chapter

31
Power
Amplifiers
A power amplifier is a circuit that is capable of delivering large amounts of
power to a low impedance load. The three general classes for power amplifiers
are class A, class B, and class C. These amplifier classifications are based on the
percentage of the ac input cycle for which the transistor amplifier operates in
the active region.

This chapter discusses how to calculate the ac load power, transistor power
dissipation, dc input power, and percent efficiency for a power amplifier.

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 Chapter Objectives
After studying this chapter you should be able to
■ Define the different classes of operation
for a transistor amplifier.
■ Calculate the ac load power, dc input power,
and percent efficiency of a class A amplifier.
■ Draw the ac load line for an RC coupled
class A amplifier.
Chapter Outline
■ Explain the operation of a class B push-
31–1 Classes of Operation pull amplifier.
■ Calculate the dc quantities in a class B
31–2 Class A Amplifiers
push-pull amplifier.
31–3 Class B Push-Pull Amplifiers ■ Explain the advantage of using diode
31–4 Class C Amplifiers bias instead of standard resistor biasing
in a class B push-pull amplifier.
■ Define the term crossover distortion and
explain why it occurs in a class B push-
pull amplifier.
■ Calculate the ac load power, dc input
power, and percent efficiency of a class B
push-pull amplifier.
■ Explain the operation of a class C amplifier
with a tuned LC tank circuit in the collector.
■ Explain why the dc base voltage is
negative for a class C amplifier using an
npn transistor.
■ Explain how a class C rf amplifier can be
used as a frequency multiplier.

Important Terms
AC load line class B push-pull amplifier linear amplifier
AC load power, PL crossover distortion percent efficiency
class A amplifier DC input power, PCC power amplifier
class B amplifier diode bias
class C amplifier frequency multiplier

Online Learning Center

Additional study aids for this chapter are available at the Online Learning Center: www.mhhe.com/grob11e.

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GOOD TO KNOW
Between class A and class B is
class AB operation. The collector
current, I C, of a transistor in a
class AB amplifier flows for 210
of the ac input cycle.
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31–1 Classes of Operation
The class of operation for an amplifier is defined by the percentage of the ac input
cycle that produces an output current. The class of operation for an amplifier deter-
mines its power efficiency. It also determines how much the input signal is distorted
by the amplifier. Figure 31–1 shows typical input and output waveforms for class A,
B, and C transistor amplifiers.
Class A Operation
The collector current, IC, of a transistor in a class A amplifier flows for the full 360
of the input waveform, as shown in Fig. 31–1a and b. Figure 31–1a shows the ac
signal voltage driving the base of the transistor, and Fig. 31–1b shows the resultant
collector current, IC.
A class A amplifier is one that is used as a linear amplifier, that is, the circuit must
produce an output signal, although amplified, that is an exact replica of the input sig-
nal. The input signal must never drive the transistor into either cutoff or saturation.
If it does, the output waveform will be clipped off at one or both of its peaks. For
class A operation, the dc bias should provide a quiescent collector current, IC, that is
Figure 31–1 Class of operation for transistor amplifiers in terms of the conduction angle.
(a) Sine wave of input voltage. Two full cycles are shown. (b) Collector current, IC, flows for
360 of the input cycle in a class A amplifier. (c) Collector current, IC, flows for 180 of the
input cycle in a class B amplifier. (d ) Collector current, IC, flows for 120 or less of the input
cycle in a class C amplifier.
Input signal
180° 360°
(a) V 0
(b) C Class A
(c) C
0 Class B
(d ) C
0 Class C
Chapter 31
3/15/10 1:31:29 PM
 approximately one-half its maximum value at saturation. Then the ac output signal
can swing above and below this value without the transistor immediately reaching
either cutoff or saturation. The characteristics of a class A amplifier include both
low distortion and low power efficiency.

Class B Operation
The collector current, IC, of a transistor in a class B amplifier flows for only 180 of
the input waveform. Because of this, the waveform at the output of a class B ampli-
fier is badly distorted. The input and output waveforms for a class B amplifier are
shown in Fig. 31–1a and c. The collector current, IC, flows only for 180 of the input
cycle because the dc bias for the transistor produces a quiescent collector current, IC,
of zero. In other words, the transistor in a class B amplifier is biased right at cutoff.
During the half-cycle when the transistor does conduct the collector current, IC may
or may not increase to its maximum value at saturation.
Class B operation with a single transistor corresponds to half-wave rectification
of the input signal. When the input signal makes the transistor conduct, this half of
the input is amplified linearly and is a good replica of that corresponding half of
the input cycle. If the class B amplifier must yield a symmetrical output in special
cases, two transistors can be used to provide opposite half-cycles of the signal at the
output. The characteristics of a class B amplifier using a single transistor include
medium efficiency and severe distortion.

Class C Operation
The collector current, IC, of a transistor in a class C amplifier flows for less than 180
of the input waveform, which distorts the output waveform from the amplifier. The
input and output waveforms of a class C amplifier are shown in Fig. 31–1a and d.
The typical operation of a class C amplifier provides a collector current that flows
for approximately 120 or less of the ac input cycle. In some cases, the collector cur-
rent, IC, flows in very short narrow pulses where the conduction angle of the transis-
tor is 30 or less. The collector current, IC, flows for less than 180 of the input cycle
because the transistor is biased beyond cutoff. Thus, part of the input signal must be
used to overcome the dc bias before the transistor can conduct. Class C operation is
generally used for rf amplifiers with a tuned or resonant tank circuit in the output.
The LC tank circuit is capable of reproducing the full sine-wave cycle at the output
for each short pulse of collector current.
The characteristics of a class C amplifier include very high efficiency (approach-
ing 100%) and severe distortion of the input signal. However, in the case of distor-
tion, a tank circuit can be used to reproduce the full sine wave at the output.

■ 31–1 Self-Review
Answers at end of chapter.
a. In a class A amplifier, the collector current flows for 360 of the ac
input cycle. (True/False)
b. The transistor in a true class B amplifier is biased right at cutoff.
(True/False)
c. Class C amplifiers cannot be used as tuned rf amplifiers. (True/False)

31–2 Class A Amplifiers

All of the small signal amplifiers covered so far in this text have been biased to oper-
ate as class A amplifiers. The input signal amplitude of any class A amplifier should
not be large enough to drive the transistor into either cutoff or saturation. If the sig-
nal amplitude at the input is too large, either or both peaks of the output waveform
will be clipped off (flattened).

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 Analyzing the Class A Amplifier
Figure 31–2a shows a common-emitter class A amplifier. For simplicity, the transistor
is biased using base bias. The base resistor, RB, is a variable resistor adjusted to a value
equal to 190.67 k. This provides a Q point located at the center of the dc load line.
To begin the analysis, calculate the dc quantities. Begin by calculating the dc
base current, IB:
VCC  VBE
IB  __
RB
 15
___V  0.7 V
190.67 k
 75 A
Next, calculate the collector current, IC:
IC  IB  dc
 75 A  100
 7.5 mA
Finally, calculate the collector-emitter voltage, VCE:
VCE  VCC  ICRC
 15 V  (7.5 mA  1 k)
 15 V  7.5 V
 7.5 V
The end points for the dc load line can be calculated as:
VCE(off)  VCC
 15 V
VCC
IC(sat) _
RC
 15
_ V
1 k
 15 mA

Figure 31–2 Common-emitter class A amplifier. (a) Circuit. (b) DC load line.
VCC  15 V

RB  190.67 k RC  1 k
C(sat)  15 mA
dc load line
␤dc  100
Cin Q point
CQ  7.5 mA
Output

Vin  50 mVp-p

VCEQ  7.5 V VCE(off)  15 V

(a) (b)

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 Note that when the transistor is cut off (IC  0 mA), the collector-emitter region
appears open and the voltage VCE  VCC, which is 15 V in this case. Conversely,
when the transistor is saturated, the collector-emitter region appears shorted (VCE 
0 V) and only the values of VCC and RC limit IC.
Figure 31–2b shows the values for VCE(off) and IC(sat). The dc load line also shows
the quiescent (Q point) values for IC and VCE. Note that these values are designated
ICQ and VCEQ. Notice also in Fig. 3l–2b that the Q point is centered exactly on the dc
load line. Because the Q point is exactly centered, the maximum possible peak-to-
peak output voltage can be obtained from the amplifier. In this case, the collector-
emitter voltage, VCE, can swing 7.5 V from its Q point value of 7.5 V without any
clipping.
In Fig. 31–2a, the voltage gain, AV, is calculated as
R
AV  _C
re
In Fig. 31–2a, IE  IC  7.5 mA. Therefore re is calculated as

re  25
__ mV
IE
25 mV
 __
7.5 mA
 3.33 
The voltage gain, AV, can now be calculated:
R
AV  _C
re
1 k
 __
3.33 
 300
With AV known, Vout is calculated as
Vout  AV  Vin
 300  50 mVp-p
 15 Vp-p
With 15 Vp-p at the output, the entire dc load line is used. On the positive
alternation of output voltage, VCE increases from 7.5 V to 15 V. On the nega-
tive alternation, VCE decreases from 7.5 V to 0 V. Even though clipping will not
occur, driving the amplifier this hard is going to cause extreme distortion of the
input signal being amplified due to the nonlinearity of the emitter diode. How-
ever, for the analysis here, assume that the output of 15 Vp-p is a pure undistorted
waveform.

Transistor Power Dissipation

With no ac input signal applied to the amplifier, the transistor has a power dissipa-
tion of
Pd  VCEQ  ICQ
This power dissipation must not exceed the power rating, Pd(max), of the transistor.
In Fig. 31–2a the transistor power dissipation, Pd, is
Pd  VCEQ  ICQ
 7.5 V  7.5 mA
 56.25 mW

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 The Pd of 56.25 mW represents the maximum power dissipation of the transistor
in Fig. 31–2a. In a class A amplifier, the power dissipation in the transistor decreases
when an ac signal is applied to the input.

AC Load Power, PL
In Fig. 31–2a, the ac load power equals the power dissipated by the collector resis-
tance, RC. Therefore, PL is calculated using the following formula:
V 2out(p-p)
PL  __ (31–1)
8RC
In Fig. 31–2b, PL calculated as
V 2out(p-p)
PL  __
8RC
15 V2p-p
 __
8 k
 28.125 mW

DC Input Power, PCC

The dc power supplied to the class A amplifier in Fig. 31–2a is the product of VCC
and the total dc current drain from the power supply. The total dc current drain is
designated ICC. This gives the following formula:
PCC  VCC  ICC (31–2)
where PCC represents the dc power supplied to the class A amplifier.
In Fig. 31–2a, IB is 100 times smaller than IC and therefore ICC  IC. Since ICC 
IC  7.5 mA in Fig. 31–2a, PCC is calculated as
PCC  15 V  7.5 mA
 112.5 mW
Remember that the base current, IB, can be ignored because IB is 100 times
smaller than the collector current, IC.

Percent Efficiency
The percent efficiency of any amplifier is defined as the percentage of the dc
input power (PCC) that is converted to useful ac power output. This is expressed in
Formula (31–3):
PL
Percent efficiency  _  100 (31–3)
PCC
In Fig. 31–2a, the calculations are
PL
Percent efficiency  _  100
PCC
28.125 mW  100
 __
112.5 mW
 25%
The maximum theoretical efficiency possible for a class A amplifier using a sin-
gle collector resistor, RC, is 25%.

RC Coupled Class A Amplifier

Figure 31–3a shows the addition of a load resistor, RL. This circuit is called an RC
coupled amplifier because the ac voltage at the collector is capacitively coupled to
the load resistor RL. There are two loads for this type of amplifier: a dc load and

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 Figure 31–3 RC coupled class A amplifier. (a) Circuit. (b) DC and ac load lines.

VCC  15 V

RB  190.67 k RC  1 k
Cout

␤dc  100
Cin

RL  1 k

Vin  50 mVp-p

(a)

iC(sat)  22.5 mA
ac load line

15 mA

Q point
CQ  7.5 mA dc load line

VCEQ  7.5 V vCE(off)  11.25 V 15 V

(b)

an ac load. This implies that there are two load lines: a dc load line and an ac load
line. The dc load line shown in Fig. 31–3b has the same endpoints as calculated
previously with Fig. 31–2 because the dc quantities do not change with the addi-
tion of RL.

AC Load Line
When the ac load resistance is known, the endpoints for the ac load line can be de-
termined. In Fig. 31–3a, the ac load resistance, rL  RC  RL  500 .
To calculate the endpoints of the ac load line in Fig. 31–3b, use Formulas (31–4)
and (31–5):
VCEQ
iC(sat)  ICQ _
rL (31–4)

vCE(off)  VCEQ ICQrL (31–5)

[The derivation of Formulas (31–4) and (31–5) is quite lengthy and is therefore
not covered in this text.]

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 For Fig. 31–3b, iC(sat) and vCE(off) are calculated as shown:

GOOD TO KNOW VCEQ

iC(sat)  ICQ _
rL
The voltage gain and output 7.5 V
 7.5 mA __
voltage of an amplifier are 500 
affected by the following  7.5 mA 15 mA
 22.5 mA
capacitances: coupling capacitors,
bypass capacitors, internal vCE(off)  VCEQ ICQrL
transistor capacitance, and stray  7.5 V (7.5 mA  500 )
wiring capacitance. The coupling  7.5 V 3.75 V
 11.25 V
and bypass capacitors affect the
output voltage at low frequencies These values for vCE(off) and iC(sat) are shown on the ac load line in Fig. 31–3b.
because their XC begins to In Fig. 31–3b, notice that the Q point is centered on the dc load line but not on
the ac load line. The Q point for the ac load line is below center. Because of this, the
increase substantially. The internal
collector-emitter voltage, VCE, can change only from 7.5 V to 11.25 V in the posi-
transistor capacitance and stray tive direction, which is a 3.75 V excursion. If VCE tries to increase beyond 11.25 V,
wiring capacitance affect the clipping will occur. Therefore, for the circuit shown, the maximum unclipped peak-
output voltage at higher to-peak output voltage equals 2  3.75 Vp-p  7.5 Vp-p.
frequencies because their XC To calculate the voltage gain AV with RL connected, proceed as follows:
begins to decrease substantially. r
AV  _L
A graph of output voltage vs. re
frequency for an amplifier is 500 
 __
3.33 
called its frequency response.
 150
Therefore,
Vout  AV  Vin
 150  50 mVp-p
 7.5 Vp-p
With Vout(p-p) known, the ac load power can be calculated using Formula (31–6):
V 2out(p-p)
PL  __ (31–6)
8 RL
Note: RL is the load driven by the amplifier.
In Fig. 31–3a, PL is calculated as
7.5 V2p-p
PL  __
8 k
 7.031 mW
Since PCC was calculated earlier (in Fig. 31–2) as 112.5 mW, the percent effi-
ciency is calculated as:
PL
Percent efficiency  _  100
PCC
7.031 mW  100
 __
112.5 mW
 6.25%
Notice the significant drop in the efficiency of the amplifier. This is due to the
fact that the ac output voltage has been reduced by a factor of 2, while the dc input
power remains the same.
If a slight increase in the ac output power is desired, the Q point must be centered
on the ac load line. Engineers, or technicians, will not usually worry about this un-
less they want to obtain the absolute maximum possible ac load power. For a small
signal class A amplifier, this is usually not a major concern.

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 One more point: The maximum possible efficiency of an RC coupled class A
amplifier cannot exceed 8.33% no matter what is done. To obtain an efficiency of
8.33%, RC must equal RL and the Q point must be centered on the ac load line. Also,
the power losses in the biasing resistors must be insignificant with respect to the dc
power consumed in the collector circuit.

Example 31–1
In Fig. 31–4 calculate the following dc quantities: ICQ, VCEQ, Pd, IC(sat), and VCE(off).
Also, draw the dc load line.

ANSWER Begin by calculating the dc voltage at the base and emitter

terminals:
R2
VB  __  VCC
R1 R2
 ___ 2.7 k  20 V
18 k 2.7 k
 2.6 V

MultiSim Figure 31–4 Common-emitter class A amplifier used for Example 31–1.
(a) Circuit. (b) DC and ac load lines.

VCC  20 V

R1  18 k RC  1 k
Cout

␤dc  200
Cin
RL  1.5 k

Vin  25 mVp-p R2  2.7 k RE 

CE
240 

(a)

iC(sat)  24.89 mA
ac load line

C(sat)  16.1 mA

Q point
CQ  7.91 mA dc load line

VCEQ  10.19 V vCE(off)  14.93 V VCE(off)  20 V

(b)

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 VE  VB  VBE
 2.6 V  0.7 V
 1.9 V
Since IE 艐 IC,
V
ICQ  _E
RE
1.9 V
 __
240 
 7.91 mA
VCEQ is calculated as
VCEQ  VCC  ICQ(RC  RE)
 20 V  (7.91 mA  1.24 k)
 10.19 V
The transistor power dissipation, Pd, is
Pd  VCEQ  ICQ
 10.19 V  7.91 mA
 80.6 mW
Remember that the transistor power dissipation, Pd, for a class A amplifier is
maximum when there is no input signal. As the signal voltage at the collector
increases, the amount of power dissipated by the transistor decreases.
The dc load line is shown in Fig. 31–4b. The values for the endpoints IC(sat)
and VCE(off) are calculated as
VCC
IC(sat)  __
RC  RE
20 V
 __
1.24 k
 16.1 mA
VCE(off)  VCC
 20 V
The values for IC(sat), VCE(off) as well as ICQ and VCEQ are shown on the dc load
line in Fig. 31–4b.

Example 31–2
In Fig. 31–4, calculate the following ac quantities: AV, Vout, PL, PCC, and percent
efficiency. Also, calculate the endpoints for the ac load line.

ANSWER Begin by calculating the value for re, and rL. First find re.
Since ICQ  7.91 mA, then,
25 mV
re  __
7.91 mA
 3.16 

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 Next, calculate the ac load resistance, rL:
RC  RL
rL  __
RC  RL
1 k  1.5 k
 ___
1 k  1.5 k
 600 
Knowing rL and re, now calculate the voltage gain, AV.
rL
AV  _
re
600 
 __
3.16 
 190
Next, calculate Vout:
Vout  AV  Vin
 190  25 mVp-p
 4.75 Vp-p
With Vout known, calculate the ac load power, PL:
V 2out(p-p)
PL  __
8 RL

4.75 V2p-p
 ___
12 k
 1.88 mW
The dc input power is calculated as
PCC  VCC  ICC
where ICC is the total dc current drain from the power supply, VCC. ICC equals the
sum of the collector current, IC, and the current through the base voltage divider,
consisting of R1 and R2. ICC is calculated as
ICC  IV-d  IC
where
VCC
IV-d  __
R1  R2
 ___ 20 V
18 k  2.7 k
 966 ␮A
Since IC  7.91 mA, ICC is
ICC  966 ␮A  7.91 mA
 8.87 mA
With ICC known, PCC is calculated as
PCC  VCC  ICC
 20 V  8.87 mA
 177.4 mW

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 With PL and PCC known, the percent efficiency can be calculated:
PL
Percent efficiency  _  100
PCC
1.88 mW  100
 __
177.4 mW
 1%
Notice the extremely low efficiency. Remember, even under ideal conditions,
the maximum theoretical efficiency of an RC coupled class A amplifier is 8.33%.
An efficiency of 1% means that only 1% of the dc input power, PCC, is converted
to useful ac power output.
Finally, calculate the endpoints for the ac load line using
Formulas (31–4) and (3l–5):
VCEQ
iC(sat)  ICQ  _rL

 7.91 mA  10.19
__ V
600 
 24.89 mA

vCE(off)  VCEQ  ICQrL

 10.19 V  (7.91 mA  600 )
 14.93 V
Figure 31–4b shows the ac load line with the calculated values for iC(sat) and
vCE(off). It is important to note that the output voltage cannot increase to a peak
value greater than 14.93 V, which means that the maximum positive excursion
from the Q point is 14.93 V  10.19 V  4.74 V. Since VCE can also decrease by
the same amount without clipping, the maximum unclipped output from the
circuit equals 2  4.74 V  9.48 Vp-p. Vout cannot increase beyond this value
without having the positive output peak flattened. Since Vout  4.75 Vp-p, as
calculated earlier, the circuit is operating without the possibility of reaching
either cutoff or saturation on the ac load line.

■ 31–2 Self-Review
Answers at end of chapter.
a. Class A amplifiers are nearly 100% efficient. (True/False)
b. In a class A amplifier, the power dissipation in the transistor
decreases as the peak-to-peak output voltage increases. (True/False)

31–3 Class B Push-Pull Amplifiers

The collector current, IC, of a transistor in a class B amplifier flows for 180 of the
ac input cycle. For the other 180, the transistor is cut off. A true class B amplifier is
biased such that the Q point is located right at cutoff. The main advantage of class
B operation versus class A operation is that class B operation is more efficient, that
is, more ac load power can be obtained for the same amount of dc input power. The
main disadvantage of class B operation, however, is that two transistors must be
used to get a linear reproduction of the input waveform being amplified.
Figure 31–5a shows a class B push-pull amplifier. The transistors, Q1 and Q2,
conduct during opposite half-cycles of the input waveform. When Vin is positive, Q1

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 Figure 31–5 Class B push-pull amplifier. (a) Circuit. (b) DC and ac load lines. (c) Crossover distortion at cutoff.
VCC

R1

VCC VCC ac load line

VCEQ iC(sat) 
 Q1 2 2RL
R2
  dc load
 2 VBE line
 ⬵ 1.2 V C
1
R3 2 VCC
Vin  RL
VCC
VCEQ 
Q2 2 VCC
VCE VCEQ 
2

R4 (b)

(a)

VBE  0.7 V

Vin 0V

VBE  0.7 V

Crossover distortion
(Q1 and Q2 cutoff)

Vout

(c)

conducts and Q2 is cut off. Conversely, when Vin is negative, Q2 conducts and Q1 is
cut off. Careful examination of the circuit reveals that each transistor acts like an
emitter follower for one half-cycle of the input voltage.
The biasing resistors R1–R4 are selected to set the Q point right at cutoff. Ideally,
the quiescent collector current, IC, should be zero. Because both transistors are in se-
ries, VCEQ for each transistor equals approximately one-half of VCC (see Fig. 31–5a).
Notice also that the voltage drop across R2 and R3 is approximately 1.2 V, which is
assumed to be below the value required to turn on each transistor.
The dc and ac load lines are shown in Fig. 31–5b. Notice that the dc load line is
perfectly vertical. With no ac input signal, both transistors, Q1 and Q2, are cut off,
and one-half of VCC appears across the collector-emitter region of each transistor.
When both transistors are saturated, the collector current, IC, increases to infinity,
which is why the dc load line is shown to be perfectly vertical.
Formulas (31–4) and (31–5) still apply to the ac load line of a class B push-pull
amplifier. Since ICQ  0, however, the endpoints for iC(sat) and vCE(off) can be shown as
VCC
iC(sat)  _ (31–7)
2RL
VCC
vCE(off)  _ (31–8)
2

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GOOD TO KNOW
To provide a linear output, many
class B push-pull audio amplifiers
are biased to operate as class AB
amplifiers with a conduction
angle near 210. With class AB
operation crossover distortion is
entirely eliminated.
GOOD TO KNOW
In actual designs, the
compensating diodes are mounted
on the case of the power
transistors so that as the
transistors heat up so do the
diodes. The diodes are usually
mounted to the power transistors
with a nonconductive adhesive
that has good thermal transfer
characteristics. Since the diode
curves match the VBE versus IE
curve of each transistor, the circuit
is almost immune to changes in
temperature.
1002
sch10858_ch31_988-1019.indd 1002
Ideally, the maximum peak-to-peak output voltage obtainable in Fig. 31–5a
equals the value of VCC. If, for example, VCC  15 V, then the maximum peak-to-
peak output voltage would be 15 Vp-p.
Figure 31–5c shows the problem with biasing the transistors exactly at cutoff.
When Vin crosses through zero, Q1 and Q2 are both cut off, resulting in a time when
the output voltage does not follow the input voltage because both transistors are still
cut off. The effect is called crossover distortion. Crossover distortion is undesir-
able because it produces a distortion that can be heard in the speaker output. Fig-
ure 31–5c is somewhat exaggerated because R2 and R3 bias Q1 and Q2 only slightly
below cutoff. Therefore, the crossover distortion would not be as severe as the illus-
tration in Fig. 31–5c.
The class B push-pull amplifier in Fig. 31–5 is extremely sensitive to changes in
temperature. Small changes in operating temperature can produce extreme changes
in the collector current, IC, of each transistor. This is highly undesirable. In most
cases, voltage divider bias is not used with class B push-pull amplifiers because
thermal runaway can destroy the transistor.
Typical Class B Push-Pull Amplifier
Figure 31–6 shows how a typical class B push-pull amplifier would be biased. This
form of bias is called diode bias. The diodes, D1, and D2, produce the required bias
for the base-emitter junction of each transistor. For this bias method to work prop-
erly, the IF versus VF curve of each diode must match the VBE versus IE curves of each
transistor. Because the series combination of D1 and D2 is in parallel with the emitter
diodes of Q1 and Q2, both series combinations have the same voltage drop. Because
the diode curves match the VBE curves of the transistors, the diode currents and emit-
ter currents are the same. Therefore, the collector current, IC, in both transistors can
be calculated using Formula (31–9):
VCC  2 VBE
ICQ  __ (31–9)
2R
In Fig. 31–6, ICQ is
24 V  1.4 V
ICQ  ___
2  2.7 k
 4.18 mA
In Fig. 31–6a, the collector-emitter voltage, VCE, of each transistor equals one-
half of VCC, which is 12 V in this case. Because of this, the dc voltage at the emitter
junction also equals 12 V. The dc voltage at the base of Q1 is 12 V 0.7 V  12.7 V,
and at the base of Q2, the dc voltage is 12 V  0.7 V  11.3 V.
To calculate the quiescent power dissipation in Q1 and Q2, proceed as follows:
Pdq  VCEQ ICQ (31–10)
 12 V  4.18 mA
 50.16 mW
Since ICQ is usually quite small, the value of Pdq is also small. This means that
a class B push-pull amplifier will run very cool when the input signal is zero. For
diode bias to be insensitive to changes in temperature, the diode curves must match
the emitter diode curves of the transistors. Diode bias is one of the best ways to bias
a class B push-pull amplifier.
Load Current Paths
When Vin is positive, Q1 conducts and Q2 cuts off (see Fig. 31–6b). Because Q1
acts like an emitter follower, the ac signal voltage at the base and emitter are the
same. Notice that the output coupling capacitor, Cout, is charging during the positive
Chapter 31
3/15/10 1:31:36 PM
 Figure 31–6 Class B push-pull amplifier using diode bias. (a) Circuit. (b) Load current path when Vin is positive. (c) Load current path when
Vin is negative.
VCC  24 V

R  2.7 k

12.7 V

Q1
12 V 10 V
D1
 
12 V 12 V 0V
Cout
D2 10 V
11.3 V

Q2 RL  8 

Vin  20 VP-P R  2.7 k

(a)

VCC  24 V

+22.7 V

12 V
 
Q1 22 V
12 V 10 V
  2 V

0V 0V
Cout  RL  8 
RL  8  10 V
1.3 V Q2 


(b) (c)

alternation of Vin. The charging current flows through RL and the collector-emitter
region of Q1.
Figure 31–6c shows the output when Vin is negative; Q2 conducts and Q1 cuts off.
Q2 then acts like an emitter follower. Notice that Q2 provides a discharge path for the
output coupling capacitor, Cout. The discharge path is through RL and the collector-
emitter region of Q2. Note that the charging and discharging time constant is made
very long with respect to the period of the input waveform. The repetitive charging
and discharging of the output coupling capacitor, Cout, produces the output signal
across the load resistor, RL.

Power Formulas
Formula (31–6) is still used to calculate the ac load power. For clarity, this equation
is
V 2out(p-p)
PL  __
8RL

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 To calculate the dc input power, PCC, consider the alternation during which cur-
rent is drawn from the power supply, VCC. This is during the positive alternation
only, with the current path shown in Fig. 31–6b. Since current is drawn from VCC
only during the positive alternations of Vin, the waveform of power supply current is
the same as that of a half-wave rectified signal. Remember from Chap. 27 that the
average or dc current of a half-wave rectified signal is
Idc  0.318  Ipk
The dc input power, PCC, for a class B push-pull amplifier is calculated as
PCC  VCC  ICC
where ICC  Idc. Or
Vout(pk)
PCC  VCC  _  0.318 (31–11)
RL
The percent efficiency is calculated as shown earlier:
PL
Percent efficiency  _  100
PCC
It is interesting to note that the efficiency of a class B push-pull amplifier varies
with the amount of ac load power. In fact, the efficiency increases as the ac load
power increases. The maximum obtainable efficiency for a class B push-pull ampli-
fier is 78.6%.
One more point: The worst case power dissipation in the transistors of a class B
push-pull amplifier can be found using Formula (31–12), shown here:
V 2CC
Pd(max)  _ (31–12)
40RL

Example 31–3
In Fig. 31–6 calculate the following quantities: PL, PCC, Pd(max), and percent
efficiency.

ANSWER Begin by calculating the ac load power, PL. Since Vin  20 Vp-p,
then Vout(p-p)  20 Vp-p.
The calculations are
V2out(p-p)
PL  __
8RL
20 V2p-p
 __
88
 6.25 W
Next, calculate the dc input power, PCC. Begin by calculating the value
of ICC:
Vout(pk)
ICC  _  0.318
RL
 10
_ V  0.318
8
 397.5 mA

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 Next,
PCC  VCC  ICC
 24 V  397.5 mA
 9.54 W
The percent efficiency equals
PL
Percent efficiency  _  100
PCC
 6.25
__ W  100
9.54 W
 65.5%
The worst case power dissipation in the transistors is
V 2CC
Pd(max)  _
40RL
2
 24
__ V
320 
 1.8 W
To avoid damage to the transistors, Q1 and Q2 must have power ratings in
excess of 1.8 W.

Using a Split Supply

To obtain a greater amount of output power, a split supply can be used (see Fig. 31–7).
Notice that the collector of Q2 connects to VCC rather than to ground. As before, Q1
conducts during the positive alternation of Vin and Q2 cuts off. When Vin is negative,
Q2 conducts and Q1 cuts off.

Figure 31–7 Class B push-pull amplifier using a split supply (VCC).

VCC  30 V

R  5.6 k

0.7 V

25 V Q1 25 V

D1 0 Vdc
Vin 0V

D2
25 V 25 V
0.7 V
Q2 RL  8 

R  5.6 k

VCC  30 V

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 The quiescent collector current, ICQ, is calculated as
VCC  VBE
ICQ  __ (31–13)
R
For Fig. 31–7, ICQ is calculated as

ICQ  30
___V  0.7 V
5.6 k
 5.23 mA
Because the collectors of Q1 and Q2 are in series, the collector-emitter voltage,
VCEQ, for each transistor equals VCC, or 30 V in this case. Therefore, VCEQ, equals VCC
in a class B push-pull amplifier using a split supply. This makes the dc voltage at the
emitter terminals of Q1 and Q2 equal to 0 V (refer to Fig. 31–7). Furthermore, the dc
voltage at the base of Q1 equals 0.7 V, while the dc voltage at the base of Q2 equals
0.7 V. Because the emitter voltage of each transistor is at 0 V, the output coupling
capacitor can be omitted. Because the dc voltage at the emitters is zero, no dc cur-
rent will flow through the speaker load. Also, without the output coupling capacitor,
the low-frequency response of the amplifier is greatly improved.

Power Calculations
To calculate Pdq proceed as follows:
Pdq  VCEQ  ICQ
 30 V  5.23 mA
 156.9 mW
The ac load power is still given by Formula (31–6). The dc input power, PCC,
is now
Vout(pk)
PCC  VCC  _  0.636 (31–14)
RL
The factor 0.636 indicates that current is drawn from both VCC and VCC.
Current is drawn from VCC when Vin is positive. Conversely, current is drawn from
VCC when Vin is negative.

Example 31–4
In Fig. 31–7, calculate the following quantities: PL, PCC, and percent efficiency.

ANSWER Begin by calculating PL:

2
Vout(p-p)
PL  __
8 RL
50 V2p-p
 __
88
 39.06 W
Next, calculate PCC:
Vout(pk)
PCC  VCC  _  0.636
RL
 30 V  V  0.636
25
_
8
 59.62 W

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GOOD TO KNOW
Most class C amplifiers are
designed so that the peak value
of input voltage is just sufficient
to drive the transistor into
saturation.
Power Amplifiers
sch10858_ch31_988-1019.indd 1007
The percent efficiency is calculated as
PL
Percent efficiency  _  100
PCC
39.06 W  100
 __
59.62 W
 65.5%
A split power supply is used with the class B push-pull amplifier when it is
necessary to obtain large amounts of ac load power, PL.
■ 31–3 Self-Review
Answers at end of chapter.
a. What type of distortion occurs in a class B push-pull amplifier when
the transistors are biased right at cutoff?
b. Is voltage divider or diode bias the preferred way to bias a class B
push-pull amplifier?
31–4 Class C Amplifiers
The collector current, IC, of a transistor in a class C amplifier flows for 120 or
less of the ac input waveform. The result is that the collector current, IC, flows in
very short, narrow pulses. Since the collector current is nonsinusoidal, it contains a
large number of harmonic components and is said to be rich in harmonic content.
Because of their high distortion, class C amplifiers cannot be used in audio circuitry
where full reproduction of the input signal is required. Class C amplifiers, however,
can be used as tuned rf amplifiers where undesired harmonic frequencies can be
filtered out, passing only the fundamental frequency to the load, RL. In some cases,
however, it might be desirable to tune the LC tank circuit to a harmonic (multiple)
of the input frequency. The tuned LC circuit in a class C amplifier usually has high
Q, so that only a very narrow band of frequencies is amplified.
Class C amplifiers are much more efficient than either class A or class B ampli-
fiers. Typical class C amplifiers have efficiencies in excess of 90%.
Class C Amplifier Circuit Analysis
Figure 31–8a shows a tuned class C amplifier. The input coupling capacitor, base
resistor, and base-emitter junction form a negative clamper. The equivalent input
circuit is shown in Fig. 31–8b. During the initial positive half-cycle of input voltage,
the input coupling capacitor, Cin, charges through the low resistance of the base-
emitter junction, which is forward-biased. The capacitor, Cin, charges to 0.8 V with
the polarity shown. The dc voltage to which the capacitor charges equals Vin(pk) – VBE.
The negative polarity on the right plate of Cin will now reverse-bias the base-emitter
junction. The capacitor, Cin, clamps or holds the dc base voltage at –0.8 V. Because
of the clamping action, only the positive peaks of the input signal drive the transis-
tor, Q1, into conduction. The RBCin time constant during discharge is made long with
respect to the period of the input waveform to provide the proper clamping action.
As a general rule,
RBCin 10T (31–15)
where T equals the period of the input waveform.
1007
3/15/10 1:31:38 PM
 MultiSim Figure 31–8 Class C rf amplifier. (a) Circuit. (b) Cin, RB, and the base-emitter diode form a negative clamper. (c) Vout  2VCC(p-p).
(d ) Graph of AV versus frequency.

VCC

C L  100 H
63.325 pF ri  12.56 

Cout
Cin

 
RL  100 k
Q1
Vin  3 Vp-p RB
fin  fr  2 MHz

(a)

 1.5 V Cin (Base) 0.7 V

 
0V 0.8 V
0.8 V
 1.5 V 2.3 V

Vin  3 Vp-p RB Base-emitter diode

(b)

VCC

L
C
AV(max)

2VCC

VCC

fr
0V

(c) (d )

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 The RBCin time constant affects the conduction angle of the transistor. The longer
the RBCin time constant with respect to the period, T, the shorter the conduction
angle of the transistor.
The collector tank circuit, consisting of L and C, can be tuned to the same fre-
quency as the input signal or some multiple of the input frequency. Every time the
transistor is driven into conduction, the capacitor, C, in the tank circuit is recharged
to the value of VCC. When the transistor is cut off, the flywheel effect of the resonant
tank circuit reproduces the full sine wave of output voltage. The resonant frequency
of the tank circuit is given by
fr  __1 ___ (31–16)
2LC

Figure 31–8c shows the peak-to-peak output voltage from the tuned class C am-
plifier. Notice that the minimum voltage is zero and the maximum voltage is 2VCC.
Therefore, the peak-to-peak voltage available at the output equals 2VCC because the
tank voltage adds to the positive value of VCC during the positive alternation of the
output voltage.
Figure 31–8d shows a graph of frequency versus voltage gain for the tuned class
C amplifier. At the resonant frequency, fr, the impedance of the tuned LC circuit is
maximum. Also, the tank impedance, Ztank, is purely resistive at ƒr. When the fre-
quency of the input voltage is above or below ƒr, the voltage gain, AV, is less because
the impedance of tank circuit decreases as the frequency of input voltage moves
above or below ƒr.
When the tank circuit is adjusted to resonance, an ammeter placed in the col-
lector circuit will dip to its minimum value. A commonly used method of tuning a
class C rf amplifier is to adjust either L or C for minimum collector current, IC, as
indicated by an ammeter.

Example 31–5
In Fig. 31–8a, calculate the following: (a) ƒr of the LC tank circuit and (b) dc
voltage at the base.

ANSWER (a) The resonant frequency, ƒr, can be calculated using Formula
(31–16):
fr  __ 1 ___
2  LC
 _______ 1
__________________
2  3.141  100 H  63.325 pF
 2 MHz
At this frequency, the class C amplifier has its maximum voltage gain, AV.
(b) The dc voltage at the base equals
Vdc  Vin(pk)  VBE
 1.5 V  0.7 V
 0.8 V
Therefore, –Vdc  0.8 V (see Fig. 31–8b).

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 Example 31–6
Assume Cin  0.01 F in Fig. 31–8a. Calculate the minimum base resistance,
RB, necessary to provide the proper clamping action.

ANSWER Begin by calculating the period of the input waveform. Since

ƒin  ƒr,
1
T_
fin

 __1
2 MHz
 0.5 S
Therefore,

RBCin  10T
 10  0.5 S
 5 S
Solving for RB,

5 S
RB  __
0.01 F
 500 

Amplifier Bandwidth
As mentioned earlier, the voltage gain of a class C rf amplifier is maximum at the
resonant frequency, fr, of the tank circuit. However, frequencies close to ƒr also pro-
vide a high voltage gain. Therefore, any class C rf amplifier has an associated band
of frequencies at which there is a high voltage gain. The bandwidth of an amplifier
refers to those frequencies in which the voltage gain, AV, is 70.7% or more of its
maximum value at resonance. The bandwidth (BW) of the tuned amplifier is af-
fected by the Q of the circuit. Recall from basic ac circuit theory that the impedance
of the tank circuit at resonance is

Ztank  Qcoil  XL (31–17)

Remember that any shunt or parallel resistance, RP, lowers the circuit Q. When
Ztank 10  Rp, then Qckt  RPXL. However, when Ztank 10  Rp then the circuit
Q, Qckt, is
Ztank  RP
Qckt  __ (31–18)
XL

With Qckt known, the bandwidth (BW) is calculated as

fr
BW  _ (31–19)
Qckt

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 Example 31–7
In Fig. 31–8, calculate the bandwidth (BW).

ANSWER Begin by calculating XL at ƒr:

XL  2fr L
 2  3.141  2.0 MHz  100 H
 1.256 k
Next, we calculate the Q of the LC tank. The Q of the tank circuit equals the
Q of the coil. Therefore,
XL
Qcoil  _
r i
1.256 k
 __
12.56 
 100
Now calculate the tank impedance, Ztank:
Ztank  Qcoil  XL
 100  1.256 k
 125.6 k
Next, calculate Qckt:
Ztank  RP
Qckt  __
XL
where
125. 6 k  100 k
Ztank  RP  ____
125.6 k 100 k
 55.67 k
Therefore,
55.67 k
Qckt  __
1.256 k
 44.32
Finally, calculate the bandwidth (BW):
fr
BW  _
Qckt
2 MHz
 __
44.32
 45 kHz

Frequency Multipliers
Tuned class C amplifiers can also be used as frequency multipliers by tuning the
LC tank circuit to a harmonic (multiple) of the input frequency. For the class C rf
amplifier shown in Fig. 31–8a, the capacitor, C, in the tank circuit is charged once
per input cycle. If the tank circuit is tuned to an ƒr of 4 MHz, then the capacitor in
the tank is recharged once every other cycle. If the tank is tuned to an ƒr of 6 MHz,
then the capacitor is recharged on every third cycle of input voltage.

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 Figure 31–9 Collector current in a class C rf amplifier used as a frequency multiplier. (a) Collector current, IC, flows once per cycle when the
tank circuit is tuned to the same frequency as fin. (b) IC flows once every other cycle when the tank circuit is tuned to 2fin. (c) IC flows once every
third cycle when the tank circuit is tuned to 3fin.

2VCC (2 MHz) 2VCC (4 MHz)

Vout VCC Vout VCC

0V 0V

C 0 C 0
(a) (b)

2VCC (6 MHz)

Vout VCC

0V

C 0
(c)

Figure 31–9 shows the collector current pulses and their relationships with re-
spect to the output waveform. In Fig. 31–9a, the tank circuit is tuned to the same
frequency as the input voltage applied to the class C amplifier. Therefore, the col-
lector current, IC, flows only once during the cycle. In Fig. 31–9b, the tank circuit
is tuned to the second harmonic of the fundamental frequency and the collector
current, IC, flows once every other cycle. Finally, in Fig. 31—9c, the tank circuit is
tuned to the third harmonic of the fundamental frequency and the collector current,
IC, flows once every third cycle.
Note that in Fig. 31–9 when collector current flows, the transistor is driven into
saturation. This is why the collector voltage is at 0 V when the collector current
reaches its peak value.

■ 31–4 Self-Review
Answers at end of chapter.
a. The collector current in a class C amplifier is rich in harmonics.
(True/False)
b. The peak-to-peak output voltage from a tuned class C rf amplifier is
approximately two times VCC. (True/False)

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 Summary
■ The class of operation of an amplifier
is defined by the percentage of the
ac input cycle that produces an
output current.
■ In a class A amplifier, collector
current flows for the full 360 of the
ac input cycle.
■ In a class B amplifier, collector
current flows for only 180 of the ac
input cycle.
■ In a class C amplifier, collector
current flows for 120 or less of the
ac input cycle.
■ A class A amplifier has very low
distortion and very low power
efficiency.
■ A class A amplifier sees two loads, an
ac load and a dc load. Therefore,
there are two load lines, a dc load
line and an ac load line. The ac load
line is always steeper than the dc
load line.
Important Terms
AC load line a graph that shows all
possible values of IC and VCE when a
transistor amplifier is driven by an ac
signal.
AC load power, PL the ac power that
is dissipated by the load, RL.
Class A amplifier an amplifier in
which the collector current, IC, flows
for the full 360 of the ac input cycle.
Class B amplifier an amplifier in
which the collector current, IC, flows
for only 180 of the ac input cycle.
Class C amplifier an amplifier in
which the collector current, IC, flows
for 120 or less of the ac input cycle.
Class B push-pull amplifier a class B
amplifier that uses two transistors to
reproduce the full ac cycle of input
voltage. Each transistor conducts on
opposite half-cycles of the input
voltage.
Power Amplifiers
sch10858_ch31_988-1019.indd 1013
■ In a class A amplifier, maximum
transistor power dissipation occurs
when there is no input signal applied
to the amplifier.
■ A class B amplifier using a single
transistor has very severe distortion
and medium power efficiency.
■ A class B push-pull amplifier uses
two transistors to get a linear
reproduction of the input waveform
being amplified. A class B push-pull
amplifier has medium power
efficiency.
■ A common way to bias a class B
push-pull amplifier is with diode
bias. With diode bias, the diode
curves must match the emitter diode
curves of the transistors to obtain a
stable bias.
■ The transistors in a class B push-pull
amplifier dissipate very little power
when no ac signal is present at the
Crossover distortion the distortion
that occurs in a class B push-pull
amplifier when the transistors are
biased right at cutoff. When the input
voltage crosses through zero, both
transistors in the push-pull amplifier
are off and the output voltage cannot
follow the input voltage.
DC input power, PCC the amount of dc
power dissipated by a transistor
amplifier.
Diode bias a form of biasing for class
B push-pull amplifiers that uses diodes
to provide a slight amount of forward
bias for the base-emitter junctions of
each transistor.
Frequency multiplier a tuned class C
amplifier whose LC tank circuit is
tuned to a harmonic or multiple of the
input frequency.
input because the idling current in
the transistors is quite low.
■ When large amounts of ac load
power are required, a split power
supply is often used with class B
push-pull amplifiers.
■ Class C amplifiers cannot be used
in audio circuitry because of their
high distortion. However, class C
amplifiers can be used as tuned rf
amplifiers where the undesired
harmonic frequencies can be
filtered out.
■ A class C amplifier is more efficient
than either a class A or class B
amplifier; its power efficiency
approaches 100%.
■ A tuned class C amplifier can be used
as a frequency multiplier by tuning
the LC tank circuit to a multiple of
the input frequency.
Linear amplifier any amplifier that
produces an output signal that is an
exact replica of the input signal.
Percent efficiency for an amplifier,
this is the percentage of dc input
power that is converted to useful
ac output power.
Power amplifier a circuit that is
designed to deliver large amounts of
power to a low impedance load.
1013
3/15/10 1:31:42 PM
 Related Formulas
Vout(pk)
Class A Amplifiers PCC  VCC  _  0.318 (Single Supply)
RL
PL  V 2out(p-p)8RC (No Load, RL)
Pd(max)  V 2CC40RL
PL  V 2out(p-p)8RL
VCC  VBE
PCC  VCC  ICC ICQ  __ (Split Supply)
PL R
Percent Efficiency  _  100 Vout(pk)
PCC PCC  VCC  _  0.636 (Split Supply)
VCEQ RL
iC(sat)  ICQ _
rL (Endpoints for AC Load Line)
vCE(off)  VCEQ ICQrL Class C Amplifiers
Class B Push-Pull Amplifiers RBCin 10T
__
iC(sat)  VCC2RL (Endpoints for AC Load Line) fr  12 LC
vCE(off)  VCC2
Ztank  Qcoil  XL
VCC  2VBE
ICQ  __ (Single Supply)
2R Qckt  Ztank RPXL
Pdq  VCEQ  ICQ BW  frQckt
PL  V 2out(p-p)8RL

Self-Test
Answers at back of book.
1. In a class A amplifier, the collector
current, IC, flows for
a. 180 of the ac input cycle.
b. 360 of the ac input cycle.
c. 120 or less of the ac input cycle.
d. 90 of the ac input cycle.
2. Which of the following classes of
amplifier operation has the
highest power efficiency?
a. class A.
b. class B.
c. class C.
d. class AB.
3. The collector current in a class C
amplifier
a. is rich in harmonics.
b. flows for 120 or less of the ac
input cycle.
c. is nonsinusoidal.
d. all of the above.
4. The transistors in a class B push-
pull amplifier are biased slightly
above cutoff to prevent
a. crossover distortion.
b. excessive power dissipation in the
transistors.
c. excessive efficiency.
d. none of the above.
5. In a class B amplifier, the collector
current, IC, flows for
a. 120 of the ac input cycle.
b. 180 of the ac input cycle.
c. 360 of the ac input cycle.
d. 60 of the ac input cycle.
6. When a class B push-pull amplifier
uses a split power supply,
a. no output coupling capacitor is
required.
b. a greater amount of output power
can be obtained.
c. the efficiency decreases.
d. both a and b.
7. A class C amplifier is typically used
as a(n)
a. audio amplifier.
b. linear amplifier.
c. tuned rf amplifier.
d. none of the above.
8. A class B push-pull amplifier uses
a single dc power supply voltage
of 15 V. How much voltage should
exist across the collector-emitter
region of each transistor?
a. 7.5 V.
b. 0 V.
c. 15 V.
d. It cannot be determined.
9. A class A amplifier should be biased
a. at cutoff.
b. midway between saturation and
cutoff.
c. very near saturation.
d. none of the above.
10. A tuned class C amplifier has a
power supply voltage of 12 V.
What is the ideal peak-to-peak
output voltage?
a. l2 Vp-p.
b. 48 Vp-p.
c. 24 Vp-p.
d. 6 Vp-p.
11. Which of the following amplifiers
has the lowest efficiency under
large signal conditions?
a. class B push-pull amplifier.
b. class C rf amplifier.
c. RC coupled class A amplifier.
d. class B push-pull amplifier with
split supplies.
12. In a class B push-pull amplifier,
the transistors Q1 and Q2 conduct
a. on the same half-cycle of input
voltage.
b. on opposite half-cycles of the input
voltage.
c. only on the positive and negative
peaks of the input voltage.
d. none of the above.

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 13. In an RC-coupled class A amplifier, 14. Which of the following is the best 15. A power amplifier delivers 25 W of
a. the dc and ac load lines are usually way to bias a class B push-pull ac power to a 4- speaker load. If
the same. amplifier? the dc input power is 40 W, what
a. diode bias. is the efficiency of the amplifier?
b. the dc load line is steeper than the
ac load line. b. voltage divider bias. a. 78.6%.
c. the Q point should be located near c. zero bias. b. 25%.
cutoff on the ac load line. d. none of the above. c. 62.5%.
d. the ac load line is steeper than the d. 160%.
dc load line.

Essay Questions
1. Why can't a class C amplifier be used as an audio amplifier? 4. How can class C rf amplifiers function as frequency
multipliers?
2. Why are the transistors in a class B push-pull amplifier
biased slightly above cutoff? 5. What are the advantages of using a split power supply
with a class B push-pull amplifier?
3. Why isn't it practical to use a class A amplifier if 100 W of
ac load power is required?

Problems
SECTION 31–1 CLASSES OF OPERATION
31–1 For how many degrees of the ac input cycle does Figure 31–10
collector current flow in a VCC  24 V
a. class A amplifier?
b. class B amplifier?
c. class C amplifier?
RB  330 k RC  1.5 k
31–2 How should a class A amplifier be biased?

31–3 List two characteristics of a class A amplifier. Cin

31–4 How is a true class B amplifier biased? ␤dc  150 Cout

31–5 How does a class B amplifier with a single transistor RL  1.5 k

correspond to a half-wave rectifier? Vin  50 mVp-p

31–6 List two characteristics of a class B amplifier using a

single transistor.

31–7 What is the main application for class C amplifiers?

31–8 List two characteristics of a class C amplifier.

SECTION 31–2 CLASS A AMPLIFIERS d. Vout.

31–9 In Fig. 31–10, calculate the following dc quantities: e. vCE(off).
a. IB. f. iC(sat).
b. ICQ.
c. VCEQ. 31–11 Using the values obtained in Probs. 31–9 and 31–10,
draw the dc and ac load lines for the RC-coupled
d. VCE(off). amplifier in Fig. 31–10. Indicate the Q point on the
e. IC(sat). graph.

31–10 In Fig. 31–10, calculate the following ac quantities: 31–12 In Fig. 31–10, solve for the following:
a. r'e. a. PL.
b. rL. b. PCC.
c. AV. c. % efficiency.

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 31–13 In Fig. 31–11, calculate the following dc quantities: SECTION 31–3 CLASS B PUSH-PULL AMPLIFIERS
a. VB. 31–19 In Fig. 31–12, which transistor conducts during
b. VE. a. the positive alternation of input voltage?
c. ICQ. b. the negative alternation of input voltage?
d. VCEQ.
e. Pd. Figure 31–12
f. VCE(off).
VCC  15 V
g. IC(sat).

R  1 k
Figure 31–11
VCC  24 V Cin

Q1 Cout
D1
 
Cin D2
R1  7.5 k RC  1.2 k
Vin Q2
RL  8 
R  1 k (speaker)
Ci
␤ 200 Cout

RL 
1.2 k 31–20 In Fig. 31–12, solve for the following dc quantities:
Vin  50 mVp-p R2  1.5 k RE 
CE
330  a. ICQ.
b VBQ1.
c. VBQ2.
d. VEQ1 and VEQ2.
e. VCEQ1 and VCEQ2.
31–14 In Fig. 31–11, calculate the following ac quantities: f. PdQ.
a. r 'e. 31–21 Draw the ac load line for Fig. 31–12 and indicate the
b. rL. values of iC(sat) and vCE(off).
c. AV.
31–22 In Fig. 31–12, solve for PL, PCC, Pd(max), and % efficiency if
d. Vout. Vin  12 Vp-p.
e. VCE(off).
f. iC(sat). 31–23 In Fig. 31–12, is Cout charging or discharging during the
a. positive alternation of input voltage?
31–15 Using the values obtained in Probs. 31–13 and 31–14, b. negative alternation of input voltage?
draw the dc and ac load lines for the RC coupled
amplifier in Fig. 31–11. Indicate the Q point on the 31–24 In Fig. 31–13, solve for the following dc quantities:
graph.
a. ICQ.
31–16 In Fig. 31–11, solve for the following: b. VBQ1.
a. PL. c. VBQ2.
b. PCC. d. VEQ1 and VEQ2.
c. % efficiency. e. VCEQ1 and VCEQ2.
f. PdQ.
31–17 If the input voltage, Vin, is reduced to 25 mVp-p in
Fig. 31–10, then recalculate the following values: 31–25 If RL  10  in Fig. 31–13, what are the values of iC(sat)
a. Vout. and vCE(off) on the ac load line?
b. PL.
31–26 In Fig. 31–13, solve for PL, PCC, and % efficiency for each
c. PCC. of the following values of RL (Vin  15 Vp-p):
d. % efficiency. a. RL  16 .
31–18 Compare the % efficiency calculated in Probs. 31–12 b. RL  8 .
and 31–17. Are they different? If so, why? c. RL  4 .

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 31–30 In Fig. 31–14, solve for the following quantities:
Figure 31–13
a. PL.
VCC  18 V b. PCC.
c. % efficiency.

31–31 In Fig. 31–14, how much dc voltage is across the 4-

load, RL?
R  2.2 k
SECTION 31–4 CLASS C AMPLIFIERS
Cin 31–32 In Fig. 31–15, what is the resonant frequency, fr, of the
LC tank circuit?
Q1 Cout
D1
 
Cin D2
Figure 31–15
Vin  15 Vp-p Q2
RL VCC  12 V
R  2.2 k (speaker)

L  50 H
C  20.26 pF ri  31.42 

31–27 In Fig. 31–13, what is the worst case power dissipation, Cout
Pd(max), in each transistor if RL  4 ?

31–28 In Fig. 31–13, how much is the dc voltage across Cin  0.01 F

a. the output coupling capacitor, Cout? Q1

b. the load, RL? RL  25 k
Vin  5 Vp-p
RB  1 k
31–29 In Fig. 31–14, solve for the following dc quantities: fin  fr
a. ICQ.
b. VBQ1.
c. VBQ2.
d. VEQ1 and VEQ2.
e. VCEQ1 and VCEQ2.
f. PdQ in each transistor. 31–33 In Fig. 31–15, how much is the
a. dc voltage at the base of Q1?
b. dc voltage at the collector of Q1?
c. peak-to-peak voltage at the collector of Q1?
Figure 31–14
31–34 In Fig. 31–15, calculate
VCC  25 V
a. Ztank.
b. Qckt.
c. BW.

R  3.9 k 31–35 In Fig. 31–15, at what point in the ac cycle does the
input voltage cause Q1 to conduct?
Cin
31–36 At the instant Vin reaches its positive peak in Fig. 31–15,
Q1 what is the voltage at the collector of Q1?
D1
31–37 If the frequency of the input voltage is changed to
D2
2.5 MHz in Fig. 31–15, what is the frequency of the
Q2
output waveform?
Vin  40 Vp-p Cout RL  4 
R  3.9 k (speaker)

VCC  25 V

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 Answers to Self-Reviews 31–1 a. true 31–3 a. crossover distortion
b. true b. diode bias
c. false 31–4 a. true
31–2 a. false b. true
b. true

Laboratory Application Assignment

In this lab application assignment you will examine a tuned class
C amplifier. As you will see, the tuned class C amplifier uses a
parallel resonant circuit in the collector, which results in
maximum output voltage at only one frequency. The frequency
at which maximum output occurs is the resonant frequency, fr,
of the LC tank circuit. You will also see how the tuned class C
amplifier can be used as a frequency multiplier.
Equipment: Obtain the following items from your instructor.
• 2N2222A npn transistor or equivalent
• Two 100-k carbon-film resistors
• 0.001-F, 0.01-F, and 0.1-F capacitors
• 10-mH inductor
• Function generator
• Oscilloscope
• DMM
• Variable dc power supply
Tuned Class C Amplifier: Calculations and
Predictions
Examine the tuned class C amplifier in Fig. 31–16. Calculate
and record the resonant frequency, fr, of the LC tank circuit.
fr 
With an input voltage, Vin, of 2 Vp-p, calculate and record the dc
base voltage, VB. VB(dc) 
What dc voltage do you expect to measure at the collector?
VC(dc) 
Next, predict the peak-to-peak output voltage across the load RL
if the frequency of Vin equals fr. Vout(p-p) 
Tuned Class C Amplifier: Measurements
Construct the circuit in Fig. 31–16. Set Vin to exactly 2 Vp-p as
shown. Next, set the frequency of the function generator to the
resonant frequency, fr, calculated earlier. With channel 2 of the
oscilloscope connected across the load, RL, move the frequency
dial back and forth until the output voltage is at its maximum
peak-to-peak value. Measure and record the frequency where
Vout(p-p) is maximum. This frequency is the resonant frequency, fr,
of the tank circuit. fr 
Measure and record the maximum peak-to-peak output voltage.
Vout(p-p) 
Next, measure and record the dc voltage at the base and
collector. VB(dc)  , VC(dc) 
Connect channel 1 of the oscilloscope across Vin and channel 2
across the load, RL. Measure and record the phase relationship
between Vin and Vout at fr.  ________
Connect channel 1 of the oscilloscope directly to the base of the
transistor. Set the channel 1 volts/div. setting to 0.5 volt/div.,
and move the input coupling switch to dc. Draw the measured
waveform, including all values, on the scope graticule in
F¡g. 31–17.
Figure 31–17

Figure 31–16
VCC  12 V

C  0.001 F L  10 mH

C2  0.01 F
Cin  0.1 F Amplifier Bandwidth
2N2222A Reduce the input voltage, Vin, to 1.6 Vp-p. While monitoring the
peak-to-peak output voltage across RL, decrease the frequency of
RL  100 k
Vin below fr until the output voltage decreases to 0.707 of its
Vin  2 Vp-p RB  100 k maximum value. Record this frequency as f1.
f1 

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 Now increase the frequency of Vin above fr until Vout decreases to output waveform twice that of the input frequency?
0.707 of its maximum value. Record this frequency as f2. If yes, explain how this is possible.
f2 
Calculate the amplifier bandwidth, BW, as f2  f1.
BW 
Is the peak-to-peak value of the output waveform the same for
Frequency Multiplier each individual cycle? If not, explain the possible
Decrease the frequency of the function generator to cause for this.
approximately one-half of fr. (Keep Vin at 1.6 Vp-p.) Move the
function generator frequency dial back and forth to produce the
maximum peak-to-peak output voltage. Is the frequency of the

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