HEAMATOLOGY PROFILE OF COCKEREL CHICKS EXPERIMENTALLY

INFECTED WITH SALMONELLA GALLINARUM AND TREATED WITH FICUS

EXASPERATA

ABDULAZEEZ, ABUBAKRI OYEWOLE

ND/200015

A PROJECT REPORT SUMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL HEALTH

AND PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY, FACULTY OF ANIMAL AND FISHERIES

TECHNOLOGY, OYO STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE TECHNOLOGY

IGBOORA OYO STATE, NIGERIA

IN PARTIAL FUFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF

NATIONAL DIPLOMA IN ANIMAL HEALTH AND PRODUCTION

TECHNOLOGY

MAY, 2023
 CERTIFICATION

I certify that this work was carried out by Abdulazeez, Abubakri Oyewole, Matric Number

ND/200015 under my supervision in the Department of Animal Health and Production

Technology, Oyo State College of Agriculture and Technology Igboora, Oyo State.

_____________________ ___________________
DR. Adelakun, O. D Date
Supervisor

ii
 Abstract

The experiment was carried out at the Veterinary laboratory unit of University of Ibadan.
Sterile blood collection, a 25-gauge, 1-in-long needle was inserted into the brachial wing vein
(of Cockerel) at a shallow angle (approximately 1020°) with the bevel up at three weeks of
age. Sandpaper leave (Ficus exasperata) was collected from the area around the Department
of Veterinary Medicine at University of Ibadan. The leaves were washed using distilled water.
During the drying process, the leaves were left under sunlight for three days. Then, the leaves
were grounded to powder form. Haematological profile of cockerel chicks experimentally
infected with Salmonella gallinarum. PCV, Hb, RBC, Platelet, neutrophils and monocytes of
the cockerel chicks treated with Salmonella gallinarum were low compare to the control with
values (25.80, 7.59, 3.29, 8.40, 35.60 and 0.40) respectively. WBC, MCV, MCH,
Lymphocytes had higher values (5.26, 91.50, 29.80 and 64.00) respectively than control. The
MCHC of treated chicken have same value (32.99) with the control. Haematological profile of
cockerel chicks experimentally treated with Ficus exasperata. PCV was significant difference
(P>0.05) across the treatment with value ranging from 29.25 to 32.25, Hb, RBC, WBC, MCV,
neutrocytes and lyphocyte in the findings were statistically different. Platelets was similar for
across the treatment expect for the chicken treated with streptomycin 200mg. Platelets
recorded in the study was significantly similar (p<0.05) with chicken treated with Ficus
exasperata with the value ranges from 8.10 to 8.60 while streptomycin recorded highest value
(9.80). The values recorded for MCHC was similar across the treatment with the value ranges
from 32.50 to 32.99. It was concluded that Salmonella gallinarum show significant effect on
heamatology parameters of cockerel chicks and Ficus exasperata shows no effect on
heamatology of cockerel chicks.

Keyword: Chick, Cockerel, Sandpaper leaf, Heamatology, Salmonella gallinarum

iii
 DEDICATION

This project is dedicated to Almighty God who has been there right from the very beginning

to this point and that will still be there till the end of time. To Him is the glory.

iv
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

All praises and adoration belongs to God, the most beneficent and the most merciful, who has

never forsaken me and gave me the opportunity to carry out this research work and in

particularly to undertake my National Diploma program (N.D). I will forever be grateful to

God. My sincere gratitude goes to my supervisor supervisor Dr. Adelakun, O. D. for her

unforgettable contribution towards the success of this project, may God be with you Ma. I

also want to recognize the effort of Mr. Akinosun the H.O.D of Animal Health and

Production Technology and other staffs of the department for their contributions during my

stay as a student in the department. It also worth to say a very big thank you from my deep

heart to my beloved family for their support and encouragement they have given me, Your

instruction cannot be gotten elsewhere. I will forever be grateful. Also to all my project mates

and also to my colleagues in the department, God will be with you all.

v
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Pages

Title Page i

Certification ii

Abstract iii

Dedication iv

Acknowledgement v

Table of contents vi

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 Introduction 1

1.1 Justification 3

1.2 Objective of the study 3

CHAPTER TWO

2.0 Literature review 4

2.1 Poultry Farming 4

2.2 Importance of Poultry and Poultry Products 5

2.3 Poultry Housing System 8

2.3.1 Naturally Ventilated Open Housing System 8

2.3.2 Building orientation 8

2.3.3 House Width, Length and Height 9

2.3.4 Roof Slope 9

2.3.5 Ridge Opening 10

2.3.6 Sidewall Openings 10

vi
2.3.7 Building Obstruction 10

2.3.8 Roof, End-Wall and Sidewall Insulation 11

2.3.9 Cooling System 11

2.3.1. Vegetation 12

2.4 Heamatology 12

2.4.1 Blood plasma 12

2.4.1.1 Red Blood Cells 13

2.4.1.1.1 Formation of Red blood cells (Erythropoiesis) 13

2.4.1.2 White Blood Cells 14

2.4.1.2.1 Formation of White Blood Cells (Leucopoiesis) 16

2.4.1.3 Platelets 17

2.4.1.3.1 Formation of Platelets (Thrombopoiesis) 17

2.4.2 Functions of blood 18

2.5 Poultry Diseases 18

2.5.1 Salmonella 19

2.5.1.1 Salmonella Pullorum Infection 20

2.5.2. Food Safety and Salmonella in Poultry 21

2.6 Sandpaper leaf 21

2.7 Description of Sandpaper Leaf 21

2.8 Uses of Sandpaper Leaf 22

2.9 Pharmacological Properties 23

CHAPTER THREE

3.0 Materials and Methods 24

vii
3.1 Materials 24

3.1.1 Major Equipment 24

3.1.2 Minor Equipment 24

3.2 Method 24

3.2.1 Experimental site 24

3.3 Blood Collection 24

3.4 Method of determine haematology 24

3.5 Bacterial Isolation 25

3.6 Acclimatization of Experimental Birds 26

3.7 Extraction of Sandpaper leave (Ficus exasperata) 26

3.8 Experimental Infection Trial 27

3.9.1 Experimental design 27

3.9.2 Experimental protocol 27

CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 Results and discussion 28

4.1 Result 28

4.2 Discussion 32

CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 Conclusion and recommendation 33

5.1 Conclusion 33

5.2 Recommendation 33

References 34

viii
 LIST OF TABLE

Table 4.1: Infection period with Salmonella gallinarum 28

Table 4.2: Treatment period with Ficus exasperata and Streptomycin 30

ix
 CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The domestication of birds such as chicken, ducks, quails, turkey, and geese with the intent of

rearing them for meat, egg production as well as using their incidental products such as faecal

droppings and feathers in industries as natural unprocessed materials is known as poultry

farming (Stiles, 2017). The rearing of birds originated many years ago, which emanated by

collection of their eggs and young ones from their natural habitat which later resulted into

domesticating them as farm animals with people. Cockfighting was initiated through rearing of

chickens as well as taming of quails for their songs but were later ensnared and brought up

as reared birds for consumption (Chakraborty, 2018; Chakraborty and Chakrabarty, 2017).

Poultry production can be subdivided into three distinct parts named small, medium and large

scale (Heise et al., 2015). These are also otherwise known as backyard, semi-commercial and

commercial (Omiti et al., 2017; Rimi et al., 2017). The country’s standing poultry population is

at present 180 million birds, a substantial increase from about 151 million birds (FAO, 2018;

Onwualu, 2011) most of which are domiciled in the southern part of the country either in

semi-intensive farms or intensive ones (FAO, 2018). Egg and meat production are the two

major divisions of poultry production USDA, 2018) although other divisions exists such

as chick production, point of lay production, feed production, poultry tools and equipment

production in addition to poultry processing and marketing (CIWF, 2019).

Ficus exasperata, popularly known in Africa as the “Sandpaper tree”, probably because of the

rough surface of the leaves (Baffour et al., 2009). Ficus exasperata is a deciduous, species of

plant in the mulberry family Moracene. It is native to tropical Africa and Southern Asia. Ficus

1
exasperata is known for low population density, and long distance pollen dispersal (Ahmend et

al., 2009).

Taiwo et al. (2010) reported the hypoglycaemic potential of the leaf of Ficus exasperata. The

Yoruba-speaking people of Western Nigeria often use Ficus exasperata leaves traditionally for

the management, control and/or treatment of hypertension and other cardiovascular dysfunctions.

In Nigeria, the leaf extract is taken to lower blood pressure and for the treatment of heart diseases

(Ijeh and Ukweni, 2007). The leaf extract from Ficus exasperata has been reported to have

diverse uses such as treating hypertensive patients (Adewole et al., 2011). The leaf extract is

reportedly taken orally after decoction or maceration (personal communication) by hypertensive

patients (Ayinde et al., 2007).

Haematology has been defined as the study of blood and an important part of clinical pathology

as well asdiagnostic process (Lutz and Pryluski, 2008). The result of haematology and serum

analysis is usually used to assess the health status of an animal. Haematological and serum

parameters have been observed as good indicators of the physiological status of animal and their

changes are important in assessing the response of such animal to various physiological

situations (Khan and Zafar, 2005).

Salmonella is an enteric pathogen that can infect almost all animals including humans.

Salmonellosis in poultry is caused by Gram-negative bacteria from the genus Salmonella. There

are only two species in this genus, enterica and bongori (Lin-Hui and Cheng-Hsun, 2007), but

almost 2,700 serotypes (serovars), of which around 10% have been isolated from birds.

The causative agents of fowl typhoid and Pullorum disease, respectively, are specific to poultry

and found mainly in chickens and turkeys. Among the 2,700 serotypes, only these two can cause

2
a high mortality rate in birds. In general, most serotypes of Salmonella gallinarum can infect

several animal species (Gast, 2008), such as Salmonella typhimurium and Salmonella enteritidis.

1.1 Justification

Hematological study is essential in the science of livestock production, so there is need to

research on the possible influence of Salmonella gallinarum on the heamatology profile of

experimentally infected cockerel treated with Ficus exasperata.

1.2 Objectives of the study

 To evaluate the effect of Salmonella gallinarum the heamatology profile of the

experimentally infected cockerel treated with Ficus exasperata

3
 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Poultry Farming

Worldwide, more chickens are kept than any other type of poultry, with over 50 billion birds

being raised each year as a source of meat and eggs. Traditionally, such birds would have been

kept extensively in small flocks, foraging during the day and housed at night. This is still the

case in developing countries, where the women often make important contributions to family

livelihoods through keeping poultry. However, rising world populations and urbanization have

led to the bulk of production being in larger, more intensive specialist units. These are often

situated close to where the feed is grown or near to where the meat is needed, and result in

cheap, safe food being made available for urban communities. Profitability of production

depends very much on the price of feed, which has been rising. High feed costs could limit

further development of poultry production (Poultry Brief, 2013).

In free-range husbandry, the birds can roam freely outdoors for at least part of the day. Often,

this is in large enclosures, but the birds have access to natural conditions and can exhibit their

normal behaviours. A more intensive system is yarding, in which the birds have access to a

fenced yard and poultry house at a higher stocking rate. Poultry can also be kept in a barn

system, with no access to the open air, but with the ability to move around freely inside the

building. The most intensive system for egg-laying chickens is battery cages, often set in

multiple tiers. In these, several birds share a small cage which restricts their ability to move

around and behave in a normal manner. The eggs are laid on the floor of the cage and roll into

troughs outside for ease of collection. Battery cages for hens have been illegal in the Nigeria.

4
Breeds have been developed that can grow to an acceptable carcass size (2 kg or 4 lb 7 oz) in six

weeks or less. Broilers grow so fast, their legs cannot always support their weight and their

hearts and respiratory systems may not be able to supply enough oxygen to their developing

muscles. Mortality rates at 1% are much higher than for less-intensively reared laying birds

which take 18 weeks to reach similar weights. Processing the birds is done automatically with

conveyor-belt efficiency. They are hung by their feet, stunned, killed, bled, scalded, plucked,

have their heads and feet removed, eviscerated, washed, chilled, drained, weighed, and packed,

all within the course of little over two hours (Browne, Anthony (March 10, 2014).

Both intensive and free-range farming have animal welfare concerns. In intensive systems,

cannibalism, feather pecking and vent pecking can be common, with some farmers using beak

trimming as a preventative measure (Sherwin, 2010). Diseases can also be common and spread

rapidly through the flock. In extensive systems, the birds are exposed to adverse weather

conditions and are vulnerable to predators and disease-carrying wild birds. Barn systems have

been found to have the worst bird welfare. In Southeast Asia, a lack of disease control in free-

range farming has been associated with outbreaks of avian influenza (Sherwin, 2010).

2.2 Importance of Poultry and Poultry Products

Poultry plays significant role in human economy through provision of food while also creating

wealth through job provision for our teeming population (Alders et al., 2019). The industry also

provides raw materials to some industries as well as serve as a take up industry for other

industries such as animal health industries (Omiti and Okuthe, 2010). Furthermore, according to

Darre (2010), the poultry industry also provides economic support and development effect on the

tourism sector as well as the fashion industries. Specifically, however, the poultry industry is

relevant to human lives and human living as follows: food provision in the form of the supply of

5
protein, vitamins, minerals, and oils; industrial uses such as in the production of vaccines,

fertilizers and animal feeds; pharmaceutical importance including as preservatives during semen

storage; in paint and adhesive production companies as varnishes, adhesives, and printers ink;

in leather producing companies as leather tanners and in textile industries during the production

of different types of cloth dyes. Furthermore, the hospitality industry relies on it for the supply of

feathers for display and comfortable luxury mattresses, pillows and cushions as well as in the

agricultural industry in the production of organic fertilisers. Lastly, it provides affordable meat

for the nation’s populace especially those in urban areas (UNDP, 2020; Wahyono and Utami,

2018). These set of people are known to take concrete steps that will enhance their access to

available resources which would improve their values, beliefs and attitudes as well as their

standard of living (Ile and Boadu, 2018). Youth empowerment can be actively enhanced by

engaging the adults in youth empowerment programmes which aims at enhancing their standard

of living (Dominique and Dominique, 2014). Poultry business has been the most demanding

section of animal rearing as regards farm products in Nigeria which offers great potentials for

sustainable development in youth empowerment programmes (Price, 2019; Ajani et al.,

2015). Consequently, literatures reviewed showed that 0.2% of Nigeria’s aggregate meat demand

is met by the poultry industry while the rest is supplied by such segments of the livestock market

such as cattle production, rabbitry, and grasscuttery. This revealed a wide deficient gap in

comparison to that of European countries which is characterised by large supply infrastructures

and abilities (World Economic Forum, 2019). The aforementioned is as a result of Nigeria’s

poultry production industry which has its own share of challenges. These challenges stems from

exorbitant price of raw materials used for animal feed production; although, this issue is a

general concern in every part of the world (Ahmed and Mohammed, 2015; Heise et al., 2015).

6
This challenge is further accentuated by the following: inadequate local production of corn, soya

and chicks; inadequate number of youths who are the actively growing population involved in

the poultry production business; poorly funded and staffed existing or moribund extension

services to train and give advisory services to youths engaged in poultry production and the

scourge of diseases and pests (Heise et al., 2015). Others are poor infrastructure such as roads

which hinder the easy movement of trucks which carry the feed and other inputs to the farms

located in remote rural areas where the poultry farms are located for effective distribution of

inputs and for taking the stock produced to market; poorly coordinated marketing channels;

unsupported insurance policy by the government; delayed allocation of land; poor utilization of

economies of scale as majority of poultry in Nigeria is still in the hands of small scale operators;

existence of varying degrees of technology because the size of farms vary from small- to large-

scale (Adeyonu et al., 2016; Butler, 2016; Derbe and Nachimuthu, 2016). As at 2018, the annual

poultry meat consumption of four important African economies including Nigeria was

176,287.266 MT (Nigeria), 1.1 million MT (Egypt), 10,922.46 MT (Ethiopia), and 1.95 million

MT (South Africa) – Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, OECD

(2019) and World Bank, WB (2020) which is quite moderate in the light of Ritchie and Roser

(2019) report that Nigeria consumed 192,689 MT, Egypt (1.2 million MT), Ethiopia (73,931

MT) and South Africa (1.76 million MT) during the same period. However, whichever is used,

Nigeria still has a long way to go although production and consumption levels have been

increasing prior to the period. This means that opportunities still abound for increased

and improved production and consumption of poultry products in the country and the youth

have a great part to play in it since they are the largest demographic segment of the country at

7
present and the y are agile, strong and more healthy than the now aging current population of

poultry farmer in the country.

2.3 Poultry Housing System

The importance of the type of poultry housing system employed for chicken production cannot

be over emphasized. It protects the birds from the harsh environmental climatic conditions,

which may have adverse effect on the chickens’ perforance and productivity. In a poultry house,

the overall heat generated is the sum of heat generated by the birds, the surrounding environment

and biodegradation of fecal material. Thus, the type of housing system to be used is a major

determinant factor in the type of management to be adopted in the poultry farm. The housing

systems used in the tropical region that is, naturally ventilated open housing system and

mechanically ventilated open housing system are discussed here.

2.3.1 Naturally Ventilated Open Housing System

The open poultry housing system has been identified with the tropical region for its simplicity,

economic implications and ease of management of heat generation within the building through

natural ventilation. However, it is prone to the invasion of insect, rodents, birds and other small

predators that can disturb the welfare, productivity and performance of chicken. In the quest to

alleviate this problem, dwarf sidewalls are raised to the roof eaves with corrugated wire mesh to

keep predators away. Also, gutter filled with insecticides to prevent the invasion of insects are

built around the house. Discussed below are design considerations to be factored in when

designing an open poultry house for optimum poultry performance and productivity

2.3.2 Building orientation

In order to reduce the exposure of sidewall to direct to direct sun radiation the poultry house

should be orientated in the east-west direction. This is very vital, because heat stress in birds can

8
be hastened when they are exposed to direct solar radiation. Deep litter rearing may allow the

birds avoid direct sunlight but this may lead to clustering or overcrowding of birds in an area of

the house. Consequently, make cooling difficult and in severe cases this leads to stampede and

even death.

2.3.3 House Width, Length and Height

The east-west orientation of a poultry house may reduce the benefit of prevailing winds blowing

from east or west. Therefore, Daghir recommended that the width of the building should not

exceed 12 m to prevent this problem. In addition, the problem of uneven air exchange rate and

temperature within the building is eradicated. Furthermore, the design must factor in the

activities and services rendered by poultry farmers and professionals within the building. These

activities may include transfer of chicken, feeding, de-pecking, waste management, vaccination,

and so on. Therefore, longer pen house could be strenuous to maintain especially when the

activities are carried out manually. Doors can be placed at interval of 15–30 m to make for easy

circulation and service delivery. Qureshi recommended that for battery cages, it is rather

advisable to factor in the number of tiers to be used. Two–tier cage system facilitates easy air

exchange within the building whereas, three and four tier cage system can be problematic for air

exchange. Therefore, it is recommend that rows of cages should not exceed three with center

aisles not less than 1.2 m and a minimum height difference of 1 m from the ceiling.

2.3.4 Roof Slope

A roof slope of 45° was recommended because the angle reduces the heat gain of the roof from

the direct solar radiation; maximizes the distance of the bird from the heat accumulated under the

roof; quick escape of the heat accumulated under the roof through ridge opening, maximizes air

space to improve air exchange rate; and open space above for installation of equipment. On the

9
other hand, the slope in the insulated roof is dependent on the quality of the insulation. Roof

overhang can be used to shade the sidewalls of a building from direct and indirect solar radiation.

However, the length of the roof overhang is dependent on the height of the sidewalls. Heat gain

by the sidewall can be reduced to about 30% by roof overhang shading if properly applied at a

roof slope of 45°.

2.3.5 Ridge Opening

Naturally, hot air rises above cooler air due to difference in air density. Introduction of ridge

opening can aid ventilation through stack effect in the poultry house. Adequate setback between

buildings is required to prevent inadequate airflow and circulation. However, ridge opening has

been reported to be ineffective in insulated poultry houses because of temperature uniformity

within the house.

2.3.6 Sidewall Openings

The sidewall consists of a dwarf wall built up to the roof eave with a permeable membrane such

as a corrugated wire mesh and an adjustable curtain. A minimum height of 0.4 m is

recommended to prevent the house from water seepage, direct and indirect solar radiation, pests

and predators. The corrugated wire mesh allows easy airflow within and outside the building,

while the adjustable curtain is used to control the flow and air velocity. However, the curtain

may be transparent or of varying colors to aid its use in managing intermittent lighting scheme.

2.3.7 Building Obstruction

Adequate setback between buildings is required to prevent inadequate air exchange rates in

building. Factors such as wind speed, wind direction and topography are major determinants for

consideration in defining the optimal house spacing. However, the spacing between buildings

can be determined by the expression below.

10
D = 0 . 4HL0.5 (1)

where D, housing spacing (ridge of the closest wall of the next house); H, height of the adjacent

building; L, length of the adjacent building. Vegetation should be kept as minimal as possible

and at average height to reduce the nest of wild birds and invasion of rodents and other predators.

Also, the branch of trees should be kept at eaves level to prevent obstruction of airflow across the

house.

2.3.8 Roof, End-Wall and Sidewall Insulation

Farmers in the tropics have successfully used locally sourced materials such as thatched roof and

bamboo as roofing materials for the construction of naturally ventilated poultry houses.

However, a minimum R-value of 1.25 m2 C/W was recommended for ceiling insulation in

naturally ventilated poultry house. Environmental temperature higher than 40°C would require a

minimum R-value of 2.25 C/W. The various methods of insulating poultry house ceiling include

dropped ceiling, rigid board insulation, spray polyurethane insulation and reflective insulation.

2.3.9 Cooling System

Rooftop sprinklers have proven to be efficient for substantially cooling the roof. However,

material of choice in this situation must be able to withstand the constant exposure to water.

Evaporative cooling in birds in hot weather can be subdued by using fogging system. With high

water pressure it generates mist, which aids cooling in birds. However, the level of humidity

within the house must be monitored for it could be detrimental to the health of birds at high

temperature. Circulation fan eases heat stress by providing increased air velocity to increase

convection cooling. Generally, circulation fans generate air velocity of 0.5 m/s or more and

cover an area 15 times its horizontal diameter by five times its vertical diameter. Furthermore,

for effective use of circulation fans it should be installed at the center 1–1.5 m above the floor

11
and tilted downward at an angle 5o.

2.3.1. Vegetation

Shrubs and grasses reduce reflective and direct solar radiation by shading and convection cooling

. Vegetation should be kept clean and trimmed to keep away predators and pests. The planting of

tall trees along the sidewalls can provide a form of canopy to shade the sidewalls from exposure

to direct or reflective solar radiation during the hot periods of the day.

2.4 Heamatology

Hematology encompasses the study of blood cells and coagulation. Included in its concerns are

analyses of the concentration, structure, and function of cells in blood; their precursors in the

bone marrow; chemical constituents of plasma or serum intimately linked with blood cell

structure and function; and function of platelets and proteins involved in blood coagulation.

Blood is a circulating tissue composed of fluid plasma and cells. It is composed of different

kinds of cells (occasionally called corpuscles); these formed elements of the blood constitute

about 45% of whole blood. The other 55% is blood plasma, a fluid that is the blood's liquid

medium, appearing yellow in color.

2.4.1 Blood plasma

When the formed elements are removed from blood, a straw-colored liquid called plasma is left.

Plasma is about 91.5% water and 8.5% solutes, most of which by weight (7%) are proteins..

Some of the proteins in plasma are also found elsewhere in the body, but those confined to blood

are called plasma proteins. These proteins play a role in maintaining proper blood osmotic

pressure, which is important in total body fluid balance. Most plasma proteins are synthesized by

the liver, including the albumins (54% of plasma proteins), globulins (38%), and fibrinogen

(7%). Other solutes in plasma include waste products, such as urea, uric acid, creatinine,

12
ammonia, and bilirubin; nutrients; vitamins; regulatory substances such as enzymes and

hormones; gasses; and electrolytes. The formed elements of the blood are broadly classified as

red blood cells (erythrocytes), white blood cells (leucocytes) and platelets (thrombocytes) and

their numbers remain remarkably constant for each individual in health.

2.4.1.1 Red Blood Cells

They are primarily involved in tissue respiration. The red cells contain the pigment hemoglobin

which has the ability to combine reversibly with 02. In the lungs, the hemoglobin in the red cell

combines with 02 and releases it to the tissues of the body (where oxygen tension is low) during

its circulation. Carbondioxide, a waste product of metabolism, is then absorbed from the tissues

by the red cells and is transported to the lungs to be exhaled. The red cell normally survives in

the blood stream for approximately 120 days after which time it is removed by the phagoctic

cells of the reticuloendothelial system, broken down and some of its constituents re utilized for

the formation of new cells.

2.4.1.1.1 Formation of Red blood cells (Erythropoiesis)

Erythropoiesis is the formation of erythrocytes from committed progenitor cells through a

process of mitotic growth and maturation. The first recognizable erythyroid cell in the bone

marrow is the proerythroblast or pronormoblast, which on Wright or Giemsa stain is a large cell

with basophilic cytoplasm and an immature nuclear chromatin pattern. Subsequent cell divisions

give rise to basophilic, polychromatophilic, and finally orthochromatophilic normoblasts, which

are no longer capable of mitosis. During this maturation process a progressive loss of

cytoplasmic RNA occurs as the product of protein synthesis, hemoglobin, accumulates within the

cell; as a result the color of the cytoplasm evolves from blue to gray to pink. At the same time

the nuclear chromatin pattern becomes more compact tan clumped until, at the level of the

13
orthochromatophilic normoblast, there remains only a small dense nucleus, which is finally

ejected from the cell. The resulting anucleate erythrocyte still contains some RNA and is

recognizable as a reticulocyte when the RNA is precipitated and stained with dyes such as new

methylene blue.

Normally, reticulocytes remain within the bone marrow for approximately 2 days as they

continue to accumulate hemoglobin and lose some of their RNA. The reticulocyte then enters the

peripheral blood, were, after about one more day, it loses its residual RNA and some of its

excessive plasma membrane and becomes indistinguishable form adult erythrocytes. Under

normal conditions the transit time from the pronormoblast to the reticulocyte entering the

peripheral blood is about 5 days

2.4.1.2 White Blood Cells

They are a heterogeneous group of nucleated cells that are responsible for the body’s defenses

and are transported by the blood to the various tissues where they exert their physiologic role,

e.g. phagocytosis. WBCs are present in normal blood in smaller number than the red blood cells

(5.0-10.0 × 103/µl in adults). Their production is in the bone marrow and lymphoid tissues

(lymph nodes, lymph nodules and spleen).

There are five distinct cell types each with a characteristic morphologic appearance and specific

physiologic role. These are:

Polymorphonuclear leucocytes/granulocytes

Polymorphonuclear Leucocytes have a single nucleus with a number of lobes. They Contain

small granules in their cytoplasm, and hence the name granulocytes. There are three types

according to their staining reactions.

i. Neutrophils

14
Their size ranges from 10-12µm in diameter. They are capable of amoeboid movement. There

are 2-5 lobes to their nucleus that stain purple violet. The cytoplasm stains light pink with

pinkish dust like granules. Normal range: 2.0-7.5 x 103/µl. Their number increases in acute

bacterial infections.

ii. Eosinophils

Eosinophils have the same size as neutrophils or may be a bit larger (12-14µm).There are two

lobes to their nucleus in a "spectacle" arrangement. Their nucleus stains a little paler than that of

neutrophils. Eosinophils cytoplasm contains many, large, round/oval orange pink granules. They

are involved in allergic reactions and in combating helminthic infections. Normal range: 40-

400/µl. Increase in their number (eosinophilia) is associated with allergic reactions and

helminthiasis.

iii. Basophiles

Their size ranges from 10-12µm in diameter. Basophiles have a kidney shaped nucleus

frequently obscured by a mass of large deep purple/blue staining granules. Their cytoplasmic

granules contain heparin and histamine that are released at the site of inflammation. Normal

range: 20-200/µl. Basophilia is rare except in cases of chronic myeloid leukemia.

iv. Mononuclear leucocytes

a. Lymphocytes

There are two varieties:

1. Small Lymphocytes: Their size ranges from 7-10µm in diameter. Small lymphocytes have

round, deep-purple staining nucleus which occupies most of the cell. There is only a rim of pale

blue staining cytoplasm. They are the predominant forms found in the blood.

15
2. Large Lymphocytes: Their size ranges from 12-14µm in diameter. Large lymphocytes have

a little paler nucleus than small lymphocytes that is usually eccentrically placed in the cell. They

have more plentiful cytoplasm that stains pale blue and may contain a few reddish granules. The

average number of lymphocytes in the peripheral blood is 2500/µl.

b. Monocytes

Monocytes are the largest white cells measuring 14-18µm in diameter. They have a centrally

placed, large and ‘horseshoe’ shaped nucleus that stains pale violet. Their cytoplasm stains pale

grayish blue and contains reddish blue dust-like granules and a few clear vacuoles. They are

capable of ingesting bacteria and particulate matter and act as "scavenger cells" at the site of

infection. Normal range: 700-1500/µl. Monocytosis is seen in bacterial infections. (e.g.

tuberculosis) and protozoan infections.

2.4.1.2.1 Formation of White Blood Cells (Leucopoiesis)

Neutrophils and monocytes, which evolve into macrophages when they enter the tissues, are

arise form a common committed progenitor. The myeloblast is the earliest recognizable

precursor in the granulocytic series that is found in the bone marrow. On division the myeloblast

gives rise to promyelocyte which contain abundant dark “azurophilic” primary granules that

overlie both nucleus and cytoplasm. With subsequent cell divisions these primary granules

become progressively diluted by the secondary, less conspicuous “neutrophilic” granules that are

characteristic of the mature cells. This concomitant cell division and maturation sequence

continues form promyelocytes to early myelocytes, late myelocytes, and they metamyelocytes,

which are no longer capable of cell division. As the metamyelocyte matures the nucleus becomes

more attenuated and the cell is then called a “band” or “stab” form. Subsequent segmentation of

the nucleus gives rise to the mature neutrophil or polymorphonuclear leucocyte. The average

16
interval from the initiation of granulopoiesis to the entry of the mature neutrophil into the

circulation is 10 to 13 days. The mature neutrophil remains in the circulation for only about 10 to

14 hours before entering the tissue, where it soon dies after performing its phagocytic function.

2.4.1.3 Platelets

These are small, non nucleated, round/oval cells/cell fragments that stain pale blue and contain

many pink granules. Their size ranges 1-4µm in diameter. They are produced in the bone marrow

by fragmentation of cells called megakaryocytes which are large and multinucleated cells. Their

primary function is preventing blood loss from hemorrhage. When blood vessels are injured,

platelets rapidly adhere to the damaged vessel and with one another to form a platelet plug.

During this process, the soluble blood coagulation factors are activated to produce a mesh of

insoluble fibrin around the clumped platelets. This assists and strengthens the platelet plug and

produces a blood clot which prevents further blood loss. Normal range: 150-400 x 103 /µl.

2.4.1.3.1 Formation of Platelets (Thrombopoiesis)

Platelets are produced in the bone marrow by fragmentation of the cytoplasm of megakaryocytes.

The precursor of the megakaryocyte-the megakaryoblast arises by a process of differentiation for

the hemopoietic stem cell. The megakaryoblast produces megakaryocytes, distinctive large cell

that are the source of circulating platelets. Megakaryocyte development takes place in a unique

manner. The nuclear DNA of megakaryoblasts and early megakaryocytes reduplicates without

cell division, a process known as endomitosis.

As a result, a mature megakaryocytes has a polyploidy nucleus, that is, multiple nuclei each

containing a full complement of DNA and originating from the same locust within the cell.

Mature megakaryocytes are 8 n to 36 n.The final stage of platelet production occurs when the

mature megakaryocyte sends cytoplasmic projections into the marrow sinusoids and sheds

17
platelets into the circulation. It takes approximately 5 days from a megakaryoblast to become a

mature megakaryocyte. Each megakaryocyte produces from 1000 to 8000 platelets. The platelet

normally survives form 7 to 10 days in the peripheral blood.

2.4.2 Functions of blood

Blood has important transport, regulatory, and protective functions in the body.

a. Transportation

Blood transport oxygen form the lungs to the cells of the body and carbon dioxide from the cells

to the lungs. It also carries nutrients from the gastrointestinal tract to the cells, heat and waste

products away from cells and hormones form endocrine glands to other body cells.

b. Regulation

Blood regulates pH through buffers. It also adjusts body temperature through the heat-absorbing

and coolant properties of its water content and its variable rate of flow through the skin, where

excess heat can be lost to the environment. Blood osmotic pressure also influences the water

content of cells, principally through dissolved ions and proteins.

c. Protection

The clotting mechanism protects against blood loss, and certain phagocytic white blood cells or

specialized plasma proteins such as antibodies, interferon, and complement protect against

foreign microbes and toxins.

2.5 Poultry Diseases

Poultry diseases occur in all members of the avian class, which are domesticated birds kept for

their meat, eggs or feathers. Poultry species include the chicken, turkey, duck, goose and ostrich.

Poultry diseases: pathogens and their costs to production systems

18
Pathogens are disease-causing microorganisms, and include various bacteria, viruses and

protozoa.

 A specific pathogen is a microbe that is able to cause a specific disease following

inoculation of a susceptible host chicken with a purified culture. For example, avian

health research has shown that ILT virus is the sole cause of the poultry respiratory

disease syndrome recognized in the field as infectious laryngotracheitis (ILT), while the

bacterium Pasteurella multocida is the specific cause of another respiratory disease

known as subacute fowl cholera. .

 Although the relative importance of poultry diseases may differ between countries and

geographical areas, there are few important diseases that are unique to particular parts of

the world” (Biggs, 1982).

 At the global level, however, differences in distribution among regions are now apparent,

because genetic variants have emerged within some of the major specific pathogens of

chickens. This has become important for attempts to prevent the spread of virulent strains

through international movements of poultry products

2.5.1 Salmonella

Salmonella is a genus of rod-shaped (bacillus) Gram-negative bacteria of the family

Enterobacteriaceae. The two species of Salmonella are Salmonella enterica and Salmonella

bongori. S. enterica is the type species and is further divided into six subspecies (Su LH, Chiu

CH (2007) that include over 2,600 serotypes. Salmonella was named after Daniel Elmer Salmon

(1850–1914), an American veterinary surgeon. Salmonella is an enteric pathogen that can infect

almost all animals including humans. Salmonellosis in poultry is caused by Gram-negative

bacteria from the genus Salmonella. There are only two species in this genus, enterica and

19
bongori (Lin-Hui and Cheng-Hsun, 2007), but almost 2,700 serotypes (serovars), of which

around 10% have been isolated from birds.

2.5.1.1 Salmonella pullorum Infection

Cause: The disease is an acute or chronic infection caused by the salmonella pullorum, a gram

negative rod that is resistant in some degree to cold, sunlight (UV), drying and disinfectant. The

bacterium can survive in non-sanitized poultry houses for up to one year. Another name for this

disease is Bacillary white diarrhea (BWD).

Susceptibility: while chicken and turkey are the most susceptible to this dieses, other specie of

birds may also become infected by S. pullorum. Young chicken under 14days of age are highly

susceptible. But that recover from the disease continues to she'd the organisms throughout their

lives. The disease has been largely eradicated in commercial broilers, layers and turkeys flocks in

the U. S and other developed countries.

Transmission: Transmission of Salmonella Pullorum is mainly from the hen to the chick via the

egg. It also can be transmitted by personnel or eqiupmeni, carrier birds and contaminated houses

or premises. Bacteria in the environment enter birds via respiratory or digestive system.

Clinical Signs: The incubation period is about 4 to 5 days. Chicks infected with Salmonella

Pullorum begin to die in 5 to 7 days after hatching, mortality will increase for another 4 to 5 days

and can be as high as 90%. Sign in individual birds includes depression, diarrhea, pasty vent and

white faces that may be stained with bile. Surviving birds becomes asymptomatic carriers and

pass the bacterium to their eggs because of localized infection in the ovary.

Lesions: There may be small necrotic lesion on the liver white nodes in the heart, gizzard and

walls of the intestines. Adult carriers may have necrosis in the liver and oviducts which contains

cheesy deposit.

20
Diagnosis: The history of the birds and the presence of symptoms and lesion can be used to

make a tentative diagnosis which is confirmed by the isolation of Salmonella pullorum. If

Salmonella pullorum is confirmed, the state and federal regulatories must be notified.

Treatments: The use of antibiotics to treat this disease is not recommended because survivors

will be carriers. To prevent Salmonella Pullorum, test breeders flock before production to make

sure they are free of the disease. Positive flocks are not used for breeding in fact, eradicating the

inflected flocks is the best course of action to prevent the disease from spreading. There's no

indication that this disease will be transmitted to humans.

2.5.2. Food Safety and Salmonella in Poultry

Poultry meat and eggs are the most common sources of Salmonella infections (Salmonellosis) in

humans. Salmonellosis is one of the most difficult diseases to control in poultry flocks. As most

animal species can be infected with Salmonella, cross-infection is very common among birds.

Moreover, birds can be infected with Salmonella without showing any signs of the disease. Feed

additives can combat the occurrence of Salmonella in poultry by supporting gut health and

immune function.

2.6 Sandpaper leaf

Ficus exasperata, also called the sandpaper tree, forest sandpaper fig, white fig, or sandpaper

leaf tree, is a deciduous, and dioecious species of plant in the mulberry family Moraceae, native

to tropical Africa (an area from Senegal east to Ethiopia and south to Angola and Mozambique)

and southern Asia (India, Sri Lanka, Yemen) (Berg et al., 1992).

2.7 Description of Sandpaper Leaf

F. exasperata is a terrestrial afro-tropical shrub or small tree with scabrous, with ovate leaves

that grows up to about 20m tall and prefers evergreen and secondary forest habitats (Berg et al.,

21
1992). In India, it is commonly known as Brahma’s banyan, rough banyan and sandpaper fig.

Leaves (3-20 × 2-12cm) are distichous, alternate, ovate to elliptic, subcoriaceous to coriaceous,

apex shortly acuminate, base acute to obtuse, upper surface scabrous having a very rough

surface, making them look like sand paper and thus the name, sandpaper tree. Lateral veins; 3-5

pairs, basal pair branched reaching margin at or above middle of the lamina. Petiole; 0.5-4cm

long and stipules are 0.2-0.5m long, strigose, caducous. Figs are found either solitary or in pairs

in the leaf axils and rarely on older wood. Fresh figs are subglobose, 1-2.5cm, hispidulous,

peduncle; 0.5-1m long, basal bracts; 1mm long, scattered on the peduncle (Berg et al., 1992). It

bears figs, which usually appear in pairs in the leaf axils. The bark is smooth, grayish cream with

brown streats and it exudes gummy sap. The plant usually grows well in evergreen forests and

forest margins, also in secondary forest and riverine vegetation, often as a strangler, sometimes

persisting in cleared places at the altitude of 0-2000 meters from sea level. It is widespread in

tropical Africa, from Mozambique, Zambia, and northern Angola to Senegal and Ethiopia and

also in the southern part of the Arabian Peninsula and India (Van Noort and Rasplus, 2004).

2.8 Uses of Sandpaper Leaf

Sandpaper tree is widely used as a source of sandpaper and as a valuable medicinal plant.

Extracts from the tree are used for their anti-ulcer, hypotensive, lipid-lowering, analgesic, anti-

inflammatory and antipyretic properties. Traditionally, different parts of the F. exasperata are

used for the following household, industrial and medicinal purposes. The leaves covered with

small thorns are used to polish wooden slates and furniture (Blench, 2008). The scabrous surface

of the leaves also makes it use for scrubbing utensils among the rural population in certain parts

of Africa. Animal keepers use the leaves as a good source of feed. It is fed to goats, sheep, and

chimpanzees (Tweheyo et al., 2004). The leaves are also used in the stabilization of palm oil to

22
potentially enhance keeping qualities through the elimination of saponins and the foaming

tendency and enhancement of carotenoid levels in the oils, thereby resulting in reduced free fatty

acids, acid value and peroxide value.

In Nigeria, Republic of Congo and Central African Republic the leaves are used as an antipyretic

(Bafor et al., 2010). The leaves are macerated in water and the decoction is administered orally.

The leaves are particularly valued in the treatment of malaria in Cameroonian folk medicine

(Titanji et al., 2008). In some parts of Cameroon, leaves are used in the treatment of hemorrhoids

and the water extract of the leaves is administered orally in diarrhea. One glass of extract made

by macerating one handful of contused leaves in 1lof water is given for 4 days in diarrhea. In

Nigeria, the young leaves are prescribed as a common anti-ulcer remedy. Few leaves that are

chewed and swallowed three times for 4-8 weeks are believed to produce a complete cure of

ulcer. Dried leaves as such and the infusion are used to treat ulcers and stomachache (Bafor et

al., 2010). A paste made of 50 leaves of F. exasperata, 50 leaves of E. coccinea and 10 fruits of

Capsicum frutescens is added to 1lof water, homogenized and filtered. 150 mlfiltrate is given

twice daily as a remedy for peptic ulcers (Noumi and Dibakto, 2000).

2.9 Pharmacological Properties

Among different parts of F. exasperata, leaves have received much attention from the

researchers across the world and have been widely studied for various pharmacological activities

such as antidiabetic, hypotensive, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antiarthritic, antinociceptive,

anticonvulsant, anxiolytic, antiulcer, antipyretic, uterotonic and antimicrobial activities.

Furthermore, good amount of research has also gone into the toxicological evaluation of its

extracts. The following section provides a comprehensive detail on the pharmacological effects

of various extracts of F. exasperate (Noumi and Dibakto, 2000).

23
 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 MATERIALS AND METHOD

3.1 Materials

3.1.1 Major Equipment

Mettler balance (weighing balance), Colony counter, Gas with BunsenBurner, Microscopes,

Incubators, Waterbaths, Autoclaves, Hot Air Oven, Refrigerator, polytetrafluoroethylene

(PTFE) , Tissue samples from carcasses, Poultry cages

Growers mash, PCR machine

3.1.2 Minor Equipment

Nutrient Agar, Macconkey Agar, Salmonella Shigella Agar, SimonCitrateAgar, MullerHinton

Agar, Tripple Sugar Iron, Eosine Methylene Blue Agar, Methyl red Agar, Voges proskauer,

Phenol Reg Agar, Nutrient Broth, Catalase reagent, Oxidase Reagent, Gram Staining, Sterile

swabs, Icepacks, Bijou bottles, Micro pipette, Peptone water.

3.2 Method

3.2.1 Experimental site

The experiment was carried out at the Veterinary laboratory unit of University of Ibadan.

3.3 Blood Collection

Sterile blood collection, a 25-gauge, 1-in-long needle was inserted into the brachial wing vein (of

Cockerel) at a shallow angle (approximately 1020°) with the bevel up at three weeks of age.

Blood was withdrawn very slowly and put in EDTA bottle.

3.4 Method of determine haematology

The packed cell volume (PCV) and haemoglobin (HB) were determined using micro haematocrit

method and cya methaemoglobin method as descryby Mitruka and Rawsley, (1997). Red blood

24
cell and white blood cell were determined using Neubauerhaemocytometer after appropriate

dilution Schalms, (1975) and Kelly, (1979).

3.5 Bacterial Isolation

The liver of fresh dead carcasses of pullets presented at Veterinary Teaching Hospital, University

of Ibadan for post mortem procedure was sampled. The bacteria isolation and characterization

were carried out at AAWL laboratory in the Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of

Ibadan. The lesion observed on liver of infected bird were swabbed with sterile cotton swab,

immersed into 10ml of buffered peptone water and streaked on nutrient agar plates (HiMEDIA®,

USA). Inoculated plates were incubated for 24 hours at 30o C and dominant colonies were sub-

cultured repeatedly on MacConkey and Trypticase Soy Agar (TSA) for evaluation of colonial

morphology and purity (Tilahun et al., 2020). Bacterial colonies showing typical characteristics

and color of lactose fermenter on MAC further cultured on Eosin Methylene Blue and Blood

Agar.

Primary characterization was carried out by using fresh pure isolates (Tilahun et al., 2020). TSA

was used for morphological features of bacteria colonies and these included colour, size, and

shape. The bacteria isolates were then identified using biochemical and physiological reactions

including gram staining. The bacteria isolated were identified using several biochemical tests

like oxidase, catalase, motility and Gram staining, Simon citrate, 6.5% NaCl Broth, Indole,

Glucose (gas), Inositol, Mannitol, Hydrogen sulphide, Nitrate reduction, Lysine, Ornithine and

Urease, methyl red, Vogues Proskauer test, Triple sugar Iron agar slant culture and fermentation

of sugars (Tilahun et al., 2020 and Oliveira et al., 2014).

Pure cultures of Salmonella gallinarum was re-cultured in bijou bottles containing Tryptic Soya

Broth. The bijou bottles containing the bacteria were submitted for genotypic characterization of

25
the bacteria. The bacteria were identified by Global Infectious Diseases and Epidemiology

Network Online (GIDEON) microbiology database and Bergeys Manual of Systemic

Bacteriology (2012). The biochemical tests results were entered into www.gideononline.com - a

software for confirmation and differential diagnosis of infectious diseases.

3.6 Acclimatization of Experimental Birds

Ninety-six, day old cockerel Chicks with average weight (0.2kg) were purchased from a

reputable poultry farm in Ibadan, and divided into four groups. The birds were fed with (grower

mash) and observed under hygienic poultry pen for one week. The birds were divided into six

groups making 16 birds in each group and acclimatized for one week.

3.7 Extraction of Sandpaper leave (Ficus exasperata)

Sandpaper leave (Ficus exasperata) was collected from the area around the department of

veterinary medicine at University of Ibadan. The leaves were washed using distilled water.

During the drying process, the leaves were left under sunlight for three days. Then, the leaves

were ground to powder form. The method which was immersion extraction was used, the leaves

powder were weighed around 26.0 g and was put in a polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) bottle,

followed by the insertion of 300 ml methanol solvent. The bottle was tightly closed and was

placed in an oven at a temperature of 100 °C for 2 hrs. Further-more, the solution was filtered

and evaporated by using a rotary vacuum evaporator. The extraction methods were repeated by

using ethanol, ethyl acetate, and hexane solvents. Distilled water (DW) was used as an extraction

solvent at room temperature (25 °C),50 °C, 70 °C, and 90 °C for 2 hrs in this (immersion

method).

26
3.8 Experimental Infection Trial

Moreover, 1ml of Nutrient broth culture estimated by McFarland 0.5 standard opacity tube

contained 1.7 x 106 CFU of Salmonella gallinarum. The infection trial was carried out by oral

administration of 0.2ml broth culture (Anifowose et al., 2021 and Olakunbi et al., 2019). The

feeding started 24 hours post infection and the birds were observed daily for clinical signs. Blood

samples were collected from experimental birds five days post infection for haematology and

serum biochemistry. The dead birds were submitted for post mortem, gross lesions and

histopathological organ changes were carried out.

3.9. Effect of Sandpaper leave (Ficus exasperates) aqueous extracts on experimentally infected

cockerel with Klebsiella pneumoniae

3.9.1 Experimental design

The experimentally infected birds (32, mean weight; 0.7 ± 0.02 g), were redistributed randomly

in equal number to six different groups.

3.9.2 Experimental protocol

The birds in six groups were labeled properly based on treatment dose.

Group 1 Positive Control (PC) or Uninfected bird

Group 2 Negative Control (NC) or Untreated bird

Group 3 Aqueous Extract (Treated with 100mg/L F.exasperate).

27
 CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Table 4.1: Infection period with Salmonella gallinarum

PARAMETERS CONTROL (M±SEM) INFECTED (M±SEM)

PCV (%) 32.90±1.24a 25.80±1.94 b

Hb (%) 10.88±9.94 a 7.59±6.14 b

RBC (x 1012/L) 5.21±4.07 a 3.29±2.97 b

WBC (x 109/L) 5.08±3.63 a 5.26±4.09 a

Platelets (x 109/L) 10.00±8.09 a 8.40±6.26 b

MCV (FL) 71.60±58.46 a 91.50±76.23 b

MCH (Pg) 25.30±22.12 a 29.80±24.72 b

MCHC (%) 32.99±32.99 a 32.99±33.00 a

LYMPHOCYTES (%) 61.70±60.87 a 64.00±59.99 b

NEUTROPHILS (%) 37.30±36.47 a 35.60±36.70 b

MONOCYTES (%) 0.99±1.00 a 0.40±0.90 b

M±SEM = MEAN ± STANDARD ERROR OF MEAN

Values with different superscripts along the rows indicate significance (p < 0.05) according to
ANOVA

28
Table I above showed the haematological profile of cockerel chicks experimentally infected with

Salmonella gallinarum. PCV, Hb, RBC, Platelet, neutrophils and monocytes of the cockerel

chicks treated with Salmonella gallinarum had lowest values compare to the control with values

(25.80, 7.59, 3.29, 8.40, 35.60 and 0.40) respectively. WBC, MCV, MCH, Lymphocytes had

highest values (5.26, 91.50, 29.80 and 64.00) respectively than control. The MCHC of treated

chicken have same value (32.99) with the control.

INCLUDE SIGNIFICANCE STATUS

29
 Table 4.2: Treatment period with Ficus exasperata and Streptomycin

Parameters Control Untreated Ficus Ficus Ficus Streptomycin

(M±SEM) (M±SEM) Exasperata Exasperata Exasperata 200mg
100mg 200mg 300mg (M±SEM)
(M±SEM) (M±SEM) (M±SEM)

PCV (%) 29.50±0.29 a 25.80±1.94 b 32.25±1.03c 29.25±0.48 a 30.00±0.41 a 30.50±0.29 a

Hb (%) 9.75±0.09 a 7.59±6.14 b 10.13±0.49 a 10.20±0.68 a 9.00±0.31 a 12.75±0.75 c
RBC (x 1012/L) 3.42±0.19 a 2.29±2.97 b 4.28±0.1c 3.49±0.17 a 3.34±0.21 a 4.01±0.01 c
WBC (x 109/L) 3.90±0.34 a 5.26±4.09 b 3.75±0.21 a 6.15±0.64 b 5.25±0.67 b 3.85±0.03 a
Platelets (x 109/L) 10.00±0.84 a 7.80±0.90 b 8.25±0.90 a 8.10±0.90 a 8.60±0.90 a 9.80±0.90 a
MCV (FL) 86.50±3.86 a 91.50±76.23 b 71.75±5.51 c 93.00±5.49 b 88.00±4.38 a 100.75±0.25 d
MCH (Pg) 29.75±0.95 a 29.80±24.72 a 23.50±1.85 b 29.00±2.68 b 28.75±1.44 b 32.75±0.25 c

MCHC (%) 32.75±0.25 b 32.99±33.00 b 32.50V0.50 b 32.75±0.25 b 32.50±0.50 b 32.75±0.25 b

LYMPHOCYTES 65.25±1.49 a 64.00±59.99 b 64.00±1.73 b 66.25±0.25 a 64.25±2.25 b 53.75±0.75 c
(%)
NEUTROPHILS 32.50±2.26 a 35.60±36.70 b 34.75±1.70 a 32.75±0.48 a 36.00±2.12 b 37.00±1.23 c
(%)
MONOCYTES 1.25±0.25 a 0.40±0.90 b 1.00±0.41 a 1.25±0.25 a 0.75±0.25 a 1.25±0.25 a
(%)
M±SEM = MEAN ± STANDARD ERROR OF MEAN

Values with different superscripts along the rows indicate significance (p < 0.05) according to
DMRT

30
Table II above shows the haematological profile of cockerel chicks experimentally treated with

Ficus exasperata. PCV was significant difference (P>0.05) across the treatment with value

ranges from 29.25 to 32.25, Hb, RBC, WBC, MCV, neutrocytes and lyphocyte in the findings

were statistically different. Platelets was similar for across the treatment expect for the chicken

treated with streptomycin 200mg. Platelets recorded in the study was significantly similar

(p<0.05) with chicken treated with Ficus exasperate with the value ranges from 8.10 to 8.60

while streptomycin recorded highest value (9.80). The values recorded for MCHC was similar

across the treatment with the value ranges from 32.50 to 32.99.

31
4.2 Discussion

The reduction observed in those parameters in the infected groups were similar to works done by

Freitas-Neto et al., (2007), they all reported an acute onset in experimental infections of

Salmonella gallinarum in chickens and quails. The anemia associated with acute fowl typhoid in

chicken has been attributed to an increased ability of the reticuloendothelial cells to take up

erythrocytes as reported by Assoku and Penhale, (2004). Results of the mean corpuscular

haemoglobin (MCH) and mean corpuscular haemoglobin concerntration (MCHC). As alluded to

by Barde et al., (2015) in his study with salmonella enterica serovar Gallinarum in quails, these

may be as a result of haemorrhages and congestion of organs observed in the infected birds.

32
 CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Conclusion

Base on the results of this finding, it was concluded that Salmonella gallinarum show effect on

heamatoogy parameters of cockerel chicks and Ficus exasperate shows no effect on heamatology

of cockerel chicks.

5.2 Recommendation

It should be recommended that the farmers to adhere to good management control and adequate

feeding so as to reduce disease outbreak. Avoid sources that will introduce Salmonella

gallinarum to the poultry pen.

33
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