Process Instrumentation

CH 403
Dr. Prince George
 Flow Measurements
Flow measurement is concerned with quantifying the rate of flow of materials.

When the material is in a liquid or gaseous state flow quantified as either

• Mass flow rate
As a ratio of mass to volume the density defines the relationship
• Volume flow rate
Mass flow rate is the ideal measurement value
• independent of pressure and temperature

Volumes of the incompressible liquids

• Never affected by the pressure in the ranges normally encountered
• Temperature changes result in volume changes

Volume flow rate is usually technically more convenient to measure

Effects of temperature and pressure are appreciably greater for gas measurements.
 Flow rate
• Time dependent value
• furnishes information regarding the instantaneous conditions in the piping
• No information about the mass or volume delivered, i.e. the total quantity

• Flow rate represents the present

• Volume or Mass total represents the past.
 Fluid Mechanics Concepts

Viscosity

• Viscosity of a fluid characterizes its ability to resist shape changes and is defined as its resistance to shear
forces

• Internal friction in the fluid caused by the forces between the molecules

• Viscosity values are appreciably smaller in gases than for liquids and increase with temperature.
• For liquids the viscosity reduces with increasing temperature.
 Reynolds Number

Evaluation-criterion for the kind of flow is the value of the Reynolds Number Re,
• Consider essential factors v and ν

Flow Regimes

• Flowmeters operate at flow velocities in the turbulent range

 Flow Separation

Body is placed in the middle of a media flow:

• separation occurs and vortices are formed on both sides if velocity or Re is above a certain value.
• Karman vortices usually undesirable vortices are utilized basis for the measurement in vortex flowmeters.
Flow Measurement Devices
 Volume Flow Rate

Differential Pressure (Obstruction-Type) Meters

Devices used to obstruct the flow

• Orifice plate,
• Venturi tube,
• Flow nozzle,
• and Dall flow tube

• Restriction is placed in a pipe, the velocity of the fluid through the restriction increases and the pressure
decreases.
• Volume flow rate is then proportional to the square root of the pressure difference across the
obstruction.
 Energy Equations and Flow Rate
Bernoulli law of conservation of energy

• Restriction of the flow cross section thus increases the flow velocity and reduces the static pressure
 Orifice Meter

• Fluid approaches the orifice the pressure increases slightly and then drops suddenly as the orifice is passed.
• “vena contracta”
The orifice plate is a metal disc with a concentric hole in it, which is inserted into the pipe carrying the flowing fluid.
• Simple,
• Inexpensive, and
• Available in a wide range of sizes.

A’1 and A’2 are the actual pipe diameters before and at the obstruction and C D is the discharge coefficient

CD corrects for the friction force and the difference between the pipe and flow cross-section diameters

• All flow restriction devices is that the pressure drop, (P1-P2), varies as the square of the flow rate Q

• Suitable for measuring flow rates that are between 30 and 100% of the maximum flow rate
 Limitations

• Inaccuracy is typically at least 2% and may approach 5%.

• Permanent pressure loss between 50-90% of the magnitude of the pressure difference.
• Gradual change in the discharge coefficient over a period of time as the sharp edges
• Any bubbles of vapor or gas in the flowing fluid tend to build up behind an orifice plate and distort the
pattern of flow.
 Stagnation point, the velocity v= 0

• Flow velocity is reduced to zero at an obstruction (bluff body), a pressure increase occurs at this location because the
kinetic energy is converted to pressure.
pressure (or head).

         The head - Δh - (or pressure difference - Δp) can be measured and
calculated with the help of u-tube manometers, electronic
pressure transmitters or similar instrumentation.

  
The average velocity can be calculated as

Vaverage = Σ Vn / n

= (2 g Σ hn / n )1/2

Point Velocity Area Method

The point velocities in a duct, channel or pipe can be measured by traversing the cross-sectional area of the conduit. The
point velocities can be used to calculate the average velocity that can be used to estimate the flow.

W = 244
W = flow in pounds per hour
= elbow radius (inches)
= elbow diameter (inches)
= differential pressure (inches H2O)
= density in lbs/ft3
Elbow Meters
• Pressure ports are located on the inside radius and outside radius of an elbow to
measure the small amount of pressure drop that occurs when fluid flows
through the elbow.
When liquid travels in a circular path, centrifugal force is exerted along the outer
edges.
The liquid flows through a pipe elbow is related to:
• Force on the elbow's interior surface is proportional to the density of the liquid
times the square of its velocity.
• Force is inversely proportional to the elbow's radius.
 Any 90 deg. pipe elbow can serve as a liquid flowmeter.
 All that is required is the placement of two small holes in the elbow's midpoint
(45 deg. point) for piezometer taps.
 Disadvantages

• Pipe elbows should be considered for flow measurement only as a last resort.
• Inaccuracies tend to be extreme, owing to the non-precise construction of most pipe elbows and the relatively weak
differential pressures generated.
• The fact that a pipe elbow generates small differential pressure is an accuracy concern.
• Noise generated by fluid turbulence in the elbow,
• A significant portion of the pressure sensed by the transmitter when the differential pressure is so low (i.e. the
signal-to- noise ratio becomes smaller).
• Errors caused by differences in elbow tap elevation and different impulse line fill fluids.
 Variable area Meters: Rotameters

• Variable area flowmeters measure flow by allowing the flow stream to change the opening within the flowmeter by
moving an internal part.
 Rotameters For our analysis neglect drag effect

• Flow
Three types of forces must be accounted for when • Gravity
analyzing rotameter performance: • Buoyancy

Buoyancy

Gravity

2 gV f  f  
Q  S 3C R
Sf 
Flow
CR must be determined experimentally. As Q increases the float rides higher.
 Limits
• Variable area flowmeters inferentially measure the flow of liquids and gases, such as water, air, industrial gases, and
chemicals.
• Variable area flowmeters on dirty fluids, opaque fluids that do not pass light, or fluids that coat the glass, can plug the
flowmeter or block view of the float, both of which can render the flowmeter inoperable.
• Applied to relatively clean liquids and gases that do not coat the measuring tube or float.

Applications

• Cost-effective local indication of small liquid or gas flows, such as for purging in the mining, mineral processing, pulp
and paper, petroleum, chemical, petrochemical, and wastewater industries.
• Fluid applications include water, de-ionized water, compressed air, chemicals, paint, lubrication oil, and brine.
• Incorporated as internal parts of other instruments and sampling systems to verify and adjust system flow rates.
 Limitations

• One variable area flowmeter measures flow in a vertical metering tube by balancing the downward weight of a float
with the upward force of the flowing fluid.
• Spring-opposed float designs allow this type of flowmeter to be installed in horizontal pipes, because the functioning of
the float is not dependent upon gravity.
 Magnetic Flow Meters

• A magnetic flow meter (mag flowmeter) is a volumetric flow meter which does not have any moving parts and is
ideal for wastewater applications or any dirty liquid which is conductive or water based.
• Magnetic flowmeters will generally not work with hydrocarbons, distilled water and many non-aqueous solutions).
• Magnetic flowmeters are also ideal for applications where low pressure drop and low maintenance are required.

• Faraday's Law The operation of a magnetic flowmeter or mag meter is based upon
Faraday's Law,

“which states that the voltage induced across any conductor as it moves at right angles
through a magnetic field is proportional to the velocity of that conductor.”

• In of electromagnetic flowmeters, the conductor is the liquid flowing through the

pipe, e = B D v
 • Magnetic flowmeter technology produces signals that are linear with flow.
• As such, the turndown associated with magnetic flowmeters can approach
20:1 or better without sacrificing accuracy.

Limits
• Don’t work on nonconductive fluids such as oils. 5 to 20 microSiemens/cm
• Steam or gas flows don’t register.
• Electrodes can become coated.
Cautions for Magnetic Flowmeters

• Do not operate a magnetic flowmeter near its electrical conductivity limit because the flowmeter can turn off.
• Provide an allowance for changing composition and operating conditions that can change the electrical conductivity
of the liquid.

• The closest technology to Mag that could possibly handle similar applications more cost effectively would be vortex
shedding.
• They can handle light particulate, have a higher pressure drop, lower rangeability and are slightly less accurate.

Applications

• Wastewater
• Mining and mineral processing
• Power
• Pulp and paper
• and chemical industries.
 Ultrasonic Flowmeter
Ultrasonic flowmeters feature clamp-on designs with transducer assemblies that detect flow rate from the outside.

• Clamp-on design with rail-mounted transducers makes this typical transit-time

flowmeter easy to position

• Ultrasonic measurements of both level and flow velocity to calculate flow quantities
in open channels with weirs or flumes.

 Ultrasonic flowmeters use acoustic waves or vibrations of a frequency >20 kHz.

 Depending on the design, they use either wetted or nonwetted transducers on the
pipe perimeter to couple ultrasonic energy with the fluid flowing in the pipe.

 Inherently provide linear calibration;

 Have wide rangeability;
 Induce no pressure drop or disturbance in the flow stream;
 Economical cost of ownership.
 Doppler Flowmeters

• Doppler ultrasonic flowmeters operate on the Doppler effect

• The transmitted frequency is altered linearly by being reflected from
particles and bubbles in the fluid.
• The net result is a frequency shift between transmitter and receiver
frequencies directly related to the flow rate.

• Doppler effect to measure flow in a pipe, one transducer transmits an ultrasonic beam of 0.5 MHz into the flow
stream.
• Liquid flowing through the pipe must contain sonically reflective materials such as solid particles or entrained air
bubbles.
• The movement of these materials alters the frequency of the beam reflected onto a second, receiving transducer.
• The frequency shift is linearly proportional to the rate of flow of materials in the pipe and therefore can be used to
develop an analog or digital signal proportional to flow rate.
 Equations defining the Doppler flowmeter

• Doppler meter design mounts both the transmitting and the receiving transducers in the same case, attached to one
side of the pipe.
• Reflectors in the flowing liquid return the transmitter signals to the receiver, with a frequency shift proportional to the
flow velocity, as is the case when the two transducers are mounted separately on opposite sides of the pipe.
 Transit-Time Flowmeters

• Difference in travel time between pulses transmitted in a single path

along and against the flow.
• Two transducers are used, one upstream of the other.
• Each acts as both a transmitter and receiver for the ultrasonic beam.

 Particles or air bubbles in the flow stream are undesirable because their
reflecting qualities interfere with the transmission and receipt of the
applied ultrasonic pulses.
 The liquid must be a reasonable conductor of sonic energy.
 • For single-path measurements with the transit-time flowmeter, there are
three methods of mounting the two transducers, Z, V, and W.
• The choice is dictated by installation factors such as size and condition of the
pipe-line.

Z configuration places the transducers on opposite sides of the pipe, one

downstream of the other.

 Z method is recommended for use only in adverse conditions such as where space
is limited, the fluid has high turbidity (e.g., sewage).
 It is not recommended for smaller pipes, where its measuring accuracy tends to
degrade.

 V method is recommended, with the two transducers on the same side of the pipe about a pipe diameter apart.
 The rail attachment that can be clamped on the pipe facilitates sliding the transducers horizontally along the pipe and
positioning.
 W method should be considered on pipe 1½ in. down to ½ in. dia.
 Its main limitation is a possible deterioration in accuracy due to buildup of scale or deposits on the pipe wall-note
that the sonic signal must bounce off the wall three times.
 Turbidity of the liquid also could be harmful since the signal has a longer distance to travel.

 Doppler and transit-time flowmeters to indicate true volumetric flow rate, the pipe must always be full.
 A Doppler meter on a partially full pipe, however, will continue to indicate flow velocity as long as the transducers
are both mounted below the liquid level in the pipe.

 Transit-time meters rely on an ultrasonic signal's completely traversing the pipe, so the path must be relatively
free of solids and air or gas bubbles.
 Bubbles in particular tend to attenuate the acoustic signals
 Ultrasonic Flowmeter

• The meter can measure pure water, wash water, sewage, process liquids, oils, and other light homogeneous liquids.
• The basic requirement is that the fluid be capable of ultrasonic wave propagation and have a reasonably axis-
symmetrical flow.

 Clamp-on types measure flow through the pipe without any wetted parts, ensuring that corrosion and other effects
from the fluid will not deteriorate the sensors.
 portable, a feature particularly advantageous for backing up an already installed flowmeter or checking out existing
meters in a number of locations.

 Measurement accuracy can be in the range of 1% of flow rate, and speed of response can be as fast as 1 s.
 Operation is linear and bidirectional.
 Advanced digital signal processing improves its performance where the flowing fluid contains air or gas bubbles.
 Coriolis Mass Flowmeter
Coriolis mass flowmeters measure the force resulting from the acceleration caused by mass moving toward (or away
from) a center of rotation.

• The “swinging” is generated by vibrating the tube(s) in which the fluid flows.
• The amount of twist is proportional to the mass flow rate of fluid passing through the tube(s).
• Sensors and a Coriolis mass flowmeter transmitter are used to measure the twist and generate a linear flow signal.
 Advantages and Disadvantages

• Technology has high accuracy, can handle sanitary applications, is approved for custody transfer and is highly reliable
and low maintenance.
• Mass flow is more important than volume for fluids intended for the production of energy.
• The cost is high, especially for line sizes above four inches.
• Pressure drop can be a consideration for “U” shaped tube designs and high viscosity fluids.

Cautions for Coriolis Mass Flowmeters

• Pressure drop is acceptable, operate a Coriolis mass flowmeter in the upper part of its flow range because
operation at low flow rates can degrade accuracy.
• High viscosity fluids increase the pressure drop across the flowmeter.
• For liquid flows, make sure that the flowmeter is completely full of liquid.
• Measuring gas/vapor flow with Coriolis mass flowmeters (prone to errors).
 Thermal Flowmeter Technology

 Thermal flowmeters use the thermal properties of the fluid to measure the flow
of a fluid flowing in a pipe or duct. In a typical thermal flowmeter, a measured
amount of heat is applied to the heater of the sensor.

• Thermal dispersion principle whereby the rate of heat absorbed by a fluid flowing in a pipe or duct is directly proportional
to its mass flow.
• In a typical thermal flow meter gas flowing over a source of heat absorbs the heat and cools the source.

 As flow increases, more heat is absorbed by the gas.

 The amount of heat dissipated from the heat source is proportional to the gas mass flow and its thermal properties.
• Not be applied to abrasive fluids because they can damage the sensor.
• Fluids that coat the sensor can alter the relationship between the thermal properties of the fluid and the
measurement and adversely affect the flow measurement.
• Extensive coating can render the sensor inoperable unless the sensor is routinely cleaned.

 Varying the percentage of certain components that have different thermal properties from calibrated values can
cause thermal flowmeters to become highly inaccurate.
 Aerosols and gases with droplets can cause thermal flowmeters to become erratic and/or measure full scale flow.
 Operating a thermal flowmeter above its maximum flow rate will generally not damage the flowmeter but can
cause measurement error because its calibration curve can become unpredictable.

 Applied to clean, sanitary, and corrosive gases where the thermal properties of the fluid are known.
 Applied to measure pure gases.
 With proper attention to materials of construction, the flow of corrosive gases, such as HCl and H 2S can be measured.
 Advantages
• Measure gas mass flow rate directly
• Suitable for applications where temperature and pressures fluctuate
• Highly accurate and repeatable measurements with a typical accuracy of ± 1% FS
• Able to measure accurately low gas flow rates or low gas velocities
• No moving parts
Disadvantages
• Gas mass meter use is limited to clean, non abrasive fluids
• Presence of moisture or droplets can lead to measurement inaccuracy
• Thermal properties must be known
Applications
• Relatively high initial cost • Regulation of low gas flows.
• Natural gas consumption (for burner and boiler feed control)
• Monitoring and control of stack or flue gas (where composition
known)
• Landfill gas recovery
• Flare gas measurement
• Gas flow mixing & blending
• Gas leak testing and detection
• Piston flow meters are ideal for low viscosity fluids due to the tight tolerances & fits they use.
• However, due to these tight fits, clean fluid must be used (or filters put in place) as a particle getting trapped can
actually block flow.
• They operate by a piston moving within a chamber of known volume.
• When fluid passes into this chamber, the piston displaces an exact volume of liquid.
• Piston meters are great for low volume flow measurements.

• Piston Flow Meters offer the highest accuracy and measure the lowest flow rates of any meter.
• Precision meters are suitable for all low viscosity liquids.
 Positive Displacement Flowmeters
• A positive displacement flowmeter, commonly called a PD meter, measures the volume flow rate of a continuous
flow stream by momentarily entrapping a segment of the fluid into a chamber of known volume and releasing
that fluid back into the flow stream on the discharge side of the meter.
• By monitoring the number of entrapments for a known period of time or number of entrapments per unit time,
the total volume of flow or the flow rate of the stream can be ascertained.
• The total volume and the flow rate can then be displayed locally or transmitted to a remote monitoring station.

Sliding-vane type PD meter.

Piston Type PD Meter Birotor PD Meter Oval Gear PD Meter

Tri-Rotor Type PD Meter

 Advantages PD Meters
• High-quality, high accuracy, a wide range, and are very reliable, insensitive to inlet flow profile distortions, low
pressure drop across the meter.

• Until the introduction of electronic correctors and flow controls on other types of meters, PD meters were most
widely used in batch loading and dispensing applications.

• All mechanical units can be installed in remote locations.

Disadvantages PD Meters
• Bulky, especially in the larger sizes.
• The fluid must be clean for measurement accuracy and longevity of the meter.
• More accurate PD meters are quite expensive.
• Have high inertia of the moving parts; a sudden change in the flow rate can damage the meter.
• Only for limited ranges of pressure and temperature
• Most PD meters require a good maintenance schedule and are high repair and maintenance meters.
• Recurring costs in maintaining a positive displacement flowmeter can be a significant factor in overall flowmeter cost.
 Impact Flow Meters

Solids flowmeter ,guide the material through an infeed pipe or chute and create a specific trajectory for the material to strike
a flat sensing plate.

• The amount of force the impact creates is measured by means of load cells or an LVDT (linear variable differential
transformer).
• As the plate is deflected by the force of the material, the load cell or LVDT deflects and generates a signal, which is
converted into a flow rate by an integrator
Specs

Works in Works in
Accuracy Flow rate
Type gravity-fed pneumatic-fed
[%] range [t/h]
flow flow
Impact ±1 0.2 to 900 Works well Not recommended

Advantages
• Handle very low to very high flow rates.
• Material buildup on the sensing plate does not affect their accuracy or repeatability, as only the horizontal force
of impact causes a deflection on the sensor.
• Any additional weight, e.g., if some material sticks, does not shift the output of the system.
• Impact solids flowmeters can be very compact
• Size of the unit increases, so does the cost.
• Dust-tight and are very easy to clean and calibrate.
 Axial Turbine Flowmeters
• The modern axial turbine flowmeter is a reliable device capable of providing the highest accuracies
attainable by any currently available flow sensor for both liquid and gas volumetric flow measurement.

• Measure the flow in large-diameter, high-pressure, interstate natural gas lines.

• Variety of applications where accuracy, reliability, and rangeability are required.

• Turbine Flow Meter is a volumetric measuring turbine type.

• The flowing fluid engages the rotor causing it to rotate at an angular velocity proportional to the fluid flow rate.

 The angular velocity of the rotor results in the generation of an electrical signal (AC sine wave type) in the pickup.

 The summation of the pulsing electrical signal is related directly to total flow.

 Flow tube with end connections and a magnetic multi bladed free spinning rotor (impeller) mounted
inside; in line with the flow.
 The rotor is supported by a shaft that rests on internally mounted supports.

 Supports are designed to also act as flow straighteners, stabilizing the flow and minimizing negative effects of turbulence

• A pick-up sensor is mounted above the rotor.

• When the magnetic blades pass by the pickup sensor, a signal is generated for each passing blade.
• A pulsed signal proportional to the speed of the rotor and represents pulses per volumetric unit
  The media flows, a force is applied on the rotor wings.
 The angle and shape of the wings transform the horizontal force to a
perpendicular force, creating rotation.
 The rotation of the rotor is proportional to the applied force of the flow.

 The rotor will immediately rotate as soon as the media induces a forward force.
 As the rotor cannot turn thru the media on its own, it will stop as soon as the media stops.
 Extremely fast response time.

• Axial turbines perform best when measuring clean, conditioned, steady flows of gases and liquids with low kinematic
viscosities.
• Linear for subsonic, turbulent flows.
• Turbine flowmeters are less accurate at low flow rates due to rotor/bearing drag that slows the rotor. Make sure to
operate these flowmeters above approximately 5 percent of maximum flow.
• Turbine flowmeters should not be operated at high velocity because premature bearing wear and/or damage can
occur.
• When measuring fluids that are non-lubricating because bearing wear can cause the flowmeter become inaccurate
and fail.
• Application in dirty fluids should generally be avoided so as to reduce the possibility of flowmeter wear and bearing
damage.

• Abrupt transitions from gas flow to liquid flow should be avoided because they can mechanically stress the flowmeter,
degrade accuracy, and/or damage the flowmeter.
• These conditions generally occur when filling the pipe and under slug flow conditions.
• Two-phase flow conditions can also cause turbine flowmeters to measure inaccurately.
 Hot Wire Anemometer - Theory of operation

Anemometer – measures gas speed

• Fundamentally, a hot wire makes use of the principle of convective heat transfer from a heated surface being
dependent upon the flow conditions passing over it.

•The maximum temperature of the sensor is maintained at a nominally constant

value of 1.7 times the fluid temperature.
•For a given sensor geometry, the steady state temperature distribution is a
function of the cooling velocity.

Wire Temperature Distribution

 Thermal model of sensor

• A hot-wire uses a 1 mm active region of 5 µm tungsten filament with 50 µm copper plated support stubs.

• The unplated tungsten is referred to as the ‘active’ portion of the sensor.

• The x-coordinate for the sensor is shown from the center of the wire.
Wire sensors:

• Miniature wires: First choice for applications in air flows with turbulence intensities up to 5-10%. They have the highest
frequency response. They can be repaired and are the most affordable sensor type.

• Gold-plated wires: For applications in air flows with turbulence intensities up to 20-25%. Frequency response is inferior to
miniature wires. They can be repaired.

Fibre-film sensors:

• Thin-quartz coating: For applications in air. Frequency response is inferior to wires. They are more rugged than wire sensors and
can be used in less clean air. They can be repaired.

• Heavy-quartz coating: For applications in water. They can be repaired.

Film-sensors:

• Thin-quartz coating: For applications in air at moderate-to-low fluctuation frequencies. They are the most rugged CTA probe type
and can be used in less clean air than fibre-sensors. They normally cannot be repaired.

• Heavy-quartz coating: For applications in water. They are more rugged than fibre-sensors. They cannot normally be repaired.
Schematic of Constant Current Anemometer

• A constant current is passed through the sensing wire. That is, the voltage across the bridge circuit is kept constant,
that is, not varied.

• Gas flow, heat transfer takes place from the sensing wire to the flowing gas and hence the temperature of the
sensing wire reduces causing a change in the resistance of the sensing wire.

• The galvanometer which was initially at zero position deflects and this deflection of the galvanometer becomes a
measure of flow rate of the gas when calibrated.
 Target Flow Meter

Target flow meters measure flow by measuring the amount of force exerted by the flowing fluid on a target suspended
in the flow stream.

• The force exerted on the target by the flow is proportional to the pressure drop across the target.
• Measuring sporadic and multi-directional flows

The force on the target can be expressed as :

F = force on the target (N)

Cd = overall drag coefficient

ρ = density of fluid (kg/m3)

v = fluid velocity (m/s)

At = target area (m2) F = Cd ρ v2 At / 2

Advantages
• Any type of liquid, gas, or steam cryogenics.
• There is no moving parts such as bearings, to wear out causing failures.
• High reliability where life tests have been made to 20,000,000 cycles.
• Can be used for any line size from 0.5 inches and up with any type of mounting.
• Range/fluid changes accomplished by simply changing targets
• Can accept bi-directional flow where signal polarity indicates direction.

Disadvantages
• Pressure drop is inevitable due to the rod and the drag element
• Calibration required
 Turndown ratio refers to the width of the operational range of a device and is defined as the ratio of the maximum
capacity to minimum capacity.
• Thermal Mass Flow Meter 1000:1
Turndown ratio referred “rangeability” • Orifice plate meter 3:1
• Turbine Meter 10:1
Turndown Ratio = maximum flow / minimum flow
• Rotary PD meters 10:1 - 80:1
• Diaphragm meters 80:1
• Ultrasonic meters 50:1
• Considered when choosing a flow meter for your application • Target flowmeters 15 : 1
• Affected by the devices (S/N Ratio) result of fluid dynamics and the type of sensor

• Higher turndown ratios means spending less money to monitor wide flow ranges.
• Higher turndown ratios facilitate better flexibility.
 Open Channel Measurement
For water flowing in a culvert, it is important to know the critical depth. Though water may not actually be flowing at
the critical depth, it is helpful to know if the actual water depth is greater than or less than critical.

• Critical depth is a quantity of fundamental importance to understanding the flow characteristics.

• If the actual depth is greater than critical depth, then the flow is considered "subcritical".
• Subcritical flow is "slow flow" and is impacted by downstream conditions.

• If the actual depth is less than critical depth, then the flow is "supercritical".
• Supercritical flow is "fast flow" and is impacted by upstream conditions.
• It flows faster than the wave speed and is unimpacted by downstream conditions.
 Open Channel Measurement
As water flows down a culvert, the depth may change and pass through the critical depth if the bottom slope, geometry,
or pipe material changes.
• If the flow is initially subcritical and the channel slope increases, the water may undergo a hydraulic drop if it
transitions from subcritical to supercritical.
• If the flow is supercritical and the culvert slope becomes flatter, then there could be a hydraulic jump such that the
water passes through the critical depth as it becomes subcritical.

Critical depth occurs when energy is at a minimum with respect to depth, dE/dY=0. 
 Open Channel Measurement
The flow in the pipe is said to be open channel if the pipe is only half full.
• Free surface flow, or open-channel flow, includes all cases of flow in which the liquid surface is open to the
atmosphere.

The discharge Q at any section is defined as the volume of water passing that section per unit of time. It is expressed
in cubic feet per second, ft3/s (cubic meter per second, m3/s), and is given by

Q=VA
where V =average velocity, ft/s (m/s)

A =cross-sectional area of flow, ft2 (m2)

When the discharge is constant,

Q=V1 A1=V2 A2

where the subscripts designate different channel sections.

 Open Channel Measurement
Weirs are overflow structures that alter the flow so that:
 Volumetric flow rate can be calculated,
 Flooding can be prevented, or
 Make a body of water more navigable

Types of Weirs
Main Types of Weirs SHARP-CRESTED WEIR BROAD-CRESTED WEIR
 Sharp-Crested Critical depth (yc) occurs off the crest of Critical depth (yc) occurs at the crest of
 Rectangular the weir the weir

 Triangular Usually used to: Measure the discharge Usually used to: Measure the discharge
of smaller rivers and canals of larger rivers and canals
 Trapezoidal
Change water elevation of smaller rivers Change water elevation of larger rivers
 Broad-Crested and canals and canals

 Rectangular
 Weirs
A weir is an overflow structure installed perpendicular to open channel flow

• Has a unique depth of water at an upstream measuring point for each

discharge
• If the water springs clear of downstream face, acts as sharp-crested weir
• A long, raised channel control crest is a broad-crested weir

Usually named for the shape of the overflow opening

• Rectangular
• Triangular
• Cipolletti
 Weirs

Poor approach
condition

Cipolletti Weir

Weir Box Turnout with

Cipolletti Weir

Compound Weir
90 degree triangular and
suppressed rectangular

Sediment in approach
pool
 Sharp-Crested Weir
Advantages
• Simple to construct
There are three main types of sharp-crested weirs: • Fairly good at passing trash
• head measurement
Rectangular—Measure Discharge and Change Water Elevations Disadvantages
Triangular—Measure Discharge • High head loss
Trapezoidal—Measure Discharge and Change Water Elevations with Large Head • Susceptible to sedimentation problems
• Sensitive to approach and exit conditions

• Sharp-crested weirs are usually used for smaller rivers and canals.
Sharp crested weirs differ from broad crested weirs due to the detached water surface falling away from the
downstream edge of the structure, known as a free-falling nappe
The flow surfaces at the top and bottom of the nappe are exposed to the air and at atmospheric pressure
A nappe that clings to the weir must be avoided in order to improve the accuracy of the weir discharge calculation
Broad-crested Weirs
Long throated flume where only the bottom is raised. No side contractions

• Also called ramp flumes, Replogle flumes

Long throated flume (broad-crested

weir) under construction)

Long throated flume (broad-

crested weir) Q = 1200 cfs
 Broad-crested
Weirs
Advantages
• Easily constructed, especially in existing concrete lined channels
• WinFlume software available to quickly design and rate structures
• Less expensive construction
• Low head loss
• Handle trash and sediment well

Disadvantages
• Some state laws or compacts may preclude use
• Not readily accepted by some water users
• Not what they’re used to using
 Notches
• A notch means an opening provided in the side of a tank, such that the opening extends even above the free
surface of the liquid in the tank.
• A notch is generally meant to measure the flow of water from a tank.

 A notch is usually made of metal plate

 A weir is made of masonry or concrete.
Rectangular Notch
Triangular Notch or V-Notch Trapezoidal Notch
 Advantages of a Triangular Notch over Rectangular Notch

 The coefficient of discharge for a triangular notch is practically independent of the head.
 Rectangular notch the ratio of the head to the wetted length crest is not constant.
 Hence a rectangular notch the coefficient of discharge is not actually a constant but is a function of the head over the
notch.

 When the discharge rate is small a triangular notch  The discharge rate is small, there are chances of a clinging

provides a greater head than the rectangular notch. nappe to be formed when a rectangular notch is used.

 Head measurement can be done more accurately over

 The same discharge over the triangular notch the head will
the triangular notch than over the rectangular notch.
be greater and the clinging nappe will be avoided.

 A triangular notch is provided, there will be no need for any

special arrangement for ventilating the nappe.