Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Measurement
for Water and Wastewater
NIVUS AG
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CH - 8750 Glarus
Tel. + 41 (0)55 /645 20 66
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E-mail: swiss@ nivus.de
NIVUS Sp. z o. o
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PL - 80 765 Gdańsk
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E-mail: poland@ nivus.de
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F - 67770 Sessenheim
Tel. + 33 (0)388071696
Fax + 33 (0)388071697
E-mail: france@ nivus.de
NIVUS U.K.
P.O. Box 342
Egerton, Bolton
Lancs. BL7 9WD
Tel. + 44 (0)1204 591559
Fax: + 44 (0)1204 592686
email: bg@ nivus.de
1. Definitions................................................................................................... 4
2. Introduction ................................................................................................ 6
3. Measurement Methods................................................................................ 7
3.1 Measurement in Full-Filled Lines....................................................................... 7
3.1.1 Throttle Devices................................................................................................. 7
3.1.2 Measurement with Volume Meters.................................................................... 8
3.1.3 Magnetic-inductive Flow Measurement ............................................................. 8
3.1.4 Ultrasonic Flow Measurement.......................................................................... 10
3.1.4.1 Ultrasonic Transit-Time Method..................................................................... 11
3.1.4.2 Ultrasonic Phase Difference Measurement ...................................................... 12
3.1.4.3 Ultrasonic Doppler Method.............................................................................. 12
3.1.4.4 Ultrasonic Pulse Doppler Method.................................................................... 13
3.2 Measurement Partially Filled Pipes................................................................... 14
3.2.1 Measurement with Q/h-characteristics without mechanical Bracing.............. 14
3.2.2 Flume Measurement ......................................................................................... 17
3.2.3. Weir Measurement ........................................................................................... 19
3.2.3.1 Overfall Weirs .................................................................................................. 20
3.2.3.2 V-Notch Weir................................................................................................... 24
3.2.3.3 Special Measurement Methods for Overfall Weirs .......................................... 25
3.2.4. Magnetic-Inductive Flow Measurement in Partially Filled Pipes..................... 27
3.2.5 Ultrasonic Doppler Method.............................................................................. 28
3.2.5.1 Fan-like Beams with statistical average Value plotting.................................... 29
3.2.5.2 Fan-like Beams with Vmax Evaluation ............................................................... 31
3.2.5.3 Selective Flow Velocity Evaluation .................................................................. 32
3.2.5.4. Measurement Technique Installation............................................................... 34
3.2.6 New Measurement Methods – Profiler............................................................. 36
4. Bibliography............................................................................................... 43
5. Selecting Measurement Devices for Flow Measurement in Wastewater.. 44
6. Flow Measurement Applications............................................................... 45
3rd Edition - 21.02.2002
3
1. Definitions
Flow Q is the volume flowing through a mathematically precise determined cross-
section over a certain time unit.
Volume V
Q= =
Time t
The same can be determined by the multiplication of the average flow velocity, v, with
the wetted cross-section area, A, vertical to the flow direction, known as the continuity
equation:
Q = v•A
V= Q•t
The average flow velocity v is the velocity determined within cross section A.
According to physics a laminar flow represents a layered flow. The separate water layers
are gliding one above the other unless they are getting mixed. Based on frictional
influences (wall roughness, medium viscosity) the flow velocity at the pipe wall is 0.
It reaches its maximum at various points within the cross-section, depending on the
level and the channel profile (round, oval, square).
4
In a full-filled pipe the velocity profile is rotationally-symmetrical and its maximum is
situated in the tube axis (see Fig. 1 and 2).
Within a turbulent flow an intermixing between the water layers occurs, and is not
influenced by the pipe roughness (see Fig. 3). Thus, the velocity profile is more uniform
(see Fig. 4).
Transition flows are intermixings between laminar and turbulent flows. This form of
the hydraulic flow is unstable and sways. No defined, stable flow profile is developed.
The flow conditions aren’t predictable. (see Fig. 5)
5
2. Introduction
Flow measurements are a critical element for water resources monitoring for various
applications.
This booklet only gives a basic understanding in a short and concise form the various
problems encountered in flow measurement techniques. It doesn't claim to be complete
with reference to the described methods as well as the hydraulic boundary conditions.
For more extensive information, the bibliography listed at the end must be referred to.
For any questions, unsolved technical problems and unclear application solutions, our
applications engineers from our "Flow Team" at NIVUS is at your disposal. They have
extensive flow and hydraulic monitoring experience.
Flow is usually monitored in open channels (gravity flow) and closed conduits
(pressurised flow in completely closed pipes).
Flow measurement in the wastewater field is always carried out under harsh sewer
conditions. Wastewater is polluted with sludge, solids, fibers, grease and oil, etc. as well
as sewer films and overlays. This causes the measurement methods often inaccurate or
even to fail.
Test points where the best measurement techniques are used may deliver faulty or
useless measurement results.
The required measuring ranges represent a further problem. The range varies from
extreme low levels at night an in dry periods to extremely high levels in rain periods
with full-filled pipes and high flow velocities. Other circumstances, like high levels at
low flow velocities also occur often during backwater conditions.
6
3. Measurement Methods
Various techniques are available for measuring flow. Each one has its advantages and
disadvantages, and selecting a proper technique depends on its specific applications.
The following methods describe the most common methods and techniques used for
flow monitoring.
3.1 Measurement in Full-Filled Lines
For cross-sections of mostly full pipes, the wetted area is defined by its geometry and
dimensions and thus can be considered a constant. This means that the area
standardized flow velocity V must only be determined.
Due to its high failure vulnerability, these do not find any use for sewage measurement
techniques.
7
3.1.2 Measurement with Volume Meters
Motor meters are used for the volume measurement by a volume count, where the wall
of a room, either locked or not locked is replaced by the current or the pressure of the
medium. The covered distance or angle for piston, a drum or the wing of a winged wheel
corresponds to the volume to be measured.
Typical measurement devices: rotary-piston meter, oval wheel meter, winged wheel
meter, etc.
Example:
Due to the vulnerability to dirt this kinds of measurement are unsuitable for sewage
applications.
It is given by:
Ue = B • L • v
8
Ue is the induced electromotive force. It is picked up by two electrodes contacting the
medium. The induced voltage B is the strength of the induction of the magnetic field .
This is produced by magnet field coils which are operated by alternating voltage or
pulsating direct voltage.
L represents the conductor’s length. By using the legitimacies of the magnetic-inductive
measuring principle this length is determined by the gap between the both measuring
electrodes. v is the average flow velocity.
The magnet field strength as well as the electrode distance are fixed values. This means
that the induced current is directly proportional to the flow velocity.
Advantages
• high precision and consistency of measurement values at exact mounting conditions
• calibrateability
• wide range of diameters available (25 - 1200 mm; 1 - 48 in)
• high pressure resistance (up to 600 bar)
• no cross-section reduction
• independent of the medium’s pressure or temperature
9
Disadvantages
• minimum conductivity necessary (> 1mS)
• electrodes sensitive to contamination by oil, grease and sewer films (zero point error
& measurement failure)
• high structural costs / siphon and bypass line necessary when sewers need to be
blocked and/or cleaned
• device costs increasing proportional to diameters to be measured
• minimum flow velocity required (1m/s; 3.28 fps, in exceptional cases 0,3 - 0,5m/s;
0.98 – 1.64 fps, below these limits, high increase in measurement errors)
Ultrasonic flow measurement devices, like magnetic-inductive ones have a free passage;
this means, there are no mechanical or moving parts within the pipe.
Principally we distinguish between clamp-on technology (see Fig. 11) (transducers
fastened on top of the pipe with no medium contact ) and insertion technology (see Fig.
10) (transducers fitted to the pipe with direct medium contact).
10
3.1.4.1 Ultrasonic Transit-Time Method
The transit-time method is based on the physical legitimacy that a sound wave’s
propagation velocity within a medium in motion depends on its velocity.
1) 2)
Result Vaverage
VR 2
Vm = • (t2 - t1)
2 • L •cos α
Advantages
• easy mounting /demounting (clamp-on technology)
• hydraulic disturbances within the acoustic path are taken into account in the
calculation
• insensitive to grease and oils
• no minimum conductivity necessary
Disadvantages
• incorrect measurement or failure in partially filled pipes
• measurement failure in liquids with high solid matter contents
• incorrect measurement /failure in incrusted pipes (clamp-on technology)
• no clamp-on technology measurement possible in pipes with inhomogeneous outer
jacket (concrete or similar)
11
3.1.4.2 Ultrasonic Phase Difference Measurement
The principle of the Doppler effect is based on transmitting a bundled ultrasound beam
with a defined frequency and a well-known angle into a liquid. A part of the ultrasound
energy is reflected by the solid particles or gas bubbles carried in the liquid.
Due to the movement of the particles a frequency distortion ∆F occurs. This distortion
is directly proportional to the particle velocity . It is given by:
cos α
∆ ƒ= 2ƒ • C • Vp
0
ƒ = Transmission frequency
C0 = Sound velocity within medium to be measured
VP = Particle velocity
α = Transmission angle between ultrasonics and flow direction
At a constant transmission frequency, transmission angle and sound velocity one can
get the particle velocity from:
VP = K • ∆ ƒ
Due to the flow profile arising and a multitude of reflective particles of various flow
velocity a frequency spectrum results.
12
The various possibilities of the evaluation of this frequency mixture are explained in the
section ultrasonic measurements.
The ultrasonic Pulse Doppler Method represents a further development of the known
Doppler method as a new measurement technique.
Unlike the common Doppler method, using a continuous transmission frequency, the
Pulse Doppler transmits a short frequency bundle with a defined length. Due to the
defined transmission angle and the known sound velocity within the medium the
transducer after transmitting switches to receiving standby mode within a time t1. The
change of the sound velocity depending on temperature is considered and compensated
by an additional transducer-integrated temperature measurement. Thus, the scan slot’s
allocation for a received signal is possible. The frequency distortion of the transmitted
ultrasonic signal in a defined measurement window is a measure of the flow velocity
corresponding to that measurement window. Reflections of particles in other areas don't
have any influence on the velocity measurement.
Putting this window onto Vmax (prerequisite: axially symmetrical flow profile), Vaverage
can be determined. From Vaverage and the known diameter the flow Q is determined.
13
3.2 Measurement Partially Filled Pipes
One, the detection of level and average flow velocity, the other, a simple level detection
and based on mechanical/hydraulic conditions like roughness, slope, diameter variations
etc.
Measurement principle:
Where:
Q = Flow
A = Cross-sectional Area
P = Perimeter
n = Roughness Coefficient
S = Slope
e = exponent
Based on the above, many flow tables have been developed for various pipe diameters,
level, slope and the roughness coefficient.
This equation is not very accurate (10 - 30 %), but is acceptable when only an
approximation of flow measurement is allowed.
The flow Q is represented as a function of Q/h. The allocation of the level h to the flow
Q is based on channel geometry und channel dimensions (known and invariable), the
slope α (mostly known) as well as the roughness k between pipe walls and medium.
The roughness has been experimentally determined for various materials and may vary
according to different types of construction and material stress. It may further vary
during the measuring process (rinsed concrete = rougher, sewer film and grease
14
sedimentation = smoother) or it may vary depending on different grades of roughness at
different levels. Depending on the water level these conditions will change. Thus,
roughness represents a big instability factor ( Table 1).
Measurement Prerequisites
• no backwater
• no deposition/sedimentation
• channels in good structural condition
• constant slope
Advantages
• cheap
• easy mounting
Disadvantages
• extreme uncertanity in measurement
• not suitable for many measurement points
• preclarification of hydraulic conditions absolutely necessary
• high calibration and maintenance expenses (recalibration)
15
Flume Wall Qualities M in m1/3/s k in mm
moderately rough smooth Glass, Piacrylics, polished Metal Surfaces > 100 0...0,003
Plastic (PVC,PE)
0,05
new Steel Plate with Protective Coating, smoothened ≥ 100
0,03...0,06
CPlastert
Asphalt coated Steel Plate
Concrete from steel or Vacuum Formwork, no joints, 90...100 0,1...0,3
f ll
smoothened;
planed Wood, joint-free, new; Asbestos Cement, new
smoothened Concrete, smooth Finish 0,4
85...90
planed Wood, good joints 0,6
Concrete, good Formwork, high Cement contents 80 0,8
non-planed Wood; Concrete Tubes 75 1,5
hard-burned Brick; carefully joint
well-manufactured Ashlar Facing; 70...75 1,5...2,0
Concrete from joint-free Wood Formwork
rolling-cast Asphalt Finish 70 2
rough
≤ 20
refinished Rock Excavation (max. 0,4 R)
Mountain Streams with heavy Bed Load; ...650
< 20
Random Rubble Stone (max. 0,4 R)
...900
Collapsed Bed < 20
(max. 1,0 R)
...1 500
Rock Excavation, medium coarse < 20
(max. 0,4 R)
Collapsed Bed with heavy Bed Load; ...1 500
<20
Earth Channels with very heavy Weed Growth (max. 1,0 R)
...3 000
raw Rock Excavation, extremely coarse <20
(max. 0,8 R)
* The absolute roughness values for these surfaces are currently incomplete.
16
3.2.2 Flume Measurement
Flume measurements are flow measurements in a specially shaped channel with defined
lateral narrowings. Within these narrowings, the flow velocity changes from streaming
to shooting.
Most commonly used, they are stationary channels made of concrete as well as
prefabricated pieces. According to the well-known measurement principle, the
geometric shapes vary over a wide range (such as Parshall channel, Palmer-Bowlus
channel and many special constructions by different manufacturers). In Germany, two
kinds of flumes are used: the Khafagi channel as well as the classical flume channel.
Both have been included in the DIN 19559 (German Industrial Standard). Based on
this standard, reference for mounting conditions, measurement ranges, accuracies etc.
will be made.
In North America, the most commen types of flumes are the Parshall and Palmer-
Bowlus flumes.
Parshall:
Commonly used in concrete-lined channels, for permanent monitoring applications.
The size of the flume is determined by its throat (narrowings) width.
Palmer-Bowlus:
Used in round channels, they measure flow over a narrow flow range. They are sized
according to the pipe diameter.
17
Fig. 19; Plan View of a Flume Channel
B= Channel width
b= Narrowing
ho = Upper water level
hu = Lower water level
L1 = Transducer’s distance to beginning of flume
When using flume measurements, the following should be taken into account:
The transducer’s zero point always is related to the flume’s zero point, not to the
measuring point’s!!!
Special attention must be paid to the inflow stage. It is absolutely necessary for the head
flow to be in laminar condition. If in turbulent condition, the transition to laminar
condition must take place at least 20 x B before the narrowing’s begin. Within the
range 10 x B before the flume’s beginning the following points should be taken into
account:
18
• constant head of the whole inflow stage
• rectilinear run of the flume’s and the inflow channel’s axial center
• constant channel cross-section
• no additional delivery pipes or drains
• no installations, salient or rebound unevennesses in pipe walls or channel bottom
Advantages
• no moving parts
• very suitable for polluted wastewater measurement
• good consistency of measurement values and measurement control
• easy to clean
Disadvantages
• high costs of construction
• large space required
• high cleaning expenses
• low measurement dynamics between Qmin and Qmax , usually factor 10 - 20
• minimum determinable wastewater flow Qmin ≥5 l/s (79.26 gpm)
Based on the defined hydraulic conditions and respective the construction’s dimensions
and design, an interrelation between head water and overfall volume = flow volume can
be made.
19
hü = Head on weir
b = Overfall width
Q = ƒ (hü ) • k
3
2
Q = • µ •b• 2• g • h2
3
20
The most commonly used weir crest shapes in rainwater treatment plants are:
round crest
or
broad crest
or
or sharp-edged
21
Weir Crest Type µ Overfall Coefficient
approximate exact
sharp edged Weir 1 hü
with aerated jet µ = 0,605 + + 0,08 w
1000 hü
hü
µ = 0,64 ( hü, w in m)
w
Log Weir
The value µ valid for the sharp edged Weir is to be
hü
multiplicated with e 2
d / hü ≤ /3 1,0 1,5 2,0 2,5 3,0
d
e
w
r w
Radius)
1:0
w
..
.1.:
µ = 0,75
1
alternative Radius a
when Crest is elliptical
r = b ( 4,75b + a - 0,573 ( valid for w> r> 0,02m; hü< r 6- 20r )
2a + b 20b
;( w+ 3r
within the boundaries 6> a > 0,5
b
cylindrical Weir
hü
µ = 0,55+ 0,22
w hü
w
hü
r (valid for 0,1< w < 0,8)
h
b) µ = 0,50 (for ü = 0,10)
w
b) µ = 0,52
w
90° a) b) h
b) µ = 0,55 (for wü = 0,55)
broad Overfall, completely rounded off
such as a
µ = 0,65 .... 0,73
completely reversed
Fishbelly Flap
µ = 0,79
overflown Dike
µ = 0,40 (for hü= 0,06m)
hü
1:
Law 15 µ = 0,55 (for hü= 0,45m)
n
22
Due to its very exact overflow coefficient, it is easy to gauge and make supplementary
installation in existing, inexact round crest concrete weirs with sharp-edged weir crest
and is recommended as standard measurement weir according to ATV A111.
The weir has to be adjusted horizontally and must be secured in order to avoid
unintentional moving.
The water must flow vertically against the weir and on the other side, no backwater is
allowed to occur. In case of an oncoming flow tending to backwater formation a single
head water measuring is not sufficient!
Advantages
• no moving parts
• existing basins uncomplicated to refit
• cheap measurement technology
Disadvantages
• suitable only for high flow volumes
• relatively inaccurate
23
• measurement errors due to wind pressure
• unsuitable for tangential oncoming flow and backwater in the ditch
One more special weir shape is the V-Notch weir, also called Thomson Weir or Gourley
Weir. This weir features a weir plate standing vertical to the flow direction with a sharp-
edged triangular cutout.
The backwater level in front of the weir is directly proportional to the flow volume.
Due to its special cutout the V-Notch weir is especially suitable for small volume
measurement (0.05 l/s - 30 l/s; 0.79 - 475.59 gpm).
A polluted weir edge very strongly adulterates the measurement values. Thus, it is
primarily suitable for the evaluation of clean media like spring water, small sewage
plant’s drains or partially even for volume measuring of percolating waters in dumps (in
the latter case the prerequisite is that the dissolved components do not tend to
sedimentation, precipitation or incrustation at air access on the weir edge).
• hü min = 3 cm (1.18 in)! The jet is „glued“ below this, measuring impossible.
• hü max should not be more than 30 cm (11.81 in).
• The oncoming flow velocity should not be higher than 5 cm/s (0.16 fps). Eventually
baffles must be installated in order to avoid a direct oncoming flow.
• No backwater (absolutely necessary)!
24
Prerequisites
• no backwater
• low oncoming flow velocity
• no sedimentation
• clean media without slubs, fibers or similar
Advantages
• low costs for the needed measurement technique
• accurate measurement results (even at low volumes)
• easy to verify
Disadvantages
• partially high mechanical expenses needed to realize the necessary hydraulic
conditions
• no measurement in polluted or sediment carrying media
• no measurement of very high volumes
25
The relation between the lower water level and the upper water level results in the
reduction coefficient c.
h
c = 1− ( u )n
ho
Due to the need for better overfall value, always a sharp edged weir should be assumed
in reduction measurements!
The reduction coefficient c depending on the current backwater must be calculated and
fixed into the Poleni formula for rectangular overfalls.
2
Q= • µ • c • b • 2 g • h1,5
3
The tangential oncoming flow of thresholds represents another special form. This
application is frequently found primarily in separation buildings in front of storm water
reservoirs.
The tangential oncoming flow of the overfall threshold results in shaping a parabolic
mirror line which is not parallel to the cast-off threshold. Determining a measurement
point for the average overfall volume is difficult, because this point is situated at various
places according to the water volume flowing through.
In this case, two measurements for the overfall threshold and a determination of the
average overfall level is necessary as well.
26
Fig. 25; Tangential Threshold Oncoming Flow
UE = Measurement Voltage
B = magnetic Induction
D = Distance between
Electrodes
v = average
Flow Velocity
qv = Volume Flow
k = Correction Factor
UE ~ B • D• v
D 2π
qv = • v• k
4
UE • k ~ qv
27
By transversing the magnetic field the current flow level is evaluated. The various
magnetic field characteristics at various levels are saved in the transmitter’s memory.
Depending on the current flow level, a signal proportional to the flow is produced by a
correcting method.
Advantages
• high accuracy at higher filling levels and not/low polluted liquids
• low sensitivity against asymmetrical velocity dissipation
Disadvantages
• high initial costs, especially from diameter > 300 (12 in), increasing proportional to
diameter
• minimum flow velocity 50 - 100 cm/s (1.64 – 3.28 fps)
• considerable higher conductivity necessary than magnetic-inductive flow
measurement in fully filled pipes (factor 10)
• no measuring possible below 10 % filling level
• measuring error increases excessively with falling level
• long-time drift caused by dirty electrodes in the sewage area (sewer films) may result
in total measurement failure after a certain time (obvious through constant discharge
indpendent of day or nighttime) = high cleaning and maintenance expenses in
wastewater
The flow velocity is evaluated by the Doppler method (see chapter 3.1.4.1).
28
Fig. 27; Measurement Installation Ultrasonic Doppler Method
Evaluating the Doppler signal and the determination of the average flow velocity can be
achieved in different ways.
Using this method, constant beams are transmitted into the liquid. The receiving
crystal, placed at the same angle and parallel, receiveses continuously all Doppler signals
reflected from the transmitted signal, spreading like a fan .
29
It is characteristic for this measuring method that, a spatial allocation of the received
signals is not possible. In clean liquids the transmitting signal is able to penetrate the
water surface. In highly polluted liquids the penetration depth is limited and not
defined.
The water surface represents an ideal plane of reflection whose propagation velocity,
under certain circumstances, is higher when waving than the flow velocity to be
measured. Since the statistic average value determined by all signals cannot represent
the average flow velocity it must be corrected with a calibration factor. A general
mathematical derivation of the calibration factor from other channel parameters isn't
known to the authors. Depending on the applications this factor (see VDE 2640 ) must
be determined empirically by comparative measurements.
For long time stationary measurements, a single, high calibration and putting into
operation, a single value acceptable. The calibration often isn't possible or outrageously
expensive for various channel operations.
30
3.2.5.2 Fan-like Beams with V max Evaluation
Transmitting beam and signal reception correspond to the method described under
3.1.4.1. The received Doppler signals are evaluated by frequency analysis (Fast Fourier
Transformation for example). The maximum flow velocity is evaluated in the frequency
spectrum consisting of many single velocities.
The detected maximum velocity in the channel is multiplied with the reduction factor
(c < 1) to get the average flow velocity.
This reduction factor within fully filled pipes (discharge pipes) is known.
The extent of how far the reduction factor’s calculation can be applied to other channel
types or partially filled pipes is subject to further examination. The measured maximum
flow velocity cannot be allocated to a certain point in space even by this method.This is
why a plausibility verification only by using the frequency spectrum is difficult. As
mentioned in 3.2.5.1., influences like signal penetration depth as well as surface and
waving reflections may cause false informations.
31
3.2.5.3 Selective Flow Velocity Evaluation
Via this local flow velocity, determined in the local area of the probe, using a coherence
formula, tha average flow velocity can be calculated.
1,49 • R1/16• VP
V=
N • g ½ • M • In [N • h P• ( 0,031
n )]
6
Since the MANNING coefficient varies from one partially filling to the other, the
equation above was extended by the Maryland University in order to consider the
conditions within partially filled pipes too. Further the coefficients “M” and “N” were
determined anew. Basis for the change of the MANNING coefficient at partially filled
pipes is the relationship diagram according to CAMP.
32
Fig. 31; Relationship Diagram
nt/n = 0.8194 + 2.0355 (h/D) – 6.1305 (h/D)² + 7.074 (h/D)³ - 2.991 (h/D) 4
Inserted into the equation above, it is possible to determine the average flow velocity
from a dot-like flow velocity measurement in the vertical axial center.
33
3.2.5.4. Measurement Technique Installation
Flanges, fixing pieces, slide valves and control valves are supplied by the plant operator.
34
Measurement Installation in open Channels
Recapitulation
Ultrasonic Doppler devices need a certain minimum amount and size of reflecting
particles within the medium to be measured. Without these particles no reflection of the
ultrasonic signal occurs.
For NIVUS measurement technology even gas or air bubbles are sufficient. Applications
like sewage works effluents are measurable as well as return-sludge, wastewater in pump
stations and more.
On the other hand the Doppler method fails in clear water, boiler feed water or similar.
35
Advantages
• no channel constriction
• additional installation easily possible
• measurement can be carried out even at lowest possible levels (from 30 mm, 1.18 in)
and lowest possible velocities (3cm/s, 0.098 fps) (refer to: NIVUS device technique)
• drift free
• easy measurement even in grease and sewer film formation on the transducer
• maintenance free
Disadvantages:
• careful selection of the measurement point indispensable
• individual calibration for higher accuracy requirements or unfavourable hydraulic
conditions necessary
• no measurement possible in clean media
The use of measurement principles which were regarded as unthinkable and not possible
a few years ago, can now be used because of the development of faster and more
efficient electronics and processors, as well as research in the area of the sensor
technique today.
NIVUS follows the path of consistent research and development and perfecting the flow
measurement techniques and actively promotes the use of new measurement principles.
A result of this this is the technical transition from theory into practice of a method
which offers completely new techniques of flow measurements, even under difficult
hydraulic conditions. NIVUS has brought this new method to the market through the
newly developed, user friendly and high-accurate OCM product line in the year 2000.
At the editorial deadline more than 100 measurement units were in use over a wide
range of hydraulic conditions.
Measurement Method
The NIVUS OCM Pro works with a completely new multi-purpose transducer
(combination sensor) which simultaneously determines flow velocity and level. This is
achieved by using two especially manufactured piezoelectric crystals which work
independent of each other as transmitter and receiver, and thus determine flow velocity
and level simultaneously.
Fig. 34; Schematic Diagram Combination Sensor Type „Pro“ for Ground Level Installation
36
These particular piezoelectric crystals (Composite-Crystals) consist of a high amount of
parallel, small rod-shaped crystals which can be stimulated to oscillate simultaneously as
well as being switched to receiving mode for the reflected signals.
The special form of these piezoelectric crystals offers the advantage of precise
orientation and directivity of the ultrasonic signal (sonic beam lobe with 3° angular
aperture). Thus, very exact spatial positioning and high precision as well as a very short
die-down time (mechanical baseline overshoot of the crystal after transmitting pulses. A
certain time, t, must pass before the crystal is able to receive reflected signals) can be
achieved.
The very short die-down behaviour makes a dead-zone (the distance before the
transducer where measurement is not possible) of 20 mm possible. These small distances
are necessary when it comes to measuring low levels.
The horizontal transducer works as a level meter with the known ultrasonic transit-time
method. The time elapsed from transmitting a pulse and receiving it, reflected by the
boundary layer between water and air, is measured.
Since the pulse must cover the distance h2 twice (up to the water surface and back to
the transducer) the result is:
c • tl
h2 =
2
37
Fig. 36; Measurement Principle Level Evaluation in Channels
The speed of sound in water is exact 1480m/s (4854 fps) at 20°C (68°F). It depends on
the temperature with a tolerance of 0.23% per Kelvin.
The constant level value h1 determined by the transducer crystal installation is added to
the evaluated value h2. The result is the overall level h.
The advantage of ultrasonic measurement from below is that surface foam does not
influence the measurement results (for conventional air-ultrasonic measurements, foam
can distort the measurement results or lead to the failure of the measurement).
Installing the transducer in partially filled pipes can be easily made by welding a socket
into the pipe vertically from below and fixing the transducer by a pipe double nipple
with an O-ring.
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Fig. 38; Measurement Principle Level Determination in partially filled Pipes
For velocity measurement, the piezoelectric crystal is inclined in a defined angle against
the flow direction and works as a flow velocity transducer. For the first time worldwide
in the field of wastewater measurement technique, the digital pattern recognition of
reflections is used, which allows, in conjunction with the correlation method an exact
spatial allocation of various scan window velocities by a defined acoustic path.
The result is a particular reflection signal, dependent on size an shape of each particle.
The multitude of the reflected signals result in a reflection pattern (see Fig. 39a), which
the crystal receives again and transforms it to voltage signal equivalent to this pattern.
This signal pattern is fed into an extremely powerful digital signal processor (DSP) and
stored.
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Fig. 39a; Situation at first Signal Detection
After a defined period of time another ultrasonic impulse is insolated into the medium.
There are different hydraulic flow velocities in various level layers. The reflective
particles therefore have moved further depending on height since the previous
measurement. The result is a distorted image of the reflection pattern (see Fig. 39b).
Simultaneously slightly different reflections appear: some particles have been turned
around showing a different plane of reflection; some particles have been moved out of
the measurement range and some new ones have been moving into the measurement
range.
These two received reflection samples are checked mathematically in the digital signal
processor by means of the correlation method for their similarities. All available signal
differences are rejected in order to have two signal patterns similar to each other with a
temporal offset left to enable a velocity evaluation.
A large number of measurement windows are put over these samples depending on the
flow levels. Then in each window the evaluation of the time offset ∆t of each pattern
(see Fig. 40) is carried out.
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Each scan window’s position in vertical sense and size are known due to the flow level
measurement carried out simultaneously. As a result of insolation angle and the
ultrasonic signal’s speed of sound, each window’s exact beginning and ending time point
is determined.
The accompanying flow velocity therefore can be determined based on the insolation
angle, the temporal distance of the two transmitted signals succeeding one another and
the difference of the signal pattern in each measuring window.
Mathematically stringing together the single calculated flow velocities yields the velocity
profile of the acoustic path.
If the wave trap at the measurement point is large enough, a three-dimensional image of
the flow density spread can be generated based on the available geometric data of the
channel.
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Fig. 42; Generated 3-dimensional Flow Profile
The transducer is constantly testing the received signal’s quality and level. In case of a
decreasing signal level (if contamination should occur for example) the transmitter
output will automatically be equalized. This results in very low sensitivity in case of
transducer contamination.
The depicted combination transducer has not been cleaned for more than 40 weeks and
thus documents this statement impressively.
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Recapitulation
The Profiler Method opens new doors in the field of wastewater technique.
The method described above and the available measument technology captures with
high accuracy, exact verifiableness, easy installation in available profiles, extreme easy
and menu-driven operation, a high number of additional information (7-day-totalizer,
error-free memory, graphical representation of velocity values, control and flush
functions) measurement value memory, it is absolutely drift-free etc.
4. Bibliography
- ATV A 111
- DIN 19559 Teil 1 und 2
- Fachwissen des Ingenieurs, Band 5, FBV Leipzig
- Technische Hydromechanik, Band 1, Preisler /Bollrich, Verlag für Bauwesen Berlin
- Abwasserhydraulik, W. H. Hager, Springer- Verlag Berlin & Heidelberg
- Durchflussmesstechnik für die Wasser- und Abwasserwirtschaft, Heinz G. Erb, Vulkan
Verlag Essen
- Hydraulik im Wasserbau, Prof. Dr. -Ing. R. Rössert, R. Oldenburg Verlag
München/Wien
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44
5.
Q/h-Relations partial Filling full Filling
PCM 3 plus PCM 3 plus PCM 3 plus PCM 3 plus PCM 3 plus PCM 3 plus
portable Level Transducer multi purpose Level Transducer multi purpose Trans- multi purpose multi purpose
Measurement Transducer ducer in bypass Transducer Transducer
6. Flow Measurement Applications
Flow measurements are necessary for planning, water treatment, pollution control,
storm water monitoring and control, and billing purposes.
The following are common users of flow monitors for measurement purposes:
Capacity Analysis
In areas where municipal and industrial growth is planned, capacity analysis studies
determine how much additional flows during dry and wet weather the sewer system
can handle due to growth.
Billing
Many industries and municipalities have their wastewater treated by other treatment
plants and pay for these services based on portable usage, flat fees etc. These do not
take into account increased flows during wet weather, or illegal dumping.
Direct flow measurement is the only true way to bill according to wastewater
treated. This eliminates ambiguities etc.
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