CONTROL SYSTEM AND INSTRUMENTATION

FLOW MEASUREMENT
 INTRODUCTION
• Many ways used for flow measurement
• Direct measurements for discharge consist in the
determination of the volume or weight of fluid that passes a
section in a given time interval.
• Indirect measurement require the determination of head,
difference in pressure, or velocity at several points in a cross
section, and with these the computing of discharge is done.
DIRECT RATE MEASUREMENT
 DIRECT RATE MEASUREMENT
Required large device if the volume rates are high. And in
case a smaller device is used then the measured values
will not be accurate.
Fluctuations in the measuring values due to the
opening/closing of valves during start/stop of the
measurements.
Devices that measure the volume/mass of the fluid and
the timing may not be concurrent.
 TYPES OF FLOWS
REYNOLDS NUMBER

The performance of flow-meters is also influenced by a dimensionless

unit called the Reynolds Number. It is defined as the ratio of the
liquid's inertial forces to its drag forces.
The Reynolds number is used for determined whether a flow is laminar
or turbulent. Laminar flow within pipes will occur when the Reynolds
number is below the critical Reynolds number of 2300 and turbulent
flow when it is above 2300. The value of 2300 has been determined
experimentally and a certain range around this value is considered the
transition region between laminar and turbulent flow.
Or

ѵs = Mean Fluid Velocity,

η - (Absolute) Dynamic fluid Viscosity
 = Kinematics Fluid Viscosity ( = η/ρ)
ρ = Fluid Density
L = Characteristic Length (Equal to diameter, 2r if a Cross Section is Circular)
TYPES OF
FLOWS
 DEFINITION OF QUANTITIES TO BE MEASURED

VOLUME FLOW RATE

The definition of volume flow rate is the volume of fluid that flows
past a given cross sectional area per second. Therefore,
V = Aѵ
V = Volume Flow Rate
A = Cross Section Area
Ѵ = Velocity of Fluid
Standard SI Unit is m3/hr
Other Common Units :
1L/s = 103 cm3/s = 10-3 m3/s
1gal/s = 3.788 L/s = 0.003788 m3/s
1cf/min = 4.719x10-4 m3/s
 DEFINITION OF QUANTITIES TO BE MEASURED

MASS FLOW RATE

The definition of mass flow rate is the number of kilograms of mass
flow that flows past a given cross sectional area per second.
Therefore,
m = ρV = ρAѵ
m = Mass Flow Rate
ρ = Specific Density

V = Volume Flow Rate

A = Cross Section Area
Ѵ = Velocity of Fluid

Standard SI Unit is kg/hr

 FLOW METERS
Wide product knowledge is essential to find the most
cost effective solution to any flow measurement
application.
TYPE OF FLOWMETERS
POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT – ROTATING LOBE

The lobed-impeller meter shown may be used for

either gas-flow or liquid-flow measurements.
The impellers and case are carefully machined so
that accurate fit is maintained. In this way the
incoming fluid is always trapped between the
two rotors and is conveyed to the outlet as a
result of their rotation. The number of
revolutions of the rotors is an indication of the
volumetric flow rate.
TYPE OF FLOWMETERS
“DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE” - VENTURI

Venturi meters consist of three sections as shown in Figure.

From continuity equation A1 u1 = A2 u2  u1 = (A2 /A1 ) u2

From Bernoulli’s equation between points 1 and 2
TYPE OF FLOWMETERS
“DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE” - VENTURI

All these equation of velocity at throat u2, which derived from

Bernoulli’s equation are for ideal fluids. Using a coefficient of discharge
Cd to take account of the frictional losses in the meter and of the
parameters of kinetic energy correction α1 and α2 . Thus the
volumetric flow rate will be obtained by:
TYPE OF FLOWMETERS
“DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE” - VENTURI
DISCHARGE COEFFICIENT, Cd
Cd: The ratio of the actual discharge to the ideal discharge

2( p1  p2 )
Q  AC d
A2 2
[1 ( ) ]
A2
2.5
C  0.5959  0.0312  0.184 
2.1 8 91.71
d
Re0.75

Where   d / D  ratio of the hole diameter to pipe diameter

6.530.5
Nozzle meters: Cd  0.9975 
Re0.5

These relations are valid for 0.25<β<0.75; 104 <Re <107

EXAMPLE
A horizontal Venturi meter with d1 = 20 cm, and d2 = 10 cm, is
used to measure the flow rate of oil of specific gravity = 0.8, the
discharge through venture meter is 60 L/s. Find the reading of
(oil- Hg) differential. Take Cd = 0.98. ρm(manometer Hg)= 1.366

Q = u2 A2 = 60 L/s (m3 /1000 L) = 0.06 m3 /s

EXAMPLE
A horizontal Venturi meter is used to measure the flow rate of water
through the piping system of 20 cm I.D, where the diameter of throat in
the meter is d2= 10 cm. The pressure at inlet is 17.658 N/cm2 gauge
and the vacuum pressure of 35 cm Hg at throat. Find the discharge of
water. Take Cd = 0.98.
TYPE OF FLOWMETERS
DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE - ORIFICE

The primary element of an orifice meter is simply a flat

plate containing a drilled located in a pipe perpendicular
to the direction of fluid flow as shown in Figure;
TYPE OF FLOWMETERS
DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE - ORIFICE

At point 2 in the pipe the fluid attains its maximum mean linear velocity
u2 and its smallest cross-sectional flow area A2. This point is known as
“the vena contracta”. It is occurs at about one-half to two pipe
diameters downstream from the orifice plate.
TYPE OF FLOWMETERS
DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE - ORIFICE

From continuity equation A1 u1 = A2 u2  u1 = (A2 /A1 ) u2

From Bernoulli’s equation between points 1 and 2
TYPE OF FLOWMETERS
DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE - ORIFICE
TYPE OF FLOWMETERS
DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE - ORIFICE
EXAMPLE
An orifice meter consisting of 10 cm diameter orifice in a 25 cm
diameter pipe has Cd = 0.65. The pipe delivers oil of specific gravity
= 0.8. The pressure difference on the two sides of the orifice plate is
measured by mercury oil differential manometer. If the differential
gauge is 80 cm Hg, find the rate of flow. ρm(manometer Hg)= 1.366
EXAMPLE
Water flow at between 3000-4000 cm3/s through a 50 mm diameter
pipe and is metered by means of an orifice. Suggest a suitable size
of orifice if the pressure difference is to be measured with a simple
water manometer. What approximately is the pressure difference
recorded at the maximum flow rate? Cd = 0.6.
The largest practicable height of a water manometer is 1.0 m
The maximum flow rate = 4 x 10-3 m3/s
TYPE OF FLOWMETERS
DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE - NOZZLE

The nozzle is similar to the orifice meter other than that it has a
converging tube in place of the orifice plate, as shown below. The
velocity of the fluid is gradually increased and the contours are so
designed that almost frictionless flow takes place in the converging
portion; the outlet corresponds to the vena contracta on the orifice
meter.
TYPE OF FLOWMETERS
DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE - NOZZLE
A flow nozzle meter consists of a short nozzle, with a smooth
guided entry and a sharp exit is placed in the pipe to change
the flow field and create a pressure drop that is used to
calculate the flow velocity.
Frictional loss in a flow nozzle meter is much less than in an
orifice, but higher than in a venturi meter.
TYPE OF FLOWMETERS
PITOT TUBE

The Pitot tube is used to measure the local velocity at a given point
in the flow stream and not the average velocity in the pipe or
conduit.
One tube, the impact tube, has its opening parallel to the direction
of flow and the static tube has its opening to the normal direction
of flow.
TYPE OF FLOWMETERS
PITOT TUBE

BERNOULLI’S EQUATION

The fluid flows into the opening at point 2, pressure builds up, and
then remains stationary at this point, called “Stagnation Point”.
The difference in the stagnation pressure (impact pressure) at this
point (2) and the static pressure measured by the static tube
represents the pressure rise associated with the direction of the fluid.
TYPE OF FLOWMETERS
PITOT TUBE

Impact pressure head = Static pressure head + kinetic energy head

Since Bernoulli’s equation is used for ideal fluids, therefore for real
fluids the last equations of local velocity become:

2∆𝑃 2𝑔∆ℎ 2𝑅 𝑝𝑚−𝑝 𝑔

𝑢𝑥 = CP = CP = CP
𝜌 𝜌 𝜌

where, Cp: dimensionless coefficient to take into account deviations

from Bernoulli’s equation and general varies between about 0.98 to
1.0.
TYPE OF FLOWMETERS
PITOT TUBE

Since the Pitot tube measures velocity at one point only in the flow,
several methods can be used to obtain the average velocity in the
pipe;
The first method, the velocity is measured at the exact center of the
tube to obtain umax . then the average velocity can be obtained.
The second method, readings are taken at several known positions in
the pipe cross section and then a graphical or numerical integration is
performed to obtain the average velocity, from the following equation;
EXAMPLE
Find the local velocity of the flow of an oil of specific gravity =0.8
through a pipe, when the difference of mercury level in
differential U-tube manometer connected to the two tapping of
the Pitot tube is 10 cm Hg. Take Cp = 0.98. ρm(manometer
Hg)= 1.366
EXAMPLE
A Pitot tube is inserted in the pipe of 30 cm I.D. The static
pressure head is 10 cm Hg vacuum, and the stagnation
pressure at center of the pipe is 0.981 N/cm2 gauge. Calculate
the discharge of water through the pipe if u/umax = 0.85. Take
Cp = 0.98. ρm(manometer Hg)= 1.366