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5 Materials
Contrary to rebars or welded mesh, most fibres slip without failing in
tension. Fibres are active as soon as (micro-) cracks are formed in the
concrete. The main advantage of adding fibres to concrete or mortar is that
they generate a post-cracking residual tensile strength in combination with a
large tensile strain. As such, the material Fibre Reinforced Concrete (FRC) is
characterized by substantial ductility and toughness.
The properties of the composite depend on the characteristics of the
constituting materials as well as on their dosage. Other factors as the
geometry, the volume fraction and the mechanical properties of the fibres, the
if
bond between fibre and concrete matrix as well as the mechanical properties
of the matrix, significantly affect the FRC properties.
Fibre orientation significantly affects fibre reinforced concrete proper-ties
after cracking. Due to differences in casting and vibration procedures
anisotropic distributions may occur, the effect of which should be taken into
account.
The rules in this chapter are based most of all on experience with steel
fibre reinforced concrete.
For ultra high strength fibre concrete additional rules may apply. Those
will be published in a separate fib Bulletin by Task Group 8.6.
In the case of softening behaviour (a) the deformations localize in one
crack. In the case of hardening behaviour (b) multiple cracking occurs before
reaching the peak value.
The relation between strain softening and strain hardening behaviour is
shown in Figure 5.2. Softening behaviour in tension can correspond to
b
hardening behaviour in bending. Even a bending softening material can result
in a hardening behaviour of a suitable structure (Figure 5.6-1).
220
5.6 Fibres/fibre-reinforced concrete
5.6.1 Introduction
Fibre-Reinforced Concrete (FRC) is a composite material characterized by
a cement matrix and discrete fibres (discontinuous). The matrix is made of
either concrete or mortar. Fibres can be made of steel, polymers, carbon,
glass or natural materials.
Fibre materials with a Young’s-Modulus which is significantly affected by
time and/or thermo-hygrometrical phenomenon are not covered by this
Model Code.
Mixtures of different types and/or sizes of fibres can also be used (called
hybrid fibre reinforced concrete).
FRC for structural applications means the use of design constitutive laws
to consider the post-cracking residual strength provided by fibre
reinforcement. Other cases, like early age crack-control or fire resistance, are
considered non structural use of FRC.
For structural use, a minimum mechanical performance of FRC must be
guaranteed.
Fibres can be used to improve the behaviour in the SLS since they can
reduce crack spacing and crack width, thereby improving durability.
Fibres can be used to improve the behaviour at the ULS where they can
partially or totally substitute conventional reinforcement.
The mechanical properties of a cementitious matrix are modified when
fibres are added. However, elastic properties and compressive strength are
not significantly affected by fibres, unless a high percentage of fibres is used.
Depending on their composition, Fibre Reinforced Concretes (FRC) can
show hardening or softening behaviour (Figure 5.6-2).
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P P

crack formation crack formation

P P crack
Pcr Pcr localization

Figure 5.6-2: Softening (a) and hardening (b) behaviour in axial

tension.

if
Figure 5.6-1: Main differences between materials having softening
or hardening behaviour from material to structural
level

5.6.2 Material properties

5.6.2.1 Behaviour in compression
Fibres can reduce the brittleness of concrete in compression, especially in Generally the compressive relations valid for plain concrete apply to FRC
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high or ultra high strength concrete (Figure 5.6-3). as well.

b
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5 Materials
if
Figure 5.6-3: Main differences between materials having softening
or hardening behaviour from material to structural
level
Uniaxial tensile testing is not advised for standard testing of new mixtures
because tensile tests are difficult to carry out and interpret.
Because the specimens are normally small, the number of fibres in the
governing plane will be small as well and there can be a significant fibre
orientation effect due to the method of manufacturing.
b
222
5.6.2.2 Behaviour in tension
With regard to the behaviour in tension, which is the most important
aspect of FRC, various test methods are possible.
Bending tests can be carried out aiming at determining the load-deflection
relation. The results can be used for deriving the stress – crack width relations
by inverse analysis, performing equilibrium calculations for numerous crack
openings as shown in Figure 5.6-4. A simpler approach can be found in
subclause 5.6.4.
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Figure 5.6-4: Inverse analysis of beam in bending performed to

obtain stress – crack opening relation

if
Nominal properties can be determined by performing a 3-point bending
test on a notched beam according to EN 14651 (Figure 5.6-5). The diagram
of the applied force (F) versus the deformation shall be produced (see Figure
5.6-6). The deformation shall be expressed in terms of Crack Mouth Opening
Displacement (CMOD)
Residual flexural tensile strength parameters, fRj, are evaluated from the F-
CMOD relationship.
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b
Figure 5.6-5: Inverse analysis of beam in bending performed to
obtain stress – crack opening relation
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5 Materials 224

if
Figure 5.6-6: Inverse analysis of beam in bending performed to
obtain stress – crack opening relation
In order to identify the constitutive law, residual flexural tensile strengths
fRj are used.
3 Fj l
f R, j 
2 b hsp2
where:
fRj is the residual flexural tensile strength corresponding with CMOD =
CMODj
Fj is the load corresponding with CMOD = CMODj
l is the span length [mm];
b is the width of the specimen [mm];
hsp is the distance between the notch tip and the top of the specimen
[mm], 125 mm.
In case of organic and natural fibres, post-cracking long term behaviour Long term behaviour of cracked FRC under tension has to be properly
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can be affected by an additional creep of the fibres themselves. taken into account for those materials whose long term performance is
affected by creep and/or creep rupture (see subclause 5.6.5.)

b
For high fibre contents, strain hardening materials can be obtained. To
guarantee the hardening in tension, the tensile behaviour must be identified
Other tests can be accepted if correlation factors with the parameters of
EN 14651 are proven.
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by means of uniaxial tension tests carried out on unnotched specimens.

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For structural applications with normal and light-strength concrete the
material classification is based on the post-cracking residual strength.
For concrete with higher compressive strength (including UHPFRC)
special design rules may be adopted.
For instance, a material denoted as “3b” has a strength fR1k ranging
between 3 and 4 MPa and the ratio fR3k/fR1k ranging between 0.7 and 0.9.
5.6.3 Classification
In order to classify the post-cracking strength of FRC a linear elastic
behaviour can be assumed, by considering the characteristic residual
strengths significant for service (fR1k) and ultimate (fR3k) conditions.
Post-cracking residual strength can be classified by using two parameters,
namely fR1k (representing the strength interval) and a letter a, b, c or d
(representing the ratio fR3k/fR1k).

The strength interval is defined by two subsequent numbers in the series:

1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 6.0, 7.0, 8.0 [MPa]
while the letters a, b, c, d correspond to the residual strength ratios:

if
a if 0.5 ≤ fR3k/fR1k ≤ 0.7
b if 0.7 ≤ fR3k/fR1k ≤ 0.9
c if 0.9 ≤ fR3k/fR1k ≤ 1.1 (5.6-1)
d if 1.1 ≤ fR3k/fR1k ≤ 1.3
e if 1.3 ≤ fR3k/fR1k
The designer has to specify the class, the residual strength ratio and the
material of the fibre.
The Limit of Proportionality fL, as defined in EN 14651, can be deter- Fibre reinforcement can substitute (also partially) conventional
mined by applying the following equation: reinforcement at ultimate limit state if the following relationships are
fulfilled:
3FL l
fL  fR1k/fLk > 0.4 (5.6-2)
2bhsp2
fR3k/fR1k > 0.5 (5.6-3)
Apart from these requirements on the material for structural use, more
requirements on the structure level are to be found in subclause 7.7.2 of the
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Model Code.

b
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5 Materials 226

5.6.4 Constitutive laws

The rigid-plastic model takes the static equivalence into account as shown The stress-crack opening law in uniaxial tension is defined for the post-
in Figure 5.6-8, i.e. fFTu results from the assumption that the whole cracking range.
compressive force is concentrated in the top fibre of the section:
2 2 Two simplified stress-crack opening constitutive laws may be deduced
f R 3bhsp f FTu bhsp
Mu   from the bending test results: a plastic rigid behaviour, or a linear post-
6 2 cracking behaviour (hardening or softening) as schematically shown in
Figure 5.6-7, where fFts represents the serviceability residual strength, defined
as the post-cracking strength for serviceability crack openings, and fFtu
represents the ultimate residual strength.

if
Figure 5.6-8: Simplified model adopted to compute the ultimate
tensile strength in uniaxial tension fFTu by means of the
residual nominal bending strength fR3
Figure 5.6-7: Simplified post-crack constitutive laws: stress-crack
The equation for fFTu and wu=CMOD3 is obtained, from the rotational opening (continuous and dashed lines refer to
equilibrium, with reference to ULS, when a stress block in tension along the softening and hardening post-crack behaviour
section is taken into account as shown in Figure 5.6-9b. respectively).
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b
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=E x f Fts Rigid-plastic model

C
The rigid-plastic model identifies a unique reference value, fFtu, based on
x
the ultimate behaviour. Such a value is determined as:
f R3
 f Ftu  (5.6-4)
y M M 3
Linear model
The linear model identifies two reference values, fFts and fFtu.
 = w i1/l cs f Fts = 0.45 f R1 0.5 fR3 - 0.2 f R1 They have to be defined through residual values of flexural strength by
using the following equations:
(a) (a) (b) (b) (c)

if
f Fts  0.45 f R1 (5.6-5)
Figure 5.6-9: Simplified model adopted to compute the ultimate
tensile strength in uniaxial tension fFTu by means of the wu
residual nominal bending strength fR3 f Ftu  f Fts  ( f Fts  0.5 f R 3  0.2 f R1 )  0 (5.6-6)
CMOD3

The equation for fFTu and wuCMOD3 is obtained by considering a linear

constitutive law between points with abscissa CMOD1 and CMOD3, up to the
point with abscissa wu (Figure 5.6-10).
The stress value corresponding to the crack opening CMOD1 is deter-
mined from equilibrium, with the assumption that the compressive stress
distribution is linear (Figure 5.6-9a) and that the tensile behaviour is elasto-
plastic until a crack opening displacement corresponding to the serviceability
limit state (CMOD1):
2
f R1bhsp
M (CMOD1 ) 
6
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The variability introduced in the results by elastic modulus is here

negligible and a common value is assumed.

b
The stress value corresponding to the crack opening CMOD3 is deter-
mined from equilibrium, with the assumption that the compressive stress
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5 Materials 228

resultant is applied on the extrados chord (Figure 5.6-9b) and that the tensile
behaviour is rigid-linear:
2
f R 3bhsp
M (CMOD3 ) 
6

if
(a) (b)
Figure 5.6-10: Typical results from a bending test on a softening
material (a); linear post-cracking constitutive law (b).
wu is the maximum crack opening accepted in structural design. Its value
The limit value wu applies particularly for design purposes.
depends on the ductility required.
For numerical analyses more advanced constitutive laws are recom-
mended, including first crack tensile strength.
When considering softening materials, the definition of the stress-strain
law is based on the identification of the crack width and on the corresponding
structural characteristic length, lcs of the structural element. Thus, the strain
can be assumed equal to:
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 = w / lcs (5.6-7)
In elements with conventional reinforcement (rebars), the characteristic
length, lcs, may be evaluated as:

b lcs = min{srm, y} (5.6-8)

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where:
srm is the mean distance value between cracks;
y is the distance between neutral axis and tensile side of the cross
section, evaluated in the elastic cracked phase assuming no tensile
strength of the fibre reinforced concrete, and for a load configuration
corresponding to the serviceability state of crack opening and crack
spacing.
The ultimate tensile strength fFtu in the linear model depends on the
required ductility that is related to the allowed crack width. The ultimate
crack width can be calculated as wu = lcs * Fu, by assuming Fu equal to 2%
for variable strain distribution along the cross section and 1% for only tensile
strain distribution along the cross section. The maximum crack width may not

if
exceed 2.5 mm.
In sections without traditional reinforcement under bending or under
combined tensile – flexural and compressive – flexural forces with resulting
force external to the section, y = h is assumed. The same assumption can be
taken for slabs.
When considering strain hardening materials, the same Fu, by assuming
Fu equal to 2% for variable strain distribution along the cross section and 1%
for only tensile strain distribution along the cross section should be
considered.
The material is regarded as strain hardening, if it shows a hardening
behaviour in tension up to a Fu =1%.

5.6.5 Stress-strain relationship for SLS

For the ULS the constitutive laws as described in subclause 5.6.4 shall be
applied.
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For the SLS the same constitutive relationship adopted for plain concrete
in uniaxial tension is used up to the peak strength fct. In the post-cracking
stage, a bilinear relation applies (Figure 5.6-10). For softening material, the

b residual strength (second branch) is defined by two points corresponding to

(SLS, fFtsd) and (ULS, fFtud) where:
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SLS = CMOD1/lcs (5.6-9)

ULS = wu/lcs = min (Fu, 2.5/lcs = 2.5/y) (5.6-10)
The second branch suggested in the pre-peak constitutive relationship with Fu = 2% for variable strain distribution along the cross section and
corresponds to that for plain concrete until an intersection between the 1% for only tensile strain distribution along the cross section, see subclause
residual post-cracking behaviour and the unstable crack propagation branch 5.6.4.3.
for plain concrete is available.
When this condition does not apply, a new second branch is proposed, as
shown in Figure 5.6-11b.

if
(a) (b)

Figure 5.6-11: Stress - strain relations for the SLS for softening (a)
and hardening (b) behaviour of FRC

5.6.6 Partial safety factors for ULS

A reduced safety factor may be adopted for improved control procedures. For ULS-design the fibre contribution follows from (see Fig. 5.6-7):
ftsd  ftsk /  F
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and
ftud  ftuk /  F

b The recommended values for the partial safety factors are given in Table
5.6-1.
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