Measurement Techniques

Lecture Notes
Flow Measurement

• Obstruction flowmeters
• Positive displacement flowmeters
• Turbine flowmeters
• Rotameters
• Miscellaneous flowmeters – use magnetic, optical, sonic, ultrasonic, vortex
shedding, or various other means to measure volume flow rate

Pressure Measurement

• What is pressure?
• Pressure Types
• Pressure measurements with manometers
• Mechanical Pressure Measurement Devices
• Electronic Presure Transducers
• Piezoelectric Pressure Transducers
• Pressure Measurements in Fluid Flow
 Flow Measurements

One of the most required measurement in industrial applications is either mass flow rate or
volume flow rate measurements in pipes.
Mass flow rate: mass of a substance which passes through a given surface per unit of time
dm    
m   u . A or   u .dA
dt
Volumetric flow rate: volume of fluid which passes through a given surface per unit time
dV    
Q  u. A or   u .dA
dt

For many industrial operations the accuracy of a fluid-flow measurement is directly related to
profit. A simple example is the gasoline pump at the neighborhood service station; another
example is the water meter at home. It is easy to see how a small error in flow measurement on
a large natural gas or oil pipeline could make a large difference in cost over a period of time.

In all the examples used in this section, we consider only incompressible flow. Special care must
be taken when the flow is compressible, such as the flow of air or natural gas through a pipeline.
 Flow Measurements

There are two broad categories of flowmeters:

 In-line flowmeter
 End-line flowmeter (or discharge flowmeter)

End-line flow measurement is extremely accurate, and is often

used to calibrate in-line flowmeters

End-line flowmeter: is used at the outlet or discharge of the flow –

at the end of the line.
to measure volume flow rate
 we measure how much time ∆t it takes to fill up a container
 And Volume V
 calculate V/ ∆t

In-line flowmeter: is a device that is placed in line with the pipe or

duct

An in-line flowmeter is necessary when the outlet or discharge is

not available or splits into many separate outlets.
 Flow Measurements

There are five main categories of in-line flowmeters:

 Obstruction flowmeters – measure the pressure drop across an obstruction placed in the
flow.
 Positive displacement flowmeters – fill up a known volume and then pass it on down the
line.
 Turbine flowmeters or paddlewheel flowmeters – spin a shaft and measure its rpm.
 Rotameters – raise an object due to aerodynamic drag, and measure its height.
 Miscellaneous flowmeters – use magnetic, optical, sonic, ultrasonic, vortex shedding, or
various other means to measure volume flow rate.
 Flow Measurements:
Obstruction Methods
A pressure drop is created in the pipe or duct by adding some kind of obstruction. The
pressure drop associated with the obstruction is measured. Such devices are sometimes
called head meters because of a head-loss or pressure-drop measurement is taken as an
indication of the flow rate. They are also called differential pressure meters.

d2 A2
d2,A2  
d1,A1 d1 A1

Continuity relation m  1 A1v1   2 A2 v2

2 2
p1 v p v
Bernoulli equation  1  gz1  2  2  gz2 z1  z2 , 1   2
1 2 2 2
(for incompressible flow) A2
 m theoretical  v2 A2  2  ( p1  p2 )
1  ( A2 / A1 ) 2
All flow meters based on obstruction method causes friction, flow separation
and pressure losses inside the pipes/channels. Flow rate calculated from the
above equations is the ideal value and it is related to actual flow rate and an
empirical discharge coefficient by the following relation:
m actual  Cm ideal

The discharge coefficient may

depend strongly on the flow Re
number and the channel geometry
C

2
1
 1
Velocity of approach factor: M
1  4

C
Flow coefficient: K
1  4 Discharge coefficient

 C  K 1  4

Velocity distribution inside the channel is non-uniform.

 m ideal  KA2 2  ( p1  p2 )

const. To be measured
Three typical obstruction meters are shown below.
Pressure distribution along the pipe is also sketched.

Venturi

Flow nozzle

Orifice
Comparison of obstruction methods:

• high sensitivity
• head loss through a venturi meter is quite low
• expensive because of difficulties in manufacturing
of complex geometry. Venturi
• long venturies may cause installation problems due
to space restrictions

• Some of the pressure loss can be recovered

• relatively short nozzle Flow nozzle
• simpler and less expensive

• Simple, easy to manufacture and low-cost

• Small (in terms of length), can be installed
everywhere Orifice
• Easy to install
 Flow Measurements:
Obstruction Methods

MOVIES ABOUT OBSTRUCTION METHODS

products.endress.com
 Flow Measurements:
Pozitive Displacement Method

The operating principle of a positive displacement flowmeter is as follows:

 Fluid flows into a chamber or compartment of known volume and is “trapped” there.
 The fluid in the chamber is displaced from the upstream to the downstream side, where it
is discharged.
 The number of discharges is counted per unit time to calculate the volume flow rate.

Positive displacement flowmeters are ideal for cumulative flow measurements.

Lobed impeller meter:

Lobed impeller meter may be used in either gas or liquid

flow measurements. The impeller and the case are
carefully machined so that accurate fit is maintained. In
this way the incoming fluid is always trapped between
the two rotors and conveyed to the outlet as a result of
their rotation. The number of revolutions of the rotors is
an indication of the volumetric flow rate.
 Flow Measurements:
Pozitive Displacement Method

Rotary Vane Flowmeter:

The vanes are spring-loaded so that they

continuously maintain contatct with the casing of the
meter. A fixed quantity of fluid is trapped in each
section as the eccentric drum rotates, and this fluid
eventually finds its way out to the exit. The meters
are insensitive to viscosity since the vanes always
maintain good contact with the inside of the casing.
An appropriate register is connected to the shaft of
the eccentric drum to record the volume of the
displaced fluid.
 Flow Measurements:
Pozitive Displacement Method

•The fluid enters the nutating disk meter into

chamber (A).
•The offset (tilt) of the geometry causes the nutating
disk (B) to nutate or wobble.
•This results in the rotation of a spindle (C).
•The rotation excites a magnet (D) that is on a
rotating disk housed within the fluid.
•The signal is transmitted through the casing of the
meter to a second magnet (E).
•The volume flow rate is obtained by counting the
number of these periodic signals per unit time.

•Other nutating disk flowmeters use mechanical

linkages instead of magnets to turn an odometer

Positive displacement flowmeters are extremely accurate, but create a relatively large
pressure drop.
 Flow Measurements:
Turbine Flowmeter

Turbine flowmeters:

When properly calibrated for the anticipated

flow conditions, a turbine flowmeter yields very
accurate results (as accurate as 0.25 percent)
over a wide range of flow rates.

Turbine flowmeters, may be used in either gas

or liquid flow measurements.

The fluid flows through the meter, spinning a

turbine connected to a shaft. The rotation rate
of the shaft is measured to calculate the
volume flow rate, based on a calibration.

In the turbine body a permenant magnet is

enclosed so that it rotates with the rotor. A
reluctance pickup attached to the top of the
meter detects a pulse for each revolution of
the turbine.
 Flow Measurements:
Turbine Flowmeter

Paddlewheel flowmeters:

 A paddlewheel flowmeter is a low-cost

alternative to a turbine flowmeter

 A paddlewheel flowmeter is not as accurate

as turbine meters

 The irreversible head loss caused by a

paddlewheel flowmeter is smaller than that
of a turbine flowmeter
 Flow Measurements:
Turbine Flowmeter

MOVIES ABOUT TURBINE FLOWMETERS

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EUWsNbOkK9I
 Flow Measurements:
Rotameter- variable-area flowmeter
Rotameter (Flow Measurement by Drag Effects)
The fluid flows vertically through a transparent tapered
tube. A floating mass called a ‘float’ (bob) rises due to
aerodynamic drag. Since the cross-sectional area of
the channel increases with height, the average fluid
speed decreases with height, and the floating mass
therefore hovers at a vertical location where the float
weight, drag force, and buoyancy force balance each
other.
The flow rate is determined by matching the float
position to a calibrated vertical scale.
Drag coefficient is depend on the Re number and
hence on the fluid viscosity. However, special floats
may be used that have an essentially constant drag
coefficient. Hence meter reading will be independent of
viscosity.
Drag force

Gravitational force Akış

 Force balance on the float:

 aU m 2
cD Ah  Vh g (  h   a )
2
Drag force Gravitational force r
r
cD; drag coefficient
Ah; frontal area of bob
Um; mean flow velocity on the annular space between the bob
and the tube
Vh; total volume of the bob
a; density of the fluid
h; density of the bob
A; Annular area between the bob and tube
1/ 2
 1 2 gVh   h 
Mass flow: m   aU m A   a A    1  A   ( r 2  r 2 )
 cD Ah   a 
For actual dimensions of tube and bob that are used:

m  cl y  a (  h   a )  f ( z ) cl ; meter constant
 Flow Measurements:
Rotameter- variable-area flowmeter

MOVIES ABOUT ROTAMETERS

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2dfIWNYJwZM

www.krohne.com
 Flow Measurements:
Vortex Shedding Flowmeters Vortex shedding flowmeters
When a bluff body is placed in the flow stream, vortices are shed
alternately from the back side. The frequency of the vortex
shedding is directly proportional to the liquid velocity. A
piezoelectric sensor mounted inside the vortex shedder detects
the vortices.

fsd
Strouhal number: St 
V
vortices
St: 0.88  %1, 104 < Re < 106
sensor

fs; shedding frequency [Hz]

d; characteristic dimension of bluff body[m]
V; velocity[m/s]

• The vortex flowmeter has no moving parts

• Measurement is not depend on pressure, temperature and density.
• The bluff body obstructs the flow and leads to a significant head loss.
 Flow Measurements:
Vortex shedding flowmeters

MOVIES ABOUT VORTEX SHEDDING FLOWMETERS

http://www.endress.com

www.youtube.com
 Flow Measurements:
Magnetic Flowmeters Magnetic Flowmeters
Consider the flow of a conducting fluid through a
magnetic field. According to Faraday law, there will
be a induced voltage on a conductor moving in the
magnetic field:
E(volt) = BL x10-8
B: magnetic flux density (gauss)
L: length of the conductor (cm)
: velocity of the conductor (cm/s)

The two electrods detect the induced voltage which

may be taken as a direct indication of flow velocity.
Two types of magnetic flowmeters are used
commercially:
1. Used for high-conductivity fluids :
A stainless-steel pipe is employed in this case with electrodes attached directly outside
of the pipe. The output signal is sufficiently high.

2. Used for fluids with low conductivity, like water :

Alternating magnetic fields are used with these meters since the output is low and
requires amplification. The electrodes are mounted on the non conducting liner and
make contact with fluid.
 Flow Measurements:
Magnetic Flowmeters

 An insertion electromagnetic flowmeter operates the same way: A rod is inserted into the
flow. The tip of the rod contains both the magnetic coils and the electrodes.
 Because of the rod that protrudes into the flow, the insertion electromagnetic flowmeter is
intrusive, and there is a small head loss.
 Flow Measurements:
Ultrasonic Flowmeters
Ultrasonic Flowmeters

An upstream transmitter transmits sound waves downstream, and a downstream

transmitter transmits sound waves upstream. The downstream sound waves are carried
along by the flow and therefore travel faster than the upstream waves. Receivers near the
transmitters measure the sound waves reflected by the pipe wall, and built-in electronic
circuitry measures the difference in travel time to calculate the average flow velocity.
 Pressure Measurements

What is Pressure?
Pressure: the normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area.

P 
Force
 P   m L  / t 
2

m 
Area L 2 L t 2
Presure in SI unit system: Pascal (Pa) 1 Pa  1 N / m 2
1 kPa  1000 N / m 2
Pressure in English unit system: psi (pound-force per square inch)

1 psi  1 lbf / in 2
1 atm  101.325 Pa  14.696 psi
 Pressure Measurements: Pressure Types

 Absolute pressure is defined as pressure measured relative to absolute vacuum

 Gage pressure is defined as pressure measured relative to the local atmospheric pressure.
 Absolute pressure= gage pressure + atmospheric pressure
 Pressure Measurements: Manometers

Manometers:
Mechanical devices offer the simplest means for pressure measurements. The fluid
manometer is a widely used device for measurement of fluid pressures under steady state.
In hydrostatic conditions;

Pbelow  Pabove  gz

PA  Patm   2 gh  1 g z A

2
 Pressure Measurements: Manometers

 For a U-tube manometer, the height of fluid column can be read with an accuracy of
2 mm.
 Purified water, alcohol or mercury are the most common manometer fluids. The
density of those fluids are noted in the tables with an accuracy of %0.005. Therefore,
the contribution of the density to the uncertainty of the manometer is respectively
small.
 To increase the accuracy the reading should be done with care.
 The pressure tube should not be too long.

Fluid Pressure Temperature

[bar] [C]
0 20 40

mercury 1 1395,08 13545,88 13496,69

water 1 999,9 999,3 992,26
water 10 1000,3 998,7 992,65
water 100 1004,72 1002,81 996,61
 Pressure Measurements: Manometers

To get more resolution from a U-tube

manometer, one of the legs is often
inclined at some shallow angle.
 Pressure Measurements: Mechanical Pressure
Measurement Devices
Bourdon Tube Pressure Gage
 Bourdon tube, has wide
range of application where
consistent, inexpensive
measurements of static
pressureis needed.
 Elastic deformation of the
tube under applied pressure
is used for measurement.
 Bordon tube is usually an
elliptical cross sectional tube
having C-shape
configuration.
 The end of the gage is
connected to a spring-loaded
linkage which amplifies the
displacement and transforms
it to an angular rotation of
the pointer.
 Pressure Measurements: Mechanical Pressure
Measurement Devices
Bourdon gages are available to cover a large range of pressures (up to 1000 Mpa).
The sensitivity of the gage depends on the size, thickness, and stiffness of the Bourdon
tube.
The reference pressure can be any desired pressure, but usually it is either
atmospheric (the gage measures gage pressure) or a vacuum. Bourdon gages are
available for measuring pressures higher/lower than the atmospheric pressure.
Several varieties of bourdaon tube are available:
 Pressure Measurements: Mechanical Pressure
Measurement Devices
Dead-Weight Tester
 Deadweight testers are used primarily for calibration, and can measure extremely high
pressures.
 Deadweight tester measures pressure directly through application of a weight that provides
a force per unit area.
 The total force F acting on the oil at the piston-oil interface is the weight of the piston plus
the total weight of the calibration weights. Since the piston cross-sectional area is known
pressure can be calculeted.
 It can measure up to 7000 bar.
 A dead weight tester is a high accuracy device. The accuracy is limited by two factors: the
friction between the cylinder and the piston , and the uncertainty in the area of the piston.
 Pressure Measurements:
Electronic pressure transducers

Pressure Transducers:

 Most common electronic pressure transducer is

diaphragm transducer. The difference in pressure from
one side of the diaphragm to the other causes the
diaphragm to deform. The diaphragm itself is usually a
thin, metal, circular plate that is held firmly about its
circumference. p1
 When pressure p1 is applied on one side, and pressure
p2 on the other side diaphragm deforms as sketched.
 There are various ways to measure the deflection or
deformation of the diaphragm. In all cases, the electrical
signal must be calibrated to yield a pressure reading.
 To facilitate linear response over a larger range of
deflections diaphragm may be constructed from a p2
corrugated disk.
p1-p2
p1-p2
 Pressure Measurements:
Electronic pressure transducers

 The bellow gages is depicted

schematically in Figure. A differential p1
pressure force causes a displacement of
y
bellows which may be converted to an p2
electrical signal. Bellow gages are
unsuitable for transient measurements.

 Diaphragm and bellow gages can be

used between 100 Pa and 40 MPa.
Diaphragm gages are suitable for high
frequency pressure measurements.

Motion
 Pressure Measurements:
Electronic pressure transducers

The deflection of the diaphragm is converted to an electrical signal instead of transmit the
mechanical signal directly to an indicator. There are various ways to convert the deflection
or deformation of the diaphragm. In all cases, the electrical signal must be calibrated to
yield a pressure reading:

 Strain gage
 LVDT
 Capacitance : the diaphragm is mounted close to a fixed parallel plate, across which the
capacitance is measured. As the diaphragm deforms, the capacitance changes.
 displacement transducer.
 Optical : various optical techniques can also be used to measure the degree of diaphragm
deformation.
 Pressure Measurements:
Electronic pressure transducers

1. A strain gage is mounted on the diaphragm, Strain

sensing strain in the deforming diaphragm. gage

The output signal from straingages is

proportional to local stain hence pressure
difference

2. A small rod is mounted on the diaphragm,

and it is attached to the core of a linear
LVDT
variable displacement transducer (LVDT).
 Cylindrical ferromagnetic core, attached to
the object whose position is to be measured,
slides along its axis
 An alternating current drives the primery
coil.
 Induced voltage in the secondary coil
(sec1+sec2) is proportional with the position
of the ferromagnetic core.
 Pressure Measurements:
Electronic pressure transducers
3. A capacitance sensor operates by
measuring the change in electrical
capacitance that results from the
movement of a sensing diaphragm
relative to some fixed capacitance
electrodes.

The great advantage of a capacitance

gauge is its ability to detect extremely
small diaphragm movements. Thin
diaphragms can measure down to 10-5
torr, while thicker diaphragms can
measure in the low vacuum to
atmospheric range.
.
A
 C: capacity of capacitor [picofarad] C  0.00885
 : di-electrical constant [1 for air] d
 A: : area of plate [mm2]
 d: distance between plates [mm]
 Pressure Measurements:
Electronic pressure transducers

Piezoelectric Pressure Transducer:

Piezoelectric transducers work on the principle that a piezoelectric crystal develops an

electric charge that is proportional to an applied compression or tension force.

Q  dF Force
(Newton)
Charge
(Coulomb) Piezoelectric
constant

Piezoelectric pressure transducers have become very common because they are rugged,
small, and inexpensive
They also have good dynamic response, and can be used for dynamic (fluctuating)
pressure measurements.
 Pressure Measurements in Fluid Flow

PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS IN FLUID FLOW:

1- STATIC PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS ON THE WALL:

The static pressure in a flow is generally measured on a surface on which streamline

curvature is small. An ideal tap geometry is a small circular hole drilled perpendicular to the
surface on which the pressure is to be measured.

Conditions for Correct Measurements:

Small hole
Sharpe edges
Perpendicular to wall
Large L
Laminar Flow
 Pressure Measurements in Fluid Flow

 misalignment
 – angle into flow

 edge condition
– even small burrs can
increase errors very
significantly, particularly at low speed

 also need to watch out for leaks

 – take care with joints
 – leak check before testing
 – never blow into pressure tubing!
 Pressure Measurements in Fluid Flow

--- clean hole

Burrs: dirty deposit or Upstream burrs underpressure
manufacturing errors Downstream burrs overpressure
 Pressure Measurements in Fluid Flow
Pitot-Static Tube (incompressible flow) [M < 0.3]
The pitot-static tube is the most widely used and most reliable differential pressure
probe for flow measurement.
This is an open-ended tube, bent through 90o with the nose facing the direction of the
oncoming flow.
The fluid is brought to rest at the nose so it measures the fluid’s stagnation or total
pressure (po).
Pressure taps on the external tube is used for static pressure measurements.

p sp  p s
1
U 2
2 V

Bernoulli 1
equation p  V 2  p0
xh: 8 to16 probe dia. 2
xh+xs: 30 dia.
2( p  p0 )
V 

 Compressibility Effects:

Subsonic, compressible flow (Mach number, 0.3 < M < 1)

1 2( p0  p )
p0  p  V 2Cc  V 
2 Cc

M2 M4
Cc  1   (2  k )  ...
4 24

V cp
M  ; a  RT ;  
a cv
1.4 (for air)

Cc We need few iterations to get the Cc right.

 p01
Compressibility Effects: p
Supersonic flow (1 < M)
p0 2

 
 
p  2M 12  (  1) 
 
p0 2    1 2  
 (  1)  M1  
  2  

 1
 
2   p0   
 M1  
2

  1   p  
1

 

Pitot tube in supersonic flow

 Alignment Errors:
When the axis of the pressure probe is misaligned
with the flow vector, there are velocity components
both perpendicular and parallel to the face of the
probe. If the probe is at an angle to the flow, the
measured pressures will give an error in velocity
calculations. For a simple Pitot-static probe with a
hemispheric head, the error is significant for yaw
angles larger than 150.
 Multi hole Pressure Probes:

Calibrated multi-hole probes are often used to measure static and total pressure as well as
three components of velocity.
The pressure distribution on the surface of the probe depends on the angle of incidence of the
mean flow vector relative to the axis of the probe.
To determine the magnitude and orientation of the flow vector, the surface pressure is sampled
at pressure hole locations: on the axis of the probe and at equispaced points on a line
encircling this central point.