Solution booklet to the script

Pre-Course Mathematics
winter term 2021/22

Contents
1 Sets 2

2 Arithmetic 6

3 Summation symbol (Σ) and product symbol (Π) 12

4 Functions 18

5 Equations and inequations 25

1 Sets

Exercise 1.1
Find intensional notations for the given sets:

(a) {spring, summer, autumn, winter} (d) { 12 , 23 , 34 , 45 }

(b) {c, h, l, o, s} (e) {1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49}
(c) {2, 4, 6, 8, 10} (f) {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, . . .}

Solution:

(a) The set of the four seasons

(b) The set of (lower-case) letters in the word „school“

(c) {n ∈ N | n is even and n ≤ 10}

n o
(d) n
n+1 n ∈ {1, 2, 3, 4}

(e) The set of squares of the natural numbers from 1 to 7= n2 n ∈ N and n ≤ 7



(f) The set of uneven natural numbers = {2n − 1 | n ∈ N}

Exercise 1.2
Find extensional notations for the given sets:

(a) {z ∈ Z | −3 < z ≤ 5} (d) {z 2 | z ∈ Z and − 3 ≤ z ≤ 3}

(b) {n ∈ N | −7 ≤ n < 3} (e) {z + 1 | z ∈ Z \ N0 }
(c) {3 · k + 2 | k ∈ Z and − 2 ≤ k ≤ 2} (f) { 3·k
1
| k ∈ Z and 2
k ∈ Z}

Solution:

(a) {−2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} (d) {0, 1, 4, 9}

(b) {1, 2} (e) {0, −1, −2, . . .}

n o
(c) {−4, −1, 2, 5, 8} (f) − 31 , − 16 , 16 , 13

Exercise 1.3
Consider the set A = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}. Determine the sets:

(a) {x ∈ A | 2x − 4 = 0} (d) {x ∈ A | x − 1 > 0}

(b) {x ∈ A | x3 − 4 + 3x = 0}
(c) {x ∈ A | 2x + 1 ≤ 0} (e) {x ∈ A | x2 − x < 0}

Solution:

2
(a) {2} (d) {2, 3, 4}
(b) {1}
(c) {} = ∅ (e) {} = ∅

Exercise 1.4

(a) Consider the set of letters M = {b, l, u, e} and determine all subsets of M with at most two
elements.
(b) Determine all subsets of N = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, that have exactly four elements.
(c) Determine all subsets of A = { 21 ; 2; 94 ; 4; 25}, that do not share an element with the set
B = {2.25; 4; 100
4 }.

Solution:

(a) ∅, {b}, {l}, {e}, {u}, {b, l}, {b, e}, {b, u}, {l, e}, {l, u}, {e, u}

(b) {1, 2, 3, 4}, {1, 2, 3, 5}, {1, 2, 4, 5}, {1, 3, 4, 5}, {2, 3, 4, 5}

(c) ∅, { 21 }, {2}, { 12 , 2} (because A \ B = { 12 , 2})

Exercise 1.5

Consider the intervals A = [2, 10] and B = (6, 12) . Determine:

(a) A∪B (b) A∩B (c) A\B (d) A∪B

Solution:
(i) [2, 12) (ii) (6, 10] (iii) [2, 6] (iv) (−∞, 2) ∪ [12, ∞)

Exercise 1.6

(i) What is the basic set Ω1 for the number of pips, when rolling a die? What is the cardinality |Ω1 |
of Ω1 ? How many subsets does Ω1 have? Could you write them all down?
(ii) What is the basic set Ω2 , when rolling two (different) dice? How many subsets does Ω2 have?
Determine those subsets of Ω2 that meet the requirements below:
A1 : The first die shows 2 pips.
A2 : The same number of pips appears on both of the dice (two of a kind).
A3 : The second die has the larger number of pips.
A4 : Both numbers of pips are even.
Solution:

(i) Ω1 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, |Ω1 | = 6, |P(Ω1 )| = 26 = 64

One could write down all 64 subsets of Ω1 .

(ii) Ω2 = Ω1×Ω1 = {(j, k) | j, k ∈ Ω1 }, |Ω2 | = 6 · 6 = 36, |P(Ω2 )| = 236 > 1010 (!)
The set P(Ω2 ) is so huge, that a lifetime (of a human being) would not be sufficient to write
down all of its elements.
A1 = {(2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5), (2, 6)}

3
 A2 = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4), (5, 5), (6, 6)}
A3 = {(1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5), (1, 6), (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5), (2, 6), (3, 4), (3, 5), (3, 6),
(4, 5), (4, 6), (5, 6)}
A4 = {(2, 2), (2, 4), (2, 6), (4, 2), (4, 4), (4, 6), (6, 2), (6, 4), (6, 6)}

Exercise 1.7

Represent the left-hand and right-hand side of the equations by Venn diagrams (set diagrams) and
decide, whether or not the propositions are true.
?
(a) A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C)
?
(b) (A ∪ B) ∩ C = (A ∩ C) ∪ (B ∩ C)
?
(c) (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (B ∪ C)
Solution:

(a) true; left-hand side and right-hand side

(b) false; left-hand side , right-hand side

(c) false; left-hand side , right-hand side

Exercise 1.8

Assign the basic sets

4
 Ω1 = {2, 3, 4, 5, . . . , 12} Ω4 = R
Ω2 = {1, 2, 3, 4, . . . , 31} Ω5 = {(a, b) | a, b ∈ {H, T }}
Ω3 = N0 Ω6 = [0, ∞)

to one of the situations below

(i) annual revenue of a company (iv) double toss of a coin

(ii) days of birth in may (v) air temperature in March
(iii) number of pips when rolling two dice (vi) number of earthquakes worldwide per year

Solution:
(i) Ω6 (ii) Ω2 (iii) Ω1 (iv) Ω5 (v) Ω4 (vi) Ω3

Exercise 1.9

For Ω = {H, T } determine the power set P(Ω) as well as the power set of the power set P(P(Ω)).
Solution:
n o
P(Ω) = ∅, {H}, {T }, {H, T } (1)
| {z }
=Ω
n
P(P(Ω)) = ∅, {∅} , {{H}} , {{T }} , {Ω} , (2)
{∅, {H}} , {∅, {T }} , {∅, Ω} , {{H}, {T }} , {{H}, Ω} , {{T }, Ω} , (3)
{∅, {H}, {T }} , {∅, {H}, Ω} , {∅, {T }, Ω} , {{H}, {T }, Ω} , (4)
o
{∅, {H}, {T }, Ω}

Exercise 1.10

Of the subsets A, B and C of the basic set Ω = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} we know:

(A ∪ B) ∩ C = ∅ (1)
A \ B = {2} (2)
B \ A = {4, 6} (3)
A ∩ B = {3} (4)
A ∪ B ∪ C = {1}

Determine the sets A ∪ B and C.

Solution:

Since (A ∪ B) ∩ C = ∅ the hatched area is empty.

A ∪ B = {2, 3, 4, 6}
C = {5}

5
Exercise 1.11
Assign the numbers below to the smallest of the sets N, Z, Q, R and C that still contains the respective
number:
√
(a) 7 (c) 4 + 6i (e) 12
7 (g) 8
4 (i) 1 + 2
q
(b) −3 (d) 0.4733 (f) 3 · e (h) 1457.8 (j) − 16
9

Solution:
√
(a) 7 ∈ N (e) 12
7 ∈Q (i) 1 + 2∈R
(b) −3 ∈ Z (f) 3 · e ∈ R
q
(j) − 16
9 = − 34 ∈ Q
(c) 4 + 6i ∈ C (g) 8
4 =2∈N
(d) 0.4733 ∈ Q (h) 1457.8 ∈ Q

Exercise 1.12
Determine the intervals or sets below and give a geometric depiction.

(a) (−1, 5) ∩ [2, 3] (c) (−∞, 2) ∩ (−2, ∞) (e) (−1, 4] ∩ [4, 11

2 )

3 ]∩N
(b) (−4, 16 (d) [2, 7] \ (3, 5] (f) (2, 5] ∪ [2, 5)

Solution:

[2, 3] [2, 3] ∪ (5, 7]

(a) 0 1 2 3 4 (d) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

{1, 2, 3, 4, 5} {4}
(b) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 (e) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

(−2, 2) [2, 5]
(c) -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 (f) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

2 Arithmetic

Exercise 2.1
Expand the following ratios by the given term. Expand numerator and denominator and indicate the
values of the variables, for which the resulting ratio is well-defined.

5a 4a2
(i) by a (iii) by 2a2 b
2 3b2
3(x − 2y) 3−c
(ii) by xy (iv) by (3 + c)
(x + y)(x − y) ab

Solution:

6
 5a2 8a4 b
(i) 2a , a 6= 0 (iii) 6a2 b3
, a, b 6= 0
3x2 y−6xy 2 9−c2
(ii) x3 y−xy 3
, x, y 6= 0, x 6= ±y (iv) 3ab+abc , a, b 6= 0, c 6= −3

Exercise 2.2
Reduce the following ratios as far as possible. Indicate the values of the variables, for which the given
ratio is well-defined.

(i) 27a
18b (iv) 27x+9y
6xy
x2 +2xy+y 2 2a2 −8a+8
(ii) x+y (v) 6−3a
x2 −y 2 49x2 y
(iii) 6x−6y (vi) 35xy 2

Solution:

(i) 27a
18b = 3a
2b , b 6= 0 (iv) 27x+9y
6xy = 9x+3y
2xy , x, y 6= 0
x2 +2xy+y 2 2a2 −8a+8
(ii) x+y = x + y, x 6= −y (v) 6−3a = 4−2a
3 , a 6= 2
x2 −y 2 49x2 y
(iii) 6x−6y = x+y
6 , x 6= y (vi) 35xy 2
= 7x
5y , x, y 6= 0

Exercise 2.3
Add or subtract the following ratios. Reduce the result as far as possible. Indicate the values of the
variables, for which the given terms are well-defined.

(i) x+1 + x+1

1 x
(iii) 28 + 21
5 8
(v) 6
x2 −4
4x
− x+2
(ii) b + a
2 5
(iv) 7 + 7 − 7
8 a 3
(vi) 4ab
2a2 −2b2
+ a−b
a+b

Solution:

(i) 1
x+1 + x
x+1 = 1, x 6= −1 (iv) 8
7 + a
7 − 3
7 = 5+a
7

−4x2 +8x+6
(ii) 2
b + 5
a = 2a+5b
ab , a, b 6= 0 (v) 6
x2 −4
− 4x
x+2 = x2 −4
, x 6= ±2
a2 +b2
(iii) 5
28 + 8
21 = 47
84 (vi) 4ab
2a2 −2b2
+ a−b
a+b = a2 −b2
, a 6= ±b

Exercise 2.4
Multiply or divide the following ratios. Reduce the result as far as possible. Indicate the values of the
variables, for which the given terms are well-defined.
ab2 x2 −y 2
(i) 2 1
3 · 4 (vi) 3a+3
a+1 · b2 · 16
6ab (xi) x+y
(x−y)2
· 2xy : 5x+5y
x−y
(ii) a 3
b · b (vii) 6 : 2
1 3  
a2 +3a
(xii) a+1 + 2
a+3 a+3
: −
(iii) x−1 4
2 · x2 −1 (viii) 4 a2 (a+1)3
a : 5 (a+1)2
4b2
(iv) 3
(ix)
2
12b · 6 7 : 3
6ab b
2
(v) 3
a2
· ab9 · 18a
b2
(x) 2 : 3
x−1 x−1

Solution:

7
 ab2
(i) 2
3 · 1
4 = 1
6 (vi) a+1 · 3a+3
b2
· 16
6ab = 8b , a,b6=0, a6=−1

(ii) a
b · 3
b = 3a
b2
, b 6= 0 (vii) 1
6 : 3
2 = 1
9

(iii) x−1
2 · 4
x2 −1
= 2
x+1 , x 6= ±1 (viii) 4
: a2
= 20
, a 6= 0
a 5 a3
4b2
(iv) 3
· = 6b , b 6= 0 (ix) 6ab
: b
= 18a
b 6= 0
12b 6 7 3 7 ,
ab2
(v) 3
a2
· 9 · 18a
b2
= 6, a, b 6= 0 (x) x−1
2 : x−1
3 = 23 , x 6= 1
x+y x2 −y 2 x+y (x+y)(x−y) x−y x+y
(xi) (x−y)2
· 2xy : 5x+5y
x−y = (x−y)2
· 2xy · 5(x+y) = 10xy , x, y 6= 0, x 6= ±y

(a+1)2 (a+1)3 2
   
a2 +3a
(xii) a+1 + 2
a+3 a+3
: (a+1) 3 − 2 = a+1
a+3
+ a+3
2 · a(a+3) − (a+1)
2
2 3 2 2 2 2
= (a+1)
a + (a+1)
2a − (a+1)
2 = 2(a+1)
2a + (a+1)(a+1)
2a − a(a+1)
2a
2 2
= (2+a+1−a)(a+1)
2a = 3(a+1)
2a , a ∈ R \ {−3, −1, 0}

Exercise 2.5
Complete the missing summands according to the binomial formulas.

(i) (x + . . .)2 = x2 + 6x + 9 (iv) (. . . + 3a) · (. . . − 3a) = 49b4 − . . .

(ii) (3x + . . .)2 = . . . + 30x + 25 (v) (. . . + 2x)2 = . . . − 4xy 2 + . . .
(iii) (2a − . . .)2 = . . . − 8ab + . . . (vi) 3 · (4x + . . .)2 = . . . + 24xy + . . .

Solution:

(i) (x + 3 )2 = x2 + 6x + 9 (iv) ( 7b2 + 3a) · ( 7b2 − 3a) = 49b4 − 9a2

(ii) (3x + 5 )2 = 9x2 + 30x + 25 (v) ( −y 2 + 2x)2 = y 4 − 4xy 2 + 4x2

(iii) (2a − 2b )2 = 4a2 − 8ab + 4b2 (vi) 3 · (4x + y )2 = 48x2 + 24xy + 3y 2

Exercise 2.6
Combine and simplify the following terms. Where applicable indicate the values of the variables, for
which the given terms are well-defined. (Hint to (v): binomial formulas)

√ √ √ √ √ √ √
(i) 2 3 − 5 3 + 12 3 − 4 3 a − b a + 2 ab + b
√ √ √ √ (v) √ √ ·
(ii) ab · a · b · a2 b2 a+ b a−b
√ √ √
(iii) 36a4 b4 : 4a2 (vi) 8
3 5
q √
4 √ √
(iv) a a2 · 12 a (vii) 4 (x + 1)8 · 4 x + 1
3
p

Solution:
√ √ √ √ √
(i) 2 3 − 5 3 + 12 3 − 4 3 = 5 3
√ √ √ √ √ √
(ii) ab · a · b · a2 b2 = ab · ab · (ab)2 = (ab)4 = (ab)2 , a, b ≥ 0
p p

√ √ q
36a4 b4
√
(iii) 36a4 b4 : 4a2 = 4a2
= 9a2 b4 = 3 |a| b2 , a 6= 0

8
 q √
√ √ 1 √
q
4
4 2
 5 1 5 1 1
(iv) a= a = a3 · a 12 = a 12 · a 12 = a 2 = a, a ≥ 0
3 4
a a2 · 12
a · a3 · 12

√ √ √ √ √ √ √
a− b a− b ( √a+ b)2 √
(v) √ √
a+ b
· a+2 ab+b
a−b = √ √
a+ b
· √ √
( a+ b)·( a− b)
= 1, a, b ≥ 0, a 6= b
√ √
(vi) 85 =
23·5 = 25 = 32
3 3

√
(vii) 4 (x + 1)8 · 4 x + 1 = 4 (x + 1)9 , x ≥ −1
p p

Exercise 2.7
Transform the given ratios in a way, that the denominator becomes free of roots. Simplify the results
as far as possible. Where applicable indicate the values of the variables, for which the given and
resulting terms are well-defined. (Hint to (iii) and (iv): binomial formulas)
√
x 2 14 x
(i) √ (ii) √ (iii) √ (iv) √ √
xy 3
2 3− 2 x+ 5

Solution: √ √ √
x· xy x· xy xy
(i) √xxy = √ √
xy· xy = xy = y , x, y > 0 or x, y < 0
1 2 √
(ii) 2
√
3 = 21 · 2− 3 = 2 3 = 3
4
2
√ √ √
14·(3+ 2) 14·(3+ 2)
(iii) 14
√
3− 2
= √ √
(3− 2)·(3+ 2)
= 9−2 = 2(3 + 2)
 √ √ √ √
√  √ x·(
√ x− 5)
√ √ = x− 5x , x ≥ 0, x 6= 5
x
(iv) √ √ = ( x+ 5)·( x− 5) x−5
x+ 5  1
2 , x=5

Exercise 2.8
Calculate the following logarithms, for (v) and (vi) you may well use a pocket calculator.

(i) log2 (4) (iv) log7 (7n )

(ii) log4 (64) (v) log5 (12)
(iii) log2 ( 81 ) (vi) log2 (10)

Solution:

(i) log2 (4) = 2 (iv) log7 (7n ) = n

(ii) log4 (64) = 3 (v) log5 (12) ≈ 1, 544

(iii) log2 ( 81 ) = −3 (vi) log2 (10) ≈ 3, 322

Exercise 2.9
Combine and simplify the following terms. Where applicable indicate the values of the variables, for
which the given term is well-defined.
(i) logx (3) + logx (4)
(ii) 2 loga (4) + logb (4) − 3 loga (2) + 2 logb (5)
(iii) 1
3 loga (x) − 19 loga (x3 ) + 2 loga (x) − 41 loga (x4 )

9
(iv) 2 loga (3x) + loga (3x) + 4 loga (2x) − 12 loga (64x2 )
(v) loga (u) + loga2 (u)
Solution:

(i) logx (3) + logx (4) = logx (12), x > 0, x 6= 1

(ii) 2 loga (4) + logb (4) − 3 loga (2) + 2 logb (5) = loga (2) + 2 logb (10), a, b > 0, a, b 6= 1

(iii) 1
3loga (x) − 19 loga (x3 ) + 2 loga (x) − 14 loga (x4 )
= 13 loga (x) − 93 loga (x) + 2 loga (x) − 44 loga (x) = loga (x), a, x > 0, a 6= 1

(iv) 2 loga (3x) + loga (3x) + 4 loga (2x) − 12 loga (64x2 )

= loga (9) + 2 loga (x) + loga (3) + loga (x) + loga (16) + 4 loga (x) − loga (8) − loga (x)
= loga (54) + 6 loga (x) = loga (54x6 ), a, x > 0, a 6= 1
loga (u)
(v) loga (u) + loga2 (u) = loga (u) + loga (a2 )
= 3
2 loga (u), a, u > 0, a 6= 1
| {z }
=2

Exercise 2.10
Do a case-by-case analysis to denote the following terms without |·| , max(·) or min(·) .

(i) |a + 1| (ii) max(x, 3) (iii) |x + 1| − min(x, −1) (iv) max(x, 2) + |x − 1|

Solution: (
a + 1 , for a ≥ −1
(i) |a + 1| =
−a − 1 , for a < −1
(
x , for x ≥ 3
(ii) max(x, 3) =
3 , for x < 3
(
x + 1 − (−1) = x + 2 , for x ≥ −1
(iii) |x + 1| − min(x, −1) =
−x − 1 − x = −2x − 1 , for x < −1

(iv) Here, three cases are to be distinguished:


 x+x−1
 = 2x − 1 , for x ≥ 2
max(x, 2) + |x − 1| = 2+x−1 = x + 1 , for 1 ≤ x < 2
2 − (x − 1) = −x + 3 , for x < 1



Exercise 2.11
A portfolio consisting of a long call and a long put with identical characteristics (underlying asset S,
strike K and expiration date) is called straddle.
(i) Determine the pay-off Z of a straddle analytically and graphically.
(ii) How do you assess the expectation of a financial markets participant holding a straddle?
Solution:

(i) The pay-off Z of a straddle is given by

Z = max(0, S − K) + max(0, K − S) = max(0, S − K) − min(0, S − K)
| {z } | {z }
Call Put
= |S − K − 0| = |S − K|

10
 (ii) A market participant holding a straddle expects strong movements of prices but does not assess
their direction.

Exercise 2.12
The cut of a segment or another separable quantity is said to be of golden ratio if the ratio of the
whole to the larger part is the same as the ratio of the larger part to the smaller part. The golden
ratio has been well known since the ancient world. Not only is it relevant for mathematics, arts or
architecture, it can also be found in natural ambience, for instance with the arrangement of leaves
and florescences of some plants. Calculate the proportion ab of the golden ratio:

Solution:
For the proportion v = ab of the golden ratio we have a+b
a = b
a

or 1 + ab = ab . Here we insert v > 1 for the wanted ratio and

solve:

1+ b
a = a
b insert v = a
b
⇐⇒ 1 + 1
v = v |·v
⇐⇒ v + 1 = v2 −v + 1
4

⇐⇒ 5
4 = v2 − v + 1
4 2nd binomial formula
 2 √
⇐⇒ 5
4 = v− 1
2 | ·
√
⇐⇒ 2
5
= v− 1
2 =v− 1
2 + 12
√
⇐⇒ 1+ 5
2 = v
√
The proportion amounts to v = 1+2 5 ≈ 1.6180. With relation to the whole segment the percentage
of the larger part a is given by a+b
a
= v1 ≈ 61.8 % and the percentage of the smaller part b is given by
a+b = 1 − v ≈ 38.2 %.
b 1

11
3 Summation symbol (Σ) and product symbol (Π)

Exercise 3.1
Denote the sums below using capital-sigma notation.

(i) 3 + 6 + 9 + 12 + 15 + 18 + 21 (iv) |1 + 1 + 1{z+ . . . + 1}

(n+1) times
(ii) 4 + 1 + 0 + 1 + 4
(v) 1 + 8 + 27 + 64 + 125
(iii) 1 + x + x2 + x3 + x4 (vi) 1
4 + 1
2 +1+2+4

Solution:
7 n
(i) 3·i (iv) 1
P P
i=1 k=0

2 5
(ii) i2 (v) k3
P P
i=−2 k=1

4 2
(iii) xi (vi) 2k
P P
i=0 k=−2

Exercise 3.2
Calculate the value of the sums.
4 5 2k
(i) i−1
(iv) (3i − 3) (vii)
P P P
i j
i=1 i=2 j=k
0 100
2k
(ii) i3 (v) (j 2 − (j − 1)2 )
P P
(viii)
P
j=1
k
i=−2 j=k
4 80
(iii) (2 − i)2 (vi) (j − 2)
P P
i=−1 j=4

Solution:
4
(i) i = 0 + 2 + 3 + 4 = 12
i−1 1 2 3 23
P
i=1

0
(ii) i3 = (−2)3 + (−1)3 + 03 = −8 − 1 + 0 = −9
P
i=−2

4
(iii) (2 − i)2 = 32 + 22 + 12 + 02 + (−1)2 + (−2)2 = 19
P
i=−1

5
(iv) (3i − 3) = 3 + 6 + 9 + 12 = 30 or
P
i=2
5
(3i − 3) = 4 · 3+12
= 30 (using the rule for arithmetic sums)
P
2
i=2

100 100 100

(v) (j 2 − (j − 1)2 ) = (j 2 − (j 2 − 2j + 1)) = (2j − 1) = 2 100·101 − 100 = 10 000
P P P
2
j=1 j=1 j=1
As an alternative we recognize a telescopic sum:
100
(j 2 − (j − 1)2 ) = (1002 − 992 ) + (992 − 982 ) + . . . + (12 − 02 ) = 1002 − 02 = 10 000
P
j=1

12
 80 78 78
(vi) (j − 2) = j= j−1= 78·79
− 1 = 3080 or
P P P
2
j=4 j=2 j=1
80
(j − 2) = 77 · 2+78
= 3080 (using the rule for arithmetic sums)
P
2
j=4

2k
3k(k+1)
(vii) j = (2k − (k − 1)) · k+2k = (k + 1) · 3k
=
P
2 2 2
j=k | {z }
number of summands

(viii) k does not depend on the summation index j and therefore can be factored out of the sum.
2k 2k
k=k· 1 = k · (2k − (k − 1)) = k · (k + 1)
P P
j=k j=k | {z }
number of summands

Exercise 3.3
Consider the numbers:
i 1 2 3 4 5
ai −2 1 −1 3 2
bi 1 0 2 3 5
Calculate
5 5 5
 5  5 
(i) ai , (ii) (ai + bi ) , (iii) ai bi , (iv) .
P P P P P
ai bi
i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1
Solution:
5 5 5
 5  5 
(i) ai = 3 , (ii) (ai + bi ) = 14 , (iii) ai bi = 15 , (iv) bi = 33
P P P P P
ai
i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1

Exercise 3.4
Calculate
3 i−1 n
(i) (iii) (2i − 1)
P P
i=−2 + i
1 2 i=1
200
(ii)
P
i (iv) 1 + 3 + 5 + · · · + 99
i=101

Solution:
3
(i) i−1
= 1+(−2)
−2−1
2 + 1+(−1)2
−1−1
+ 0−1
+ 1−1
+ 2−1
+ 3−1
P
1+i2 1+02 1+12 1+22 1+32
i=−2
= −3
5 − 1 − 1 + 0 + 5 + 10 =
1 2
5 = −2.2
− 11
200 200 100
(ii) i= i− i= 200·201
− 100·101
= 15 050
P P P
2 2
i=101 i=1 i=1
200
or i = 100 · 101+200
= 15 050
P
2
i=101
n n n
(iii) (2i − 1) = 2 i − n = 2 n(n+1) − n = n2 or (2i − 1) = n · 1+2n−1
= n2
P P P
2 2
i=1 i=1 i=1
50 using (iii)
(iv) 1 + 3 + 5 + · · · + 99 = (2i − 1) = 502 = 2500
P
i=1
or 1 + 3 + 5 + · · · + 99 = 50 · 1+99
2 = 2500

Exercise 3.5
Calculate

13
 10 20
(i) 3k (iii) (−1)k
P P
k=1 k=10
9 20
(ii) 1
(iv) 1k
P P
2k
k=0 k=10

Solution:
10 11
(i) 3k = 3−3
1−3 = 88 572
P
k=1

1−( 12 )
9 9  k 10 1
1− 10
(ii) 1
= 1
= = = 1023
512 ≈ 1.9980
P P 2
2k 2 1 1
1− 2
k=0 k=0 2

20
(−1)10 −(−1)21 1−(−1)
(iii) (−1)k = = =1
P
1−(−1) 1−(−1)
k=10
Or we recognize:
20
(−1)k = |1 − 1 + 1 −{z1 + . . . − 1} + 1 = 1
P
k=10
=0

20 20
(iv) 1k = 1 = 11
P P
k=10 k=10

Exercise 3.6

(i) • During a year you deposit 500 at the beginning of every quarter on a savings account.
• Your account yields an interest of 1.6% p.a., in which no compounding is applied during the
current year. Per quarter you obtain 14 of the yearly interest.

• What is your account balance at the end of the year?

(ii) • For a period of seven years you deposit 2000 at the beginning of every new year on a savings
account.
• Again your account yields an interest of 1.6% p.a., yet with yearly compounding of interest.

• What is your account balance after seven years?

(iii) • Now during a period of seven years you deposit 500 at the beginning of every quarter. As in
(i) you start at the beginning of a year.
• As in (i) and (ii) compounding of interest (again 1.6% p.a.) takes place at the end of each
year, but not during a year .

14
 • What is your account balance after seven years?

Solution:
4
1.6 % 0.4 % + 1.6 %
| {z· 4} + 500 ·
(i) 500 · i = 2000 + 500 · 4 · = 2000 + 20 = 2020
X

i=1
4 2
savings | {z }
interest

7
1.016 − 1.0168
(ii) 2000 · (1| + {z
1.6 %})i = 2000 · = 14 925.25
X

i=1
−0.016
=1.016

(iii) From (i) we know, that we collect 2020 (savings plus interest) within a current year. So we can
consider the savings scheme consisting of seven deposits of 2020 at the end of each year. This
yields an account balance of:
6
1 − 1.0167
2020 · (1| + {z
1.6 %})i = 2020 · = 14 837.11
X

i=0
−0.016
=1.016

Exercise 3.7
Denote using capital-pi notation

(i) 7 · 7 · 7 · 7 · 7 (iii) 2 · 4 · 8 · 16
(2n)!
(ii) 4 · 6 · 8 · 10 · 12 · 14 (iv) (n ∈ N0 )
n!

Solution:

5 4
(i) 7 · 7 · 7 · 7 · 7 = 7 (iii) 2 · 4 · 8 · 16 = 2k
Q Q
i=1 k=1

(2n)! 1 · 2 · · · n · (n + 1) · · · (2n)
(iv) =
n! 1 · 2···n
7 2n
(ii) 4 · 6 · 8 · 10 · 12 · 14 = 2i = (n + 1) · · · (2n) =
Q
k
Q
i=2 k=n+1

Exercise 3.8
Calculate

4 3
(i) (−1)j (iii) 10k
Q Q
j=0 k=−1
5 5
(ii) (2i − 5) (iv) j2
Q Q
i=1 j=1

Solution:
4
(i) (−1)j = (−1)(0+1+2+3+4) = (−1)10 = 1
Q
j=0

5
(ii) (2i − 5) = (−3) · (−1) · 1 · 3 · 5 = 45
Q
i=1

15
 3
(iii) 10k = 10(−1+0+1+2+3) = 105 = 100 000
Q
k=−1

5
(iv) j 2 = (1 · 1) · (2 · 2) · · · (5 · 5) = (5!)2 = 1202 = 14 400
Q
j=1

Exercise 3.9
Calculate

(i) 210

2 (iv) 25

1 + 25

2

(ii) 12
(v) 10

5 − 11

5
5
( )
40

(iii) 20
(vi) 20

19 ( )
39
19

Solution:
(i) 210

2 = 210!
208!·2! = 210·209
2 = 105 · 209 = 21 945

(ii) 12

5 = 12!
7!·5! = 12·11·10·9·8
5·4·3·2 = 12 · 11 · 3 · 2 = 792

(iii) 20

19 = 20!
19!·1! = 20

(iv) 25

1 + 25

2 = 26

2 = 26·25
2 = 325
 
(v) 10

5 − 11

5 = 10

5 − 10

4 + 10

5 =− 10

4 = − 6!·4!
10!
= − 10·9·8·7
4·3·2 = −10 · 3 · 7 = −210

(40
20)
(vi) 39 =
40!
· 20! 19!
= 40
=2
(19) 20! 20! 39! 20

Exercise 3.10

In a town streets form a network as depicted in the outline

to the right. Every segment of a street has a length of 1. To
get from the central office A of a bank to a branch B there
are several possibilities.

(i) How long is a shortest route from A to B?

(ii) How many shortest routes from A to B are there?
(iii) How many shortest routes from A to B are there, that avoid point C?
Solution:
(i) A shortest route from A to B consists of 5 horizontal and 3 vertical segments, thus it has a
length of 8.
(ii) According to (i) we may think of a shortest route as 8 segments where 3 have to be passed in
vertical direction and the reamining 5 in horizontal direction. Therefore, we have to choose 3 out
of 8 segments to be vertical. The remaining 5 are then horizontal. Thus there are 83 = 85 = 56

shortest routes from A to B.

16
(iii) We first calculate the number of shortest routes that meet point C. Analogously to part (ii)
there are 1 = 5 shortest routes from A to C and 1 = 3 routes from C to B. Thus 3 · 5 = 15
5
3

of shortest routes meet point C. So, 56 − 15 = 41 shortest routes avoid point C.

Exercise 3.11
How many ways are there to group 15 students into five teams of three members each?
Solution: For the 1st team there are 15 3 possibilities to select three members. Hereafter for the

2nd team there are 12 possibilities. For the 3rd team there are 9 possibilities. For the 4th team



3
3
there are 63 possibilities. Finally, for the 5th team there is only 33 = 1 possibility. In total there are

3 · 3 · · · · 3 possibilities, to form teams 1 to 5. However, since the labelling of the 5 teams, i.e.
15
12
3

the order of their arrangement is not relevant, we have to divide by 5!. All in all there are

1 15 12 3 1 15! 12! 9! 6! 3!
! ! !
   
= (1)
   
· · ··· · · · · ·
5! 3 3 3 5! 3!  12!
 3!  9!
 3!  6!
 3!   3! 0!
3!
15! 15 · 14 · · · 7
= = = 1.401.400
5! (3!)5 64

possibilities to group 15 students into five teams of three members each.

Exercise 3.12
Calculate the sums. (hint: binomial theorem)

n n
(i) (−1)i n

(ii) n
1
P P
i i 4i
i=1 i=0

Solution: By applying some basic transformations the given terms can be denoted by binomial sums
n
n
i n−i
and finally be solved by (a + b)n .
P
i a b
i=0
n n n
(i) (−1)i n

= n
i n−i = P n (−1)i 1n−i − 1 = (1 − 1)n − 1 = −1
i (−1) 1
P P

i i
i=1 i=1 i=0
| {z }
add 0th summand
(=1) and subtract
again

n n  n  n
(ii) n
1
= n
n−i 1 i
1 ( ) = 1 + 1
= 5
P P
i 4 i i 4 4 4
i=0 i=0

Exercise 3.13
Calculate for the given data set
i 1 2 3 4 5
xi 2 1 2 4 6

(i) the arithmetic mean x (iii) the standard deviation sx

(ii) the variance s2x (iv) the geometric mean xgeo

Solution:

(i) x = 2+1+2+4+6
5 =3

17
 2 2 2 2
(2−3) +(1−3) +(2−3) +(4−3) +(6−3) 2
(ii) s2x = 5
= 16
5 = 3.2
or
2 2 2 2 2
s2x = 2 +1 +25 +4 +6 − 32 = 615 −9= 5
16

(iii) sx = s2x ≈ 1.7889

p

√
(iv) xgeo = 5 2 · 1 · 2 · 4 · 6 ≈ 2.4916

4 Functions

Exercise 4.1
Consider the domain D = { , , , } and the codomain
C = { , , }. Which of the following sets are relations within D × C ? Which of them are even
functions?

(i) {( , ), ( , ), ( , ), ( , )} (iv) {( , ), ( , ), ( , ), ( , )}
(ii) {( , ), ( , )}
(iii) {( , ), ( , ), ( , ), ( , ), ( , )} (v) {( , ), ( , ), ( , ), ( , )}

Solution:

(i) {( , ), ( , )( , ), ( , )}
is a function (and then a relation, too), because every element in D is mapped to exactly one
element in C.

(ii) {( , ), ( , )}
is a relation, but not a function, because the elements , ∈ D are not mapped to elements in
C.

(iii) {( , ), ( , ), ( , ), ( , ), ( , )}
is a relation, but not a function, because the element ∈ D is assigned to two different elements
in C.

18
(iv) {( , ), ( , ), ( , ), ( , )}
is a function (and then a relation, too), because every element in D is mapped to exactly one
element in C.

(v) {( , ), ( , ), ( , ), ( , )}
is not a relation (and then not a function, too), because ( , ) 6∈ D × C, since / C.
∈

Exercise 4.2
Do (
the relations R given below define functions? If so, write down the functions using the notation
D → C
f: .
x 7→ f (x)
(i) R = {(x, y) ∈ R × R | 2y = |x|} (iii) R = {(x, y) ∈ R+
0 ×R|x=y }
2

(ii) R = {(x, y) ∈ R × R | |y| = |x|} (iv) R = {(x, y) ∈ R × R | y = 1

x2 −16
}

Solution:

(i) R = {(x, y) ∈ R × R | 2y = |x|} defines a function, because

every x ∈ R is unambiguously mapped to an element
y = 21 |x| ∈ R.
(
R → R
f:
x 7→ 12 |x|

19
 (ii) R = {(x, y) ∈ R × R | |y| = |x|} does not define a function,
since, e.g., (1, 1) and (1, −1) are both in R.

(iii) R = {(x, y) ∈ R+0 × R | x = y } does not define a function as

2

well. Again, (1, 1) and (1, −1) are both in R.

(iv) R = {(x, y) ∈ R × R | y = x2 −16

1
} does not define a function,
because the elements −4, 4 ∈ D = R are not mapped to
elements in C = R. If we restrict D to R \ {−4, 4}, then
R = {(x, y) ∈ (R\{−4, 4})×R | y = x2 −16
1
} defines a function:
(
R \ {−4, 4} → R
f: 1
x 7→ x2 −16

Exercise 4.3
For the following functions determine the maximum domain within R:
ln(3−x)
(i) f (x) = 1
x (iv) f (x) = x + 1 + 1
(x+1)2 (vii) f (x) = 1−ln(x)
(ii) f (x) = 2x−4
x−1 (v) f (x) = √x−3
2x−4  
x2 (vi) f (x) = 1 + ln(x) (viii) f (x) = ln 1
(iii) f (x) = x2 −2x+2
1
x−1

Solution:

(i) f (x) = x1 , D = R\{0}

(ii) f (x) = 2x−4

x−1 , D = R\{1}

x2 x2
(iii) f (x) = x2 −2x+2
= (x−1)2 +1
, D=R (The denominator has no zeros.)
| {z }
≥1

(iv) f (x) = x + 1 + 1
(x+1)2
, D = R\{−1}

(v) f (x) = √x−3 ,

2x−4
D = (2, ∞)
(For the root we have x ≥ 2; 2 is a zero of the denominator, therefore finally we have x > 2.)

(vi) f (x) = 1 + 1
ln(x) , D = R+ \ {1}

ln(3−x)
(vii) f (x) = 1−ln(x) , D = (0, 3) \ {e}
(For the numerator we have x < 3, for the ln(x) in the denominator we have x > 0, additonally
e is a zero of the denominator.)
 
(viii) f (x) = ln 1
x−1 , D = (1, ∞)

20
Exercise 4.4
For the functions below determine their maximum domain within R, provide a value table for the
listed arguments xi and sketch their graphs.
(i) f (x) = 21 x2 − 1; xi ∈ {−3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3}
(ii) g(x) = −2(x − 1)2 + 25; xi ∈ {−3, −1, 1, 3, 5}
x−1 3 1
 
(iii) h(x) = ; xi ∈ −4, −2, − , − , 0, 1, 3
x+1 2 2
Solution:

(i) f (x) = 12 x2 − 1, Df = R
x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
1 2
2x −1 3, 5 1 −0, 5 −1 −0, 5 1 3, 5

(ii) g(x) = −2(x − 1)2 + 25, Dg = R

x −3 −1 1 3 5
−2(x − 1)2 + 25 −7 17 25 17 −7

x−1
(iii) h(x) = , Dh = R \ {−1}
x+1
x −4 −2 − 32 − 12 0 1 3
x−1
x+1
5
3 3 5 −3 −1 0 1
2

21
Exercise 4.5
For the given functions f and g determine the maximum domains within R. Find codomains in a way,
that you can perform the compositions f ◦ g and g ◦ f and finally compute the compositions f ◦ g and
g ◦ f.
(i) f (x) = 2x, g(x) = x2
(ii) f (x) = e4x , g(x) = ln(x + 31 )
(iii) f (x) = 2x2 − 4x + 1, g(x) = x2 + 1
Solution:

(i) f : R → R, f (x) = 2x, g : R → R, g(x) = x2

Then we have Cg = R ⊆ Df = R and Cf = R ⊆ Dg = R, and we may form the compositions
f ◦ g : R → R and g ◦ f : R → R:
(f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x)) = f (x2 ) = 2x2
(g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x)) = g(2x) = (2x)2 = 4x2

(ii) f : R → R+ , f (x) = e4x , g : (− 13 , ∞) → R, g(y) = ln(y + 13 )

Then we have Cg = R ⊆ Df = R and Cf = R+ ⊆ Dg = (− 31 , ∞), and we may form the
compositions f ◦ g : (− 13 , ∞) → R+ and g ◦ f : R → R:
1 1 4
(f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x)) = f (ln(x + 13 )) = e4·ln(x+ 3 ) = eln((x+ 3 ) )
= (x + 13 )4
(g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x)) = g(e4x ) = ln(e4x + 13 )

(iii) f : R → R, f (x) = 2x2 − 4x + 1, g : R → R, g(x) = x2 + 1

Then we have Cg = R ⊆ Df = R and Cf = R ⊆ Dg = R, and we may form the compositions
f ◦ g : R → R and g ◦ f : R → R:
(f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x)) = f (x2 + 1) = 2(x2 + 1)2 − 4(x2 + 1) + 1 = 2x4 − 1
(g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x)) = g(2x2 − 4x + 1) = (2x2 − 4x + 1)2 + 1
= 4x4 − 16x3 + 20x2 − 8x + 2

Exercise 4.6
Which of the relations depicted by the diagrams are functions? Which of the functions are injective,
surjective or bijective?

(i) (iii)

(ii) (iv)

Solution:

22
 (i) not a function, because ∈ D is assigned to several elements

(ii) function; surjective, all elements of C occur as function values; not injective, because, e.g. and
are both mapped to 1; not bijective, because it’s not injective

(iii) function, injective, surjective and thus bijective, because every element of D is assigned to ex-
actly one element in C and vice versa

(iv) function; injective, because every element in C is assigned at most one element in D; not sur-
jective, because the values 2, 3 do not occur as function values; not bijective, because it’s not
surjective

Exercise 4.7 (At the bakery)

A young boy stretches the closed fist with loose money over the counter: ‘A bread, please!’ The
salesperson takes the coins saying: ‘Let’s see what kind of bread it shall be.’
What type of relation between the prices and the different kinds of bread must be in effect for this
case?
Solution: There needs to be a bijective map between the prices for bread (that occur in the baker’s
shop) and the kinds of bread they sell. I.e. every kind of bread has its unique price.
For example:
kind of bread price
farmhouse bread p1
brown bread p2
whole-grain bread p3
.. ..
. .
with pairwise different prices p1 , p2 , p3 . . .
If we consider an arbitrary amount of money as a possible bread price, then the bread-price-function
must at least be injective. Then the salesperson can deduct the kind of bread from the price, if that
price occurs for a certain kind of bread, or she may give the information, that there is no bread that
costs exactly this amount of money.

Exercise 4.8
For the functions below determine the related inverse function.
(i) f : [−1, 1] → [−5, 1], f (x) = 3x − 2
(ii) g : [0, ∞) → [0, ∞), f (x) = x4
(iii) h : R → (0, ∞), f (x) = 12 e4x
Solution:
(i) f : [−1, 1] → [−5, 1], f (x) = 3x − 2
Solve mapping rule for x:

y = 3x − 2 |+2
y + 2 = 3x |:3
y+2
=x
3
Interchange names of variables and roles of domain and codomain:
f −1 : [−5, 1] → [−1, 1], f −1 (x) = x+2
3

23
 (ii) g : [0, ∞) → [0, ∞), f (x) = x4
Solve mapping rule for x:
√
y = x4 | 4 · (extract 4th root)
√
4
y=x

Interchange names of variables and roles of domain and codomain:

√
g −1 : [0, ∞) → [0, ∞), g −1 (x) = 4 x

(iii) h : R → (0, ∞), h(x) = 21 e4x

Solve mapping rule for x:

1
y = e4x | · 2
2
2y = e4x | ln(·)
ln(2y) = 4x |:4
ln(2y)
=x
4
Interchange names of variables and roles of domain and codomain:
ln(2x)
h−1 : (0, ∞) → R, h−1 (x) = 4

Exercise 4.9
Find a function k for telephone costs, giving the total dues per month k(n) of a telephone extension
depending on the number n ∈ N0 of charge units used within a month. The tariff below is in effect:
• The basic fee is 9.90 € per month.
• The first 10 units per month are free of charge.
• Every additional unit is charged by 9 cents.

Solution: the function of costs k maps N0 into the (positive) real numbers. k : N0 7→ R+
The monthly dues (in euros) depending on the number of charge units n are given by:
(
9.90 for n ≤ 10
k(n) = |{z}
9.90 + max(0, n − 10) · 0.09 =
| {z } 9.00 + 0.09 · n for n > 10
fix start counting from 11

24
5 Equations and inequations

Exercise 5.1
Solve the linear equations.

(i) 5x + 2(1 − x) = 4 (iii) 3(2 − x) + (4x + 2) = 1 + x

(ii) 2(x − 4) + (6x + 1) + 2 = 8x − 5 (iv) x + a = 3x + 2 ,a ∈ R

Solution:

(i) 5x + 2(1 − x) = 4 ⇐⇒ 3x = 2 ⇐⇒ x = 2
3 hence L = { 23 }

(ii) 2(x − 4) + (6x + 1) + 2 = 8x − 5 ⇐⇒ 8x − 5 = 8x − 5 ⇐⇒ 0 = 0 hence L = R

(iii) 3(2 − x) + (4x + 2) = 1 + x ⇐⇒ 8 + x = 1 + x ⇐⇒ 8 = 1 hence L = ∅

(iv) For a ∈ R we have:

x + a = 3x + 2 ⇐⇒ a − 2 = 2x ⇐⇒ a
2 − 1 = x hence L = { a2 − 1}

Exercise 5.2
Solve the quadratic equations.

(i) x2 − 3x + 2 = 0 (iii) (x − 1)2 + 4x = −1

(ii) 2x2 + 6x = 8 (iv) 4x2 = 12x − 9

Solution:

(i) Completing the square: x2 − 3x + 2 = 0 ⇐⇒ x2 − 3x + 9

4 = −2 + 9
4 ⇐⇒ (x − 32 )2 = 1
4 ⇐⇒
x− 3
2 = 1
2 ⇐⇒ x = 3
2 − 1
2 = 1 or x = 3
2 + 1
2 =2
q q
Using pq formula: x1,2 = − −3
2 ± ( −3
2 ) −2=
2 3
2 ± 1
4 = 3
2 ± 1
2

For both cases we have: L = {1, 2}

(ii) 2x2 + 6x = 8 ⇐⇒ x2 + 3x − 4 = 0
Obviously x = 1 is a solution. Using Vieta’s formula the second solution is given by
(−4) : 1 = −4. Thus L = {−4, 1}

Of course theqequation can also q

be solved by using the pq formula:
x1,2 = − 2 ± ( 2 ) + 4 = − 2 ± 25
3 3 2 3
4 = −2 ± 2,
3 5
x1 = 1, x2 = −4

(iii) (x − 1)2 + 4x = −1 ⇐⇒ x2 + 2x + 1 = −1 ⇐⇒ (x + 1)2 = −1 hence L = ∅

| {z }
≥0

Alternatively by using pq formula for the reduced form x2 + 2x + 2 = 0 :

√
x1,2 = −1 ± (−1)2 − 2 = −1 ± −1 hence no real-valued solutions
p

25
(iv) 4x2 = 12x − 9 ⇐⇒ 4x
|
2
12x + 9} = 0 ⇐⇒ |2x − 3| = 0 ⇐⇒ x =
− {z 3
2 hence L = { 32 }
=(2x−3)2
=0
√
z }| {
2
Alternatively by using abc formula for 4x2 − 12x + 9 = 0 : x1,2 = 12± 128 −4·4·9 = 32
q
or by using pq formula for the reduced form x2 − 3x + 9
4 =0 : x1,2 = 32 ± ( 32 )2 − 94 = 3
2
| {z }
=0

Exercise 5.3
For the solution sets given below, indicate the corresponding quadratic equation in reduced form.

(i) L = {−5, 5} (iii) L = {−1}

n o n √ √ o
(ii) L = 0, 12 (iv) L = 2 − 3, 2 + 3

Solution:

(i) Vieta’s formula: p = −(5 − 5) = 0, q = (−5) · 5 = −25 ⇒ x2 − 25 = 0

or expansion of linear factors: (x + 5)(x − 5) = x2 − 25 = 0

(ii) Vieta’s formula: p = −(0 + 21 ) = − 12 , q =0· 1

2 = 0 ⇒ x2 − 12 x = 0
or expansion of linear factors: (x − 0)(x − 12 ) = x2 − 12 x = 0

(iii) Vieta’s formula: p = −(−1 − 1) = 2, q = (−1) · (−1) = 1 ⇒ x2 + 2x + 1 = 0

or expansion of linear factors: (x + 1)(x + 1) = x2 + 2x + 1 = 0
√ √
(iv) Vieta’s formula: p = −((2 − 3) + (2 + 3)) = −4,
√ √
q = (2 − 3) · (2 + 3) = 4 − 3 = 1 ⇒ x2 − 4x + 1 = 0
√ √
or expansion
√ of linear factors:
√ (x − (2 − 3)(x − (2 + 3) =
((x − 2) + 3)((x − 2) − 3) = (x − 2) − 3 = x − 4x + 1 = 0
2 2

Exercise 5.4
Transform, whenever possible, the given terms into a product of linear factors.

(i) x2 − 4 (iii) x2 + x − 6
(ii) 2x2 − 4x (iv) x2 + 1

Solution:

(i) x2 − 4 = (x − 2)(x + 2)

(ii) 2x2 − 4x = 2x(x − 4) = 2(x − 0)(x − 4)

(iii) x2 + x − 6 = 0 has the solution set L = {−3, 2}

x2 + x − 6 = (x + 3)(x − 2)

(iv) x2 + 1 has no real-valued roots and therefore within R itdoesn0 thavearepresentationasproduct

of linear factors.

26
Exercise 5.5

(i) Verify that x1 = 2 is a solution of the equation x3 −4x2 +2x+4 = 0 and find all further solutions.
(ii) Find all real-valued solutions of the equation 2x4 = 3x2 + 2 .
Solution:

(i) Insertion of x1 = 2 yields 23 − 4 · 22 + 2 · 2 + 4 = 8 − 16 + 4 + 4 = 0. Thus x1 = 2 solves the

equation.
Polynomial division to reduce the degree of the polynomial:
(x3 −4x2 +2x+4) : (x − 2) = x2 − 2x − 2
−x3 +2x2
−2x2 +2x +4
+2x2 −4x
−2x +4
+2x −4
0
√
Further solutions are obtained (e.g.) by pq formula: x2,3 = 1 ± 12 − (−2) = 1 ± 3
p
n √ √ o
L = 1 − 3, 2, 1 + 3

(ii) The biquadratic equation 2x4 = 3x2 + 2 by substitution x2 = y ≥ 0 is transformed into a reduced
form quadratic equation y 2 − 23 y − 1 = 0 with the solutions
q
y1,2 = 3
4 ± ( 34 )2 + 1 =
± 45 , y1 = 2, y2 = − 12 . Because of x2 = y ≥ 0 only y1 = 2 yields
3
4
√ √
solutions for x: L = {− 2, 2}

Exercise 5.6
Find the error in the calculation below, that seemingly shows, that 1 = 0:
x = 1 |·x
x2 = x |−1
x2 − 1 = x − 1 |3rd binomial formula
(x + 1) · (x − 1) = x − 1 |reduce (x − 1)
x+1 = 1 |−1
x = 0 Thus we have x = 1 and x = 0 and therefore 1 = 0 ?

Solution:
x = 1 |·x
x = x
2 |−1
x2 − 1 = x − 1 |3rd binomial formula Because of x = 1 inadmissibly
(x + 1) · (x − 1) = x − 1 |reduce (x − 1) there is a division by 0.
x+1 = 1 |−1
x = 0 Thus we have x = 1 and x = 0 and therefore 1 = 0 ?

Exercise 5.7
Specify the maximum domain D of the equations with fractions or roots and solve the equations.
√
(i) x+3
x−1 = 2x+1
x+2 (iii) 10x − 4 + 3x = 2
q √ √
(ii) x−2
x+1 =2− x+1
x+2 (iv) 1 + 2x = x − 2

Solution:

27
 (i) x+3
x−1 =
x+2 ,
2x+1
D = R \ {−2, 1}
x+3 2x + 1
= |·(x − 1)(x + 2)
x−1 x+2
⇐⇒ (x + 3)(x + 2) = (2x + 1)(x − 1) |expand
⇐⇒ x2 + 5x + 6 = 2x2 − x − 1 |collect terms
⇐⇒ x2 − 6x − 7 = 0 |solve quadratic equation
⇐⇒ x = −1 or x = 7 hence L = {−1, 7}

(ii) x−2
x+1 =2− x+2 ,
x+1
D = R \ {−2, −1}
x−2 x+1
= 2− |common denominator for rhs
x+1 x+2
x−2 x+3
⇐⇒ = |·(x + 1)(x + 2)
x+1 x+2
⇐⇒ (x − 2)(x + 2) = (x + 3)(x + 1) |expand
⇐⇒ x2 − 4 = x2 + 4x + 3 −x2 − 3; : (4)
⇐⇒ − 74 = x hence L = {− 47 }

√ h 
(iii) 10x − 4 + 3x = 2, D= 2
5, ∞
√
10x − 4 + 3x = 2 |−3x
√
⇐⇒ 10x − 4 = 2 − 3x (·)2
=⇒ 10x − 4 = 2
9x − 12x + 4 |−10x + 4
⇐⇒ 0 = 9x2 − 22x + 8 |solve quadratic equation
4
⇐⇒ x= 9
or x=2
Testing p 40 p4
x = 94 : 9
−4+3· 4
9
= 9
+ 4
3
=2 (X)
√
x=2: 10 · 2 − 4 + 3 · 2 = 4 + 6 = 10 6= 2 (7) L = { 49 }

q √ √
(iv) 1+ 2x = x − 2, D = [2, ∞) ⇐= (x ≥ 0 for lhs and x ≥ 2 for rhs)
p √ √
1 + 2x = x−2 (·)2
√
=⇒ 1 + 2x = x−2 |−1
√
⇐⇒ 2x = x−3 (·)2
=⇒ 2x = 2
x − 6x + 9 |−2x
⇐⇒ 0 = x2 − 8x + 9 |solve quadratic equation
√ √
⇐⇒ x=4− 7
x = 4 + 7 or
√
4 − 7 < 2 is outside of the domain D = [2, ∞) of the equation.
q q v
√ p √ p √ u s √
Check for x = 4 + 7: 1+ 2(4 + 7) = 1+ 8+2 7=u
t1 + 1 + 2 7 + 7
| {z }
| {z } √
lhs =(1+ 7)2
p √ p √ √
= 1+1+ 7= (4 + 7) − 2 (X) L = {4 + 7}
| {z }
rhs

Exercise 5.8
Specify the maximum domain D of the logarithmic and exponential equations and solve the equations.
2 −3
(i) lg(20) + lg(25x) = 4 − lg(20x) (iii) 31−x = 27x
(ii) ln( x1 ) + ln(x2 ) = ln(1 − x) − 1 (iv) 2x+2 − 4 · 3x−1 = 3x−2 + 3 · (3x−1 − 2x−1 )

Solution:
(i) lg(20) + lg(25x) = 4 − lg(20x) , D = (0, ∞)
lg(20) + lg(25x) = 4 − lg(20x) ⇐⇒ lg(20 · 25x · 20x) = 4 ⇐⇒ lg(10 000 x2 ) = 4 ⇐⇒
lg(104 ) +2 lg(x) = 4 ⇐⇒ lg(x) = 0 ⇐⇒ x = 1, ⇒ L = {1}
| {z }
=4

28
 x > 0 for lhs and
(
(ii) ln( x1 ) + ln(x2 ) = ln(1 − x) − 1, D = (0, 1) ⇐=
x < 1 for rhs
   
x2
ln( x1 ) + ln(x2 ) = ln(1 − x) − 1 ⇐⇒ ln x(1−x) = −1 ⇐⇒ ln x
1−x = −1 ⇐⇒
 
ln 1−x
x = 1 ⇐⇒ 1−x
x = e ⇐⇒ 1
x − 1 = e ⇐⇒ x = 1
1+e ∈D hence L = { 1+e
1
}

2 −3
(iii) 31−x = 27x , D=R
2 −3
x2 −3 2 −9
31−x = 27x ⇐⇒ 31−x = 33 ⇐⇒ 31−x = 33x ⇐⇒ 1 − x = 3x2 − 9 ⇐⇒
3x2 + x − 10 = 0 ⇐⇒ x = −2 or x = 5
3 hence L = {−2, 35 }

(iv) 2x+2 − 4 · 3x−1 = 3x−2 + 3 · (3x−1 − 2x−1 ), D=R

2x+2 − 4 · 3x−1 = 3x−2 + 3 · (3x−1 − 2x−1 ) ⇐⇒ 4 · 2x − 4
3 · 3x = 91 3x + 3x − 3
2 · 2x ⇐⇒ 11
2 · 2x =
 x  2
22
9 · 3x ⇐⇒ 2
3 = 4
9 = 2
3 ⇐⇒ x = 2 hence L = {2}

Exercise 5.9
Solve the equations with absolute values.

(i) |4x − 1| = 7 (iii) x2 − 2x = x

(ii) |x − 1| + 2 |x − 2| = 2x (iv) |2x − 1| + 1 = x2

Solution:

(i) |4x − 1| = 7
Case 1 x < 41
−4x + 1 = 7 |−1; : (−4)
⇐⇒ x = − 23 hence L1 = {− 23 }
Case 2 x ≥ 41
4x − 1 = 7 |+1; : 4
⇐⇒ x = 2 hence L2 = {2}
L = L1 ∪ L2 = {− 32 , 2}

29
 (ii) |x − 1| + 2 |x − 2| = 2x
Case 1 x<1
1 − x + 2(2 − x) = 2x
⇐⇒ 5 − 3x = 2x |+3x; : 5
⇐⇒ 1 = x hence L1 = {} , since x = 1 6∈ (−∞, 1)
Case 2 1≤x<2
x − 1 + 2(2 − x) = 2x
⇐⇒ 3 − x = 2x |+x; : 3
⇐⇒ 1 = x hence L2 = {1}
Case 3 2≤x
x − 1 + 2(x − 2) = 2x
⇐⇒ 3x − 5 = 2x |−2x + 5
⇐⇒ x = 5 hence L3 = {5}
L = L1 ∪ L2 ∪ L3 = {1, 5}

(iii) x2 − 2x = x
⇐⇒ |x(x − 2)| = x
Case 1 x ≤ 0 or x ≥ 2
x(x − 2) = x |−x
⇐⇒ x(x − 3) = 0
⇐⇒ x = 0 or x = 3 hence L1 = {0, 3}
Case 2 0<x<2
−x(x − 2) = x |: (−x)
⇐⇒ x − 2 = −1 |+2
⇐⇒ x = 1 hence L2 = {1}
L = L1 ∪ L2 = {0, 1, 3}

(iv) |2x − 1| + 1 = x2
Case 1 x < 21
1 − 2x + 1 = x2
⇐⇒ x
|
2
+ {z
2x + 1} = 3
=(x+1)2 √ √ √
⇐⇒ x = −1 +
| {z
3} or x = −1 −
| {z
3} thus L1 = {−1 − 3}
≥ 21 < 12
Case 2 x≥ 1
2
2x = x2 |: x (alright, because of x 6= 0)
⇐⇒ 2 = x thus L2 = {2}
√
L = L1 ∪ L2 = {−1 − 3, 2}

Exercise 5.10
A financial position (a so-called put front-spread) consists of
• two put options (short) on a share with price S with a (low) strike K1 = 50 and maturity T ,
• one put option (long) on the same share with (high) strike K2 = 70 and maturity T .

30
 (i) Analytically and graphically denote the payoff Z of the financial position as a function of the
share price S at maturity T .
(ii) Determine the share prices S, for which the payoff Z of the position at maturity T
a) is positive,
b) is below −10.
Solution:

(i) Determination of payoff Z:

financial position = − 2 puts with strike K1 + 1 put with strike K2
Z = − 2 max(K1 − S, 0) + max(K2 − S, 0)

 S − 2K1 + K2
 , for 0 ≤ S ≤ K1
Z = K2 − S , for K1 < S ≤ K2
 0

, for K2 < S

 S − 30
 , for 0 ≤ S ≤ 50
= 70 − S , for 50 < S ≤ 70
 0

, for 70 < S

(ii) a) Z > 0, D = [0, ∞)

• Case 1: 0 ≤ S ≤ 50
Z > 0 ⇐⇒ S − 30 > 0 ⇐⇒ S > 30 ⇒ L1 = (30, 50]

• Case 2: 50 < S ≤ 70
Z > 0 ⇐⇒ 70 − S > 0 ⇐⇒ 70 > S ⇒ L2 = (50, 70)

• Case 3: 70 < S

Z > 0 ⇐⇒ 0 < 0 ⇒ L3 = ∅
z }| {

L = L1 ∪ L2 ∪ L3 = (30, 70)

b) Z < −10, D = [0, ∞)

• Case 1: 0 ≤ S ≤ 50
Z < −10 ⇐⇒ S − 30 < −10 ⇐⇒ S < 20 ⇒ L1 = [0, 20)

• Case 2: 50 < S ≤ 70
Z < −10 ⇐⇒ 70 − S < −10 ⇐⇒ S {z 80}
| > ⇒ L2 = ∅
not within case
• Case 3: 70 < S

Z < −10 ⇐⇒ 0 < −10 ⇒ L3 = ∅

z }| {

L = L1 ∪ L2 ∪ L3 = [0, 20)

31