltage applied across
the terminals to cause a movement among the majority and
minority carriers in both p-type and n-type materials
 ID =0 A.

Lecturer: Dr. Omar Daoud Part I ٦

Module: Electronics I Module Number: 610/650221-222
th
Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, 9 ed., Boylestad and Nashelsky

Ex. Calculate the built-in potential barrier of a pn-junction? Consider a silicon pn-
junction at T=300oK, doped at Nacceptor=106cm-3 in the p-region, Ndoner=1017cm-3 in the
n-region, and ni(silicon)= 1.51010cm-3.

Solution:

KT  N acceptor N doner   6 17 
Vbi  ln   (26  10 3 ) ln 10  10  =0.757 V
q 
 ni2 



 1.5  10 
10 2 


 VD < 0 (Reverse Bias)

- The number of uncovered positive ions in the depletion layer of
the n-type material will increase due to the large number of free
electrons drawn to the positive potential of the applied voltage
as the same as for the p-
type material.
 Widening of the
depletion layer, this
will reduce the
majority carriers flow
to zero.
- The current that exists
under reverse bias is called
saturation current (IS),
which is of few micro amperes (except for high power devices).
The terms saturation comes from that he current reaches it is
maximum quickly and does not change significantly with
increases in the reverse-bias potential.
- At a certain point where the application of too negative voltage
will result in a sharp change in the characteristics of the reverse
current. The current increases at a very rapid rate in the
direction in the negative direction. The reverse bias potential
that results in this dramatic change is called the Zener potential
(VZ).
- The maximum reverse potential that can be applied before
entering the Zener region is called
Lecturer: Dr. Omar Daoud Part I ٧
Module: Electronics I Module Number: 610/650221-222
th
Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, 9 ed., Boylestad and Nashelsky

 Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)

 Peak Reverse Voltage (PRV)

- A capacitance is associated with the pn junction when a reverse-bias

voltage is applied (Junction capacitance or Depletion-layer
capacitance) can be written in the form:
12 
 V 
C j  C jo 1  R 
 Vbi 
where:
Cjo: is the junction capacitance at zero applied voltage
Ex. Calculate the junction capacitance of a pn junction. Consider a silicon pn junction
at T=300oK, doped at Na=1016cm-3 in the p-region, Nd=1015cm-3 in the n-region, and
ni(silicon)= 1.51010cm-3. Assume Cjo=0.5pF and VR=5V.

Solution:

KT  N acceptor N doner   1016  1015 

Vbi  ln   (26  10 3 ) ln  =0.637 V
q  ni2   
 1.5  1010 2  

12  12 
 V   5 
C j  C jo 1  R   0.51    0.168 pF
 Vbi   0.637 

 VD > 0 (Forward Bias)

- The application of forward potential will pressure electrons in
the n-type material and holes in the p-type material to
recombine with the ions near the boundary and reduce the
width of the depletion layer
 a flood of electrons can pass through the junction, resulting
an exponentially rise current.
 VD 
 
- I D  I majority  I S  I S (e  nVT 
 1) A
where
n is an identity factor has the range between 1 and 2

KT
VT  , is the thermal voltage
q

Lecturer: Dr. Omar Daoud Part I ٨

Module: Electronics I Module Number: 610/650221-222
th
Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, 9 ed., Boylestad and Nashelsky

K = 1.3810-23 J/K is the Boltzman's constant

T  273  C o is the absolute temperature in Kelvin
-19
q = 1.610 C

Fig. 1.18 Comparison of Ge, Si, and GaAs diodes.

Lecturer: Dr. Omar Daoud Part I ٩

Module: Electronics I Module Number: 610/650221-222
th
Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, 9 ed., Boylestad and Nashelsky

Ex. Assume Is=2×10-13A, determine V1, I1 such

that Vo=0.6V (assume that the diodes are
similar with n=1).

Solution:

VD3=0.6V
  VD  
 I D3= I s  e  T   1 =2.105mA
nV
 
 
V
 I 1  I D 3  D 3  2.705mA
R
And V1= 3×0.6=1.8V

Ex. Assume that V= 0.6V then determine ID and VD.

Solution:

1) Assume that the diode is ON with

VD=V

5  Vx Vx  0
ID          (1)
R1 R2
Vy  0 5  Vy
ID          (2)
R4 R3
Vx  Vy  0.6V            (3)
 ID  9.05mA
which is not practical then the diode must be OFF.

2) Let the Diode is OFF

V D  Vx  Vy            (1)
R2 R1
Vx   5V   0V  2.5V
R1  R 2 R1  R 2
similarly Vy  2V
 From(1)
Vx  Vy  0.5V which is  V

Lecturer: Dr. Omar Daoud Part I ١٠

Module: Electronics I Module Number: 610/650221-222
th
Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, 9 ed., Boylestad and Nashelsky

Resistance Level

- DC or Static Resistance

The application of a dc voltage to a circuit containing a semiconductor diode

will result in an operation point on the characteristic curve that will not change
with time.
VD
 RD   The higher the current through a diode, the lower is the dc
ID

resistance level.
 The dc resistance is independent of the shape of the characteristic in
the region surrounding the point of interest.

- AC or Dynamic resistance

 For applying a sinusoidal voltage rather than a

dc value, the varying input will move the
instantaneous operating point up and down a
region of the characteristics and thus defines a
specific change in current and voltage.
 With no applied varying signal, the point of
operation would be the Q-point as shown,
determined by the applied dc levels.
 The designation Q-point is derived from the
word quiescent, which means "still or
unvarying".
V d 26mV
 rd   .
I d ID

 The lower the Q-point of operation (smaller current or lower voltage), the
higher is the ac resistance.

Lecturer: Dr. Omar Daoud Part I ١١

Module: Electronics I Module Number: 610/650221-222
th
Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, 9 ed., Boylestad and Nashelsky

- Average AC resistance

 If the input is sufficiently large to produce a broad swing, the resistance

associated with the device for this region is called the average ac
resistance.
 The average ac resistance is
the resistance determined by
a straight line drawn
between the two
intersections established by
the maximum and the
minimum values of the input
voltage.
V d
 rav  point to point
I d

Ex. 1.2 Determine the dc resistance levels for the

diode of Fig.1.24 at
a) ID= 2mA (Low level)
b) ID= 20mA (High level)
c) VD= -10V (reverse-biased)
Solution:
a) from the curve VD |  0.5V
I D  2 mA

VD
 RD   250
ID
b) from the curve VD |  0.8V
I D  20 mA

VD
 RD   40
ID
Fig. 1.24 Example 1.2 (page 22)
c) from the curve I D |  I s  1A
VD  10V

VD
 RD   10 M
ID

Lecturer: Dr. Omar Daoud Part I ١٢

Module: Electronics I Module Number: 610/650221-222
th
Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, 9 ed., Boylestad and Nashelsky

Ex. 1.3 For the characteristics of figure 1.27

a- Determine the ac resistance at ID= 2mA,
b- Determine the ac resistance at ID= 25mA,
c- Compare the results of part a and b to the
dc resistances at each current level.

Solution:

a) For ID=2mA, the tangent line was drawn

and the swing was chosen to be from 0mA
to 4mA, thus
V 0.76  0.65
 rd  d   27.5
 Id 4m  0m

b) For ID=25mA, the tangent line was drawn

and the swing was chosen to be from
20mA to 30mA, thus
V 0.8  0.75
 rd  d   2 Fig. 1.27 Example 1.3 (page 24)
 I d 30m  20m

c) For ID=2mA, VD=0.7V then

V
 RD  D  350 which is far away from 27.5
ID
For ID=25mA, VD=0.79V then
V
 RD  D  31.62 which is far away from 2
ID
-Note: The derivative of a function at a point is equal to the slope of the tangent line
drawn at the point.
  
    nVT   
 VD 
I D 1 ID 
 Is e 1   I D  I s  
VD V D     nV nVT 
   T
 Thus, there is no need to have
VD nV 
  rd  T 
I D ID 
the characteristics sketch available or to worry about sketching tangent lines to find
the dynamic resistance. in the knee of the curve n=2.

- Note: All the resistance levels determined thus far have been defined by the
pn-junction and don not include the resistance of the semiconductor
material itself (Body resistance), and the resistance introduced by the
connection between the semiconductor and the external metallic conductor (
Contact resistance). Thus the dynamic resistance could be modified to
contain these other resistance as follow:
nV
rd'  T  rB
ID

Lecturer: Dr. Omar Daoud Part I ١٣

Module: Electronics I Module Number: 610/650221-222
th
Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, 9 ed., Boylestad and Nashelsky

Diode Equivalent Circuit

- An equivalent circuit is a combination of elements properly chosen to best
represent the actual terminal characteristics of a device or system in a particular
operation region.
- Piecewise-Linear Equivalent Circuit:

Fig. 1.29 Defining the piecewise-linear equivalent circuit using straight-line

segments to approximate the characteristic curve.

- Simplified Equivalent Circuit:

Fig. 1.31 Simplified equivalent circuit for the silicon semiconductor diode.

- Ideal Equivalent Circuit:

Lecturer: Dr. Omar Daoud Part I ١٤

Module: Electronics I Module Number: 610/650221-222
th
Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, 9 ed., Boylestad and Nashelsky

Fig. 1.32 Ideal diode and its characteristics.

Diode Equivalent Circuit

DC Analysis:

- Load Line Analysis:

The shown circuit is the simplest diode
configuration.
The intersection of the load line on the
characteristics can be determined by
applying kirchoff's voltage law.
E  VD  VR  0
 If V D is set to zero and solve for
I D we have the magnitude of I D on
the vertical axis.
E  VR  0
E
 ID  |V 0V
R D
 Now set I D  0 A , the value of V D on the horizontal axis could be determined.
E  VD  0
 V D  E | I D 0 A

Lecturer: Dr. Omar Daoud Part I ١٥

Module: Electronics I Module Number: 610/650221-222
th
Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, 9 ed., Boylestad and Nashelsky

 After finding the intersection values of both axes, the load line could be drawn
and then the point of operation as shown below.

Ex. 2.1: For the given diode configuration in the figure below, determine both of the
Q-values and VR.

Solution:
a) Applying kvl to get
E=VD+IDR

Lecturer: Dr. Omar Daoud Part I ١٦

Module: Electronics I Module Number: 610/650221-222
th
Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, 9 ed., Boylestad and Nashelsky

E 10V
I D |V    20mA
D 0
R 0.5k
V D |I  E  10V
D 0

b) VR=IDQR
= (18.5mA)(1k)=18.5V

Ex.2: Determine the diode voltage and current in a series configuration using the
piece-wise model, if R=2k, E=5V, V=0.6V and rf=10.

Ex.3: For the same circuit shown in Fig.2, determine the diode voltage and current
in a series configuration, if the saturation current equals 0.1pA.

Diode's Configurations:
Ex. 2.7: Determine both of Vo and ID for the given circuit.

Lecturer: Dr. Omar Daoud Part I ١٧

Module: Electronics I Module Number: 610/650221-222
th
Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, 9 ed., Boylestad and Nashelsky

Ex. 2.8: Determine VD1, VD2 and ID for the given circuit.

Ex. 2.9: Determine I, V1, V2 and Vo for the given circuit.

Lecturer: Dr. Omar Daoud Part I ١٨

Module: Electronics I Module Number: 610/650221-222
th
Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, 9 ed., Boylestad and Nashelsky

Ex. 2.11: In this example there are two LED's

that can be used as a polarity detector. Apply a
positive source voltage and a green light results.
Negative supplies result in a red light. Find the
resistor R in this combination to ensure a current
of 20mA through the ON diode. Both diodes
have a reverse breakdown voltage of 3V and an
average turn-on voltage of 2V.

Lecturer: Dr. Omar Daoud Part I ١٩

Module: Electronics I Module Number: 610/650221-222
th
Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, 9 ed., Boylestad and Nashelsky

What will happen if the Green LED is changed with a Blue on of 5V turn-on voltage?

Other Diode Types:

- Solar Cell:

- Photo diodes:

- Light Emitting Diodes:

- Schottky Barrier Diode:

- Zener Diode:

At some point of applying the reverse-bias voltage, the break-down occurs. This
means that a very high current passes through the diode in the opposite direction
of the forward current.

This element could be designed to provide specific break-down voltages, and

then can be operated by limiting the current to a value within the capability of
the device (has a constant voltage reference; Vz.).

Lecturer: Dr. Omar Daoud Part I ٢٠

Module: Electronics I Module Number: 610/650221-222
th
Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, 9 ed., Boylestad and Nashelsky

Diode Applications:

- Rectifier Circuit:

 Half-Wave Rectifications:

Lecturer: Dr. Omar Daoud Part I ٢١

Module: Electronics I Module Number: 610/650221-222
th
Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, 9 ed., Boylestad and Nashelsky

Lecturer: Dr. Omar Daoud Part I ٢٢

Module: Electronics I Module Number: 610/650221-222
th
Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, 9 ed., Boylestad and Nashelsky

Vdc  0.318Vm -VK 

PIV  Vm

Example:

Solution:

Lecturer: Dr. Omar Daoud Part I ٢٣

Module: Electronics I Module Number: 610/650221-222
th
Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, 9 ed., Boylestad and Nashelsky

 Full-Wave Rectifications:
- The DC level obtained from a sinusoidal input can be improved 100%
using a process called full-wave rectification.
- Vdc  0.636Vm -VK 

- PIV  2Vm
- The most familiar network for performing such a function is shown below
and known as a Bridge Network.

Ex. 2.16:
a- Sketch Vo and determine the dc level of the output for the network shown
below.
b- Repeat part a if the diode is replaced by a Si one.

Lecturer: Dr. Omar Daoud Part I ٢٤

Module: Electronics I Module Number: 610/650221-222
th
Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, 9 ed., Boylestad and Nashelsky

c- Repeat both of a and b if the input voltage is increased to be 200V.

Ex. 2.17:
Determine the output waveform for the network shown below; calculate the output
dc level and the required PIV of each diode.

- Clipper Circuit:
Clippers are networks that diodes to "clip" away a portion of an input signal without
distorting the remaining part of the applied waveform.

Lecturer: Dr. Omar Daoud Part I ٢٥

Module: Electronics I Module Number: 610/650221-222
th
Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, 9 ed., Boylestad and Nashelsky

Lecturer: Dr. Omar Daoud Part I ٢٦

Module: Electronics I Module Number: 610/650221-222
Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, 9th ed., Boylestad and Nashelsky

- Clamper Circuit:
A clamper is a
network constructed
of a diode, a resistor
and a capacitor that
shifts a waveform to
a different dc level
without changing the
appearance of the
applied signal.

Lecturer: Dr. Omar Daoud Part I ٢٧

Module: Electronics I Module Number: 610/650221-222
th
Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, 9 ed., Boylestad and Nashelsky

- Zener Diode Circuit:

 The analysis of the Zener diode is quite similar to the semiconductor diodes.

 The use of Zener Diode as a regulator

must follow one of the following
considerations:

1) Vi and R Fixed:
- Determine the state of the
Zener diode by removing it
from the network and
calculating the voltage across the remaining open circuit.
Vi R L
V  VL 
RL  R
 if V  V z , the zener diode is ON

if V  V z , the zener diode is OFF
- Substitute the equivalent circuit and solve for the desired unknowns.

Lecturer: Dr. Omar Daoud Part I ٢٨

Module: Electronics I Module Number: 610/650221-222
th
Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, 9 ed., Boylestad and Nashelsky

- The ON state is shown in

the figure. Here,
VL  Vz
I R I z  I L
VR VL
 Iz  
R RL
V R Vi  V L
But, 
R R
Pz  I z V z

Ex.2.26: For the Zener diode

network shown, determine VL,VR,
Iz and Pz. Repeat you solution with
RL=3k.

Lecturer: Dr. Omar Daoud Part I ٢٩

Module: Electronics I Module Number: 610/650221-222
th
Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, 9 ed., Boylestad and Nashelsky

2) Fixed Vi and variable RL:

- Due to the offset voltage range Vz, there is a specific range of a resistor
values that will ensure the Zener is in the ON state.
- Determining the minimum load resistance value that will turn the Zener
diode to the ON state.
Vi R L
VL  Vz 
RL  R
Vz R
 R L min 
Vi  V z
VL Vz
 I L max  
R L R Lmin

- Once the diode is in the ON state, the voltage across R remains constant
and then the current through it.
V R  Vi  V z
VR
IR 
R
Iz  IR  IL
- Since Iz is limited to IzM as provided in the datasheet, the

Lecturer: Dr. Omar Daoud Part I ٣٠

Module: Electronics I Module Number: 610/650221-222
th
Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, 9 ed., Boylestad and Nashelsky

I Lmin  I R  I zM
Vz
R L max 
I Lmin

Ex.2.27: For the shown Zener

diode network, determine the
range of RL and IL that will
result in VRL being maintained
at 10V. Then determine the
maximum wattage rating of the
diode.

Lecturer: Dr. Omar Daoud Part I ٣١

Module: Electronics I Module Number: 610/650221-222
th
Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, 9 ed., Boylestad and Nashelsky

3) Variable Vi and fixed RL:

- For fixed values of RL, the voltage Vi must be sufficiently large to turn the
Zener diode ON.
Vi R L
VL  Vz 
RL  R
( R L  R)V z
 Vi min 
RL
 I R max  I zM  I L
Vi max  I R max R  V z

Ex.2.28: Determine the range of

values of Vi that will maintain the
Zener diode in the ON state.

Lecturer: Dr. Omar Daoud Part I ٣٢