MODULE C1 - SOIL pH

WHAT IS SOIL pH (SOIL REACTION)?

Soil pH is a measure of the acidity or the alkalinity of a soil solution. Acidity or alkalinity results
from the presence of naturally occurring chemical ions dissolved in soil water. Ions are simply
molecules with an electrical charge. Positively charged ions are called cations and negatively
charged ions are called anions.
Soils which have high levels of basic cations (especially calcium [Ca++] and magnesium [Mg+
+]) are referred to as alkaline soils. These soils are commonly found in arid (dry) and semi-arid
regions including most of the Canadian prairies. Soils developed under forest vegetation are
often leached of their basic ions. The basic ions are replaced with hydrogen cations (H+) from
decomposing tree leaves and the soils become acidic. This is common in the upper horizons of
gray wooded soils of Western Canada.

Technically speaking, pH is a measure of the hydrogen ions as compared to hydroxyl ions (OH-)
often found in a solution. pH values are expressed on a scale of 0-14.
a) when there are more hydrogen ions (H+) than hydroxyl ions (OH-), the solution is said to be
acidic, and the values will range from 0-7
b) if there are more OH- ions, the solution is said to be alkaline or basic and the values will
range from 7-14.
c) if there is an equal concentration of H+ and OH- ions, the solution is said to be neutral and
the value is 7.

Therefore, soil pH refers to the acidity or alkalinity of a soil solution, or simply, a measure of the
hydrogen ion (H+) concentration in the soil solution.
This pH scale is a logarithmic scale. This means that each whole number unit represents a
tenfold change in the H+ or OH- ion concentration. For example, a pH change from 5 to 4 would
represent a tenfold increase in H+ ion concentration.

MEASURING SOIL pH IN THE FIELD

As stated earlier, soil pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration in the soil solution.
Although many precise methods of pH analysis can be used in a lab, including very sensitive pH
meters, they are not practical to perform in the field. Field methods are very useful for getting
quick information, but the results are no better than a close approximation of actual soil pH. For
this reason, it is more realistic to report field pH measurements according to classes of soil
reaction rather than specific numbers.

Soil Reaction Classes and pH Values

REACTION CLASSES pH VALUES

Extremely Acid < 4.5

Very Strongly Acid 4.6 - 5.0

 Strongly Acid 5.1 - 5.5

Medium Acid 5.6 - 6.0

Slightly Acid 6.1 - 6.5

Neutral 6.6 - 7.3

Mildly Alkaline 7.4 - 7.8

Moderately Alkaline 7.9 - 8.4

Strongly Alkaline > 8.5

The Hellige-Truog method, which identifies soil pH according to color changes which occur
when certain chemicals are added to the soil sample, is one quick way to determine the
approximate soil pH in the field.

ACTIVE AND RESERVE ACIDITY

Active acidity refers to the hydrogen ions in the soil which are actively moving about in soil
solution. It is these active ions what are measured by a pH test. However, many of the H+ ions
in the soils are not in solution but are adsorbed to soil particles. These hydrogen ions (H+)
become active in soil water when active hydrogen is neutralized by the addition of agricultural
lime. The adsorbed ions are referred to as the reserve acidity of the soil. Reserve acidity is
neither detected in a pH test nor does it add to the acid character of a soil, but it has a major
effect in resisting changes in pH.
Soils with high levels of clay and organic matter usually have high reserve acidity because the
particles have such large surface areas on which to hold ions. Therefore, soils done easily
change pH. Sandy soils with low levels of clay and organic matter have low reserve acidity, and
change pH more easily.

BUFFERING CAPACITY
Buffering capacity is the soil’s ability to resist changes in pH when acid or alkaline materials are
added to it and is directly related to the reserve acidity of the soil
Soils with high levels of clay and humus resist changes in pH because of the large reserve
capacity of neutralizing ions they can hold.

For example, soil with a high reserve acidity will resist changes in pH when alkaline material like
lime is added. This is because acid is released from the reserve to replace the active H+ ions
that have been neutralized by the lime. Obviously, a larger amount of lime would have to be
added to raise the pH of an acid soil with a high buffering capacity. To decide how much lime to
apply to raise soil pH for a given soil it is important to consider clay and organic matter content.

Similarly, alkaline soils with high lime reserve are well buffered against pH changes when acids
are added to the soil. Sulphur is often used as a soil amendment to lower the pH of an alkaline
soil. Although the chemical reaction is slower than that of lime to neutralize acid soils, the
buffering capacity in the soil (in this case the amount of basic cations such as Ca++ or Mg++
held on negatively charged clay and organic matter surfaces) influences the amount of Sulphur
required to lower the pH to the target level.

The effect of buffering capacity on pH changes in soil can be compared to the effect of a coffee
urn’s size on changes in the level of coffee seen in a sight glass.
When a cup of coffee is poured from a large urn, the fluid level in the sight class falls but
will quickly rebound close to its original level. Similarly, the pH of a soil with a large
alkaline reserve is initially lowered by the addition of acidic materials but then returns to
its original levels as calcium and magnesium move from the reserve into the active
portion of the soil.
When a cup of coffee is poured from a small urn, the fluid level in the sight glass will
drop and remain lower than its original position. This is because only a small reserve of
coffee is available to replace the coffee that was removed. Similarly, the pH of poorly
buffered soils (such as sandy soils with low organic matter contents) will be more easily
lowered by additions of acidic materials.

THE EFFECT OF SOIL pH ON PRODUCTIVITY

Soil pH can have a profound effect on productivity. Soil conditions affected by pH include:
- availability of nutrients
- toxicity of elements
- microbial activity
- crop adaptation

Availability of Nutrients
The nutrient phosphorus becomes less available to plants at pH levels below 5.5 and
above 7.5. High levels of calcium carbonate [CaCO3] (also referred to as free lime)
found
in soils with pH above 7.5, will reduce the amount of phosphorus and micronutrients
available by tying them up in insoluble forms. Carbonates can be identified by applying
10% HCl acid to the soil and noting any effervescent (fizzing) that occurs.
Toxicity of Elements
- aluminum (Al), manganese (Mn), and iron (Fe) are more soluble below a pH of 5.5 and
can become toxic to plants
- high concentrations of H+ in soils with pH below 5 may damage plant roots directly
- sodium [Na+] may be toxic to plants at pH levels of 8.5 and higher
Microbial Activity
The beneficial activities of soil microorganisms, such as the release of nutrients to the
soil solution, are most efficient in neutral pH ranges. Overall, microbial activity is reduced
in soils below pH 6 of above pH 8, although specific organisms are tolerant to pH values
outside this range.
Herbicide residues sometimes become a problem in soils with pH values outside the
optimum ranges.
Crop Adaptation
 -each crop species has a preferred pH range for highest productivity
- productivity will drop significantly in soils with a pH outside of the preferred range

CALCAREOUS SOILS
Many soils in western Canada were developed on calcareous parent materials which have high
levels of calcium and magnesium carbonates. These salts are only slightly soluble and therefore
do not cause salinity problems. When carbonate salts are present in high amounts, however,
they reduce plant growth by raising pH and interfering with the uptake of other plant nutrients.
Calcareous soils can be easily detected by dropping dilute HCl (acid) onto a soil sample and
watching for effervescent (fizzing). Soils with this problem are also said to have high free lime.

pH Adaptation of Turfgrass

Species Optimum pH Range

Kentucky Bluegrass 6.0 - 7.5

Annual Bluegrass 5.5 - 7.5

Creeping Red Fescue 5.5 - 6.5

Chewing Fescue
Tall Fescue
Bentgrass

Buffalograss 6.0 - 8.5

Crested Wheatgrass

Ryegrass 5.5 - 8.0

ADJUSTING SOIL pH
Soil pH changes over time through natural processes. Decomposition of soil organic matter by
microbes’ releases H+ into the soil system. This acidification process can be sped up by soil
management practices such as adding of ammonium or Sulphur fertilizers.
Soil’s pH can be also adjusted upwards through the addition of ground calcium carbonate
(CaCO3 or lime). The amounts of lime and Sulphur required to affect a given pH change is
influenced by the soil’s buffering capacity. Therefore, texture and organic matter contents are
important factors to consider in deciding on the quantities of amendments (amounts of
limestone or Sulphur) required to adjust soil pH.

Lime Chart

pH REACTION Tons per acre

ground limestone
needed to raise pH
to 6.5
 8.5 Alkali At pH 6.5 and above lime is not needed.
(Sodium Carbonate) A pH range 6.5 to 8.0 is favorable for all
but a few plants (acid - loving)

8.0 Alkaline
(Calcium Carbonate)

7.0 Neutral

6.5 Very Slightly Acid

6.0 Slightly Acid Sandy Soils 2

Loams and Clays 3

5.5 Medium Acid Sandy Soils 3

Loams and Clays 5

5.0 Strongly Acid Sandy Soils 4

Loams and Clays 7

4.5 Very Strongly Acid Sandy Soils 5

Loams and Clays 9

4.0 Extremely Acid Sandy Soils 6

Loams and Clays 11

SUMMARY
Soil pH is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of the soil solution. Active acidity is easily
measured using a pH testing kit. Reserve acidity is more difficult to determine and depends on
the H+ ions attached onto soil surfaces of tiny soil particles. The reserve acidity influences how
easily the pH of a soil can be changed by the addition of lime or acid forming fertilizers. Soil pH
influences crop growth by affecting nutrient availability, toxic soil ions, microbial activity and crop
adaptation. A firm understanding of soil pH allows you to adapt to pH problems, or even change
the quantity of soils in order to improve crop production.
PRACTICE QUESTIONS MODULE C1
1. Explain the terms cation and anion.
A cation is a positively charged molecule whereas an anion is a negatively charged molecule.

2. How many more H+ ions would be found in a soil solution at pH 5 compared to a solution at
pH 7?
Since each drop in pH of one unit increases concentration 10 times, there are 100 times more
H+ ions in a solution at pH 5 compared to pH 7.

3. Which of the soils separates has the biggest influence on the reserve acidity of a soil?
Explain why.
Clay particles have the biggest influence on reserve acidity because they have large surface
areas on which they can hold ions.

4. What is the meaning of “buffering”?

Buffering is the ability to resist change

5. Which major nutrient becomes less available to plants as the soil pH becomes increasingly
alkaline, Nitrogen, Phosphorus or Potassium?
Phosphorus

6. Which element, other than Hydrogen, have toxic effect on plant growth in very acidic soils?
Aluminum, manganese and iron may all have toxic effect on plant growth.

7. Which element may cause toxic problems to plant growth in soils with a pH of 8.5 or more?

8. Which crop is be more suitable to grow in a soil with a pH of 5.4 wheat, alfalfa or oats?
Oats.

9. Which crop would be more suitable to grow in a soil with a pH of 8.0 blueberries, rye or wheat
grass?
Wheat grass.

10. What material can be added to raise the pH of acid soils?

Calcium carbonate also known as lime, is added to soils to raise pH.

ASSIGNMENT MODULE C1
1. You are called to investigate the cause of poor growth in a nearby field. The farmer has been
cropping this field for over 30 years alternating between alfalfa, barley, canola and rye. All these
crops were equally successful for the first 20 years but in the past decade the alfalfa has been
dying out and the barley and canola yields have dropped despite a steady increase in the use of
other fertilizers. A recent soil test indicates no sign of salinity and the soil pH is 5.7. The test
holes you dig show a well-structured clay loam soil with no evidence of compaction.

a) Explain why you think the yields of some crops have been dropping the past decade.
The reserved acidity is dropping as there are not the same amount of H+ molecules in the soil
anymore. This may be caused by crop adaptation.

b) What should the farmer do to fix the problem?

The farmer should apply 5 tonnes per acre of lime to raise the soil acid level to 6.5 (the desired
level).

2. Many fields contain a variety of soil textures. A measure of soil pH at various locations
throughout the field is likely to show the lowest pH values areas with sandy texture. Explain why
this is so.
Sandy soils have low organic matter and therefore have lower reserved acidity, making it easier
for them to change pH levels.

3. Explain how a bottle of dilute HCl could be used to diagnose fields that are likely to be
deficient in phosphorus, iron or manganese.
High levels of lime in the soil will cause the soil to be deficient in phosphorus, iron or
manganese. When dilute HCl is applied to CaCO3 (lime), it begins to effervescence (fizz).

4. Indicate one crop that could be grown in each of the soils below and then estimate the
amount of ground limestone that would be required to adjust the soil pH to 6.5.

Soil Texture Soil pH Suitable Crop Lime required to

raise pH to 6.5

Sandy Loam 6.0 Kentucky Bluegrass 2

Clay 5.1 Blueberries 7

Loam 4.5 Sugar Beet 9

MODULE C2 - SOIL SALINITY

SOIL SALINITY AND ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY
What is Soil Salinity?
All soils contain salts. The salts may be in crystal form, or they may be dissolved in the soil
solution. Many of these salts are plant nutrients, which make them beneficial to growing crops.
In some cases, the salts in soil may occur in very high concentrations reducing crop growth.
When this happened, soil is called saline.

What is Electrical Conductivity (EC)?

Soil salinity is usually expressed in terms of electrical conductivity of a solution. Electrical
conductivity (EC) measures the capacity of soil solution to conduct an electrical current. The
ability of electricity to move through soil is called the salt content of a soil solution, therefore,
essentially, a measure of soil salinity. Soils with high salt contents have greater capacities to
conduct an electrical current and therefore have higher EC’s. The conductivity of a soil is
expressed by the equivalent units deciSiemens/cm (mS/cm). The standard unit used on soil test
reports is mS/cm.

Definition of a Salt
Salts are crystalline compounds that consist of cations (positively charged ions) bound to anions
(negatively charged ions). When salt compounds come in contact with water the anions and
cations come apart, allowing them to dissolve. Soluble salts dissolve easily and quickly and
have the greatest effect on soil productivity. Insoluble salts dissolve very slowly and have a
limited effect on plant growth. These two classes of salts are defined according to their solubility
relative to gypsum (CaSO4).
-Soluble salts are defined as those with greater solubilities than gypsum. An example is
table salt which is 148 times more soluble than gypsum.
Soluble salts may have a significant impact on soil productivity.
-Insoluble salts are those which are less soluble than gypsum. An example is lime.
Insoluble salts have limited effect on soil productivity.
Thousands of kids of salts exist in soils but the most common ones are listed below.

Common Cations and Anions in Soil Solutions

CATIONS ASSOCIATED ANIONS SALT

Ca+2 + CO-2 Calcium carbonate

+ SO3 -4 Calcium sulphate
+ Cl – 4 Calcium chloride

Mg+ + CO-2 Magnesium carbonate

+ SO3 -4 Magnesium sulphate
+ Cl – 4 Magnesium chloride

Na+ + HCO- Sodium bicarbonate

+ SO-2 3 Sodium sulphate
+ Cl-4 Sodium chloride
CLASSES OF SOIL SALINITY
How Saline Soils Differ from Alkali or Alkaline Soils
The term saline is often confused with alkali or alkaline in everyday usage, but each of these
has a different meaning.

Saline – refers to the total concentration of soluble salts regardless of the type of soil. Any soil
with an EC>4mS/cm is defined as saline.

Alkali – refers to the soils where sodium (Na) is the dominate soluble salt. High levels of sodium
salts will cause soil aggregates to break down and lead to the formation of columnar structures
like those found in Solonetzic soils. The degree to which a soil is affected by the sodium salts
depends on the levels of calcium and magnesium in the soil. Since these two ions promote soil
aggregation.

The ratio of sodium to calcium and magnesium is called the Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR).
Soils with SAR values greater than 12 will have serious problems and are called sodic. The high
sodium content of sodic soils will also cause the pH to rise to 8.5 or more.

Saline-sodic- refers to soils where the total salt levels are high (EC is >4) and the ratio of
sodium to calcium and magnesium salts is also high (SAR>12).

Alkaline – simply refers to any soil with a pH>7.3. Moderately alkaline soils are not necessarily
saline and are often very productive, but the term alkaline is often confused with saline in
everyday speech.

*Flocculation – soil particles being cemented together.

How Salinity Differs from Other Soil Conditions

Soil Conductivity SAR Soil Reaction Surface Appearance
Condition mS/cm (pH)

Saline >4 <12 <8.4 Sometimes white surface crusts

are obvious. Soil remains
flocculated.

Saline-sodic >4 >12 >8.5 Vary between saline and sodic

conditions.

Sodic <4 >12 >8.5 Sodic areas in a field drain

poorly and may occur as
eroded its known as “blowouts”.

Acid <4 <12 <6.0 May have platy Ae horizon or

be structureless.
 Alkaline <4 <12 7.4 – 8.5 Normal
(basic)

Neutral <4 <12 6.5 – 7.3 Normal

ORIGIN OF SOIL SALTS

Soil salts originate from the soil parent materials. In most cases these salts provide beneficial
effects for plant growth and soil structure, but problems arise when salt levels become
excessive. Excessive salt levels may occur in:
a) Areas where saline bedrock or parent materials are close to the soil surface.
b) Areas where salts have been transported and concentrated near the surface by
groundwater movement. Saline groundwater may move to the soil surface for many reasons,
depending on the local bedrock and groundwater hydrology. But the most common situation for
the development of saline soils occurs in rolling countryside. The saline groundwater seeps out
along lower slopes and bottoms of hills creating wet patched that dry up later, leaving salts
behind. Saline soils develop in this way when four conditions are met:
- there must be a recharge zone where water enters the soil and moves downward into the
water table
- there must be a source of soluble salts where ground water can flow and pickup salts in
solution
- there must be a water table created above a layer of low permeability such as bedrock or
clay lens
- There must be a movement through the water table towards the soil surface at a discharge
zone where water evaporates and salts remain at the surface. This can occur in a mid-slope
position or lower slope position

● cannot tell the difference between acidic and alkali patches

RECOGNIZING SALINE SOILS IN THE FIELD

There are a number of indicators that will help you recognize when you may have a problem
with salinity. These include:
● white crust at the soil surface
● areas in a field that dry up slowly in the spring
● areas that “green up” after harvest
● areas of poor crop growth
● dead or dying trees
● presence of salt-loving vegetation such as kochia, foxtail barley and red samphire

Some of the indicators listed above are evidence of groundwater movement to soil surface.
These wet areas may not necessarily be causing salinity. If any of the conditions are present in
a field a soil test can be used to confirm the presence of concentrated salts.
EFFECT OF SOIL SALINITY ON CROP PRODUCTIVITY
Soil salts reduce crop productivity for three main reasons:
- they may be toxic to plants
- they may affect soil structure adversely
- they inhibit the uptake of water by plant roots

Toxicity
A high concentration of salt in plants will disrupt normal metabolic processes, causing the crop
to fail or grow very poorly. Crops such as tall wheatgrass and Russian wild rye are more tolerant
of high levels of soil salts that crops such as wheat or canola.

Salt Tolerance of Various Crops

CROP LOW MODERATE HIGH VERY HIGH

( 0 -4 mS/cm) ( 4 – 8 mS/cm) (8 – 16 mS/cm) (>16 mS/cm)

Forage Timothy Sweet clover Tall wheatgrass Alkali grass

Red top <-- alfalfa Slender wheat
Alsike clover Brome --> Russian wildrye
Red clover Crested wheat Kochia
White clover Intermediate wheat Western wheat
Meadow foxtail Meadow fescue Bromegrass
Orchard grass Reed canary

Annual Peas Sugar beats Sugar beets

Field Field beans Barley --> barley
Fall rye
Wheat
Oats
Flax
Canola

Vegetable Sweet corn Garden beets

Potatoes Asparagus
Carrots Spinach
Beans cabbage

Soil Structure
Saline soils with high levels of sodium salt cause soil aggregates to break apart and disperse
(deflocculate). These small dispersed soil particles reform into hard columnar structures which
essentially “seal off” to the air, roots and water movement. The more common calcium and
magnesium salts do not have negative effects on soil structure.

Soil Water Uptake

Soil water will move from an area of low salt concentration to an area of high concentration by
the process of osmosis. Normally this causes water to move from the soil solution (low salt
concentration) into plant roots (high salt concentration). In soils with very high levels of soluble
salt, water will reverse its direction by either moving out of the plant roots into the soil or it will
simply not move at all. It prevents a plant from taking up enough soil water and causes it to wilt.

MANAGEMENT OF SALINE SOILS

Managing saline soils involves two basic objectives
1. to establish salt tolerant plats
2. to stop the movement of salty groundwater to the surface in discharge areas

1. Establish a salt tolerant plant is the most direct way to make saline land more
productive. Wheat grasses and other salt tolerant forages are useful for this purpose.
When the establishment of tame forage species is impossible, native plants, including
foxtail barley and kochia, should be allowed to establish. These plants not only prevent
erosion but also may be managed as forage.
2. Stopping the process of salty underground movement is another management technique
When saline problems are the result of ground water movement, the strategies should be to:
- Find the recharge and discharge zones in the affected field. This may require help from a
qualified engineer
- Reduce infiltration into the recharge zone. This can be achieved by growing a vigorous
crop which uses up the soil water before it can move down to the water table.
A perennial crop like alfalfa is superior to annual crops for this purpose. Summer fallow must be
completely avoided in recharge areas
- Lower the water table in the discharge zone. This can be done by establishing salt tolerant
perennial crops or by installing subsurface drainage systems. Salt tolerant perennials will use
groundwater before it rises to the soil surface. This will stop the movement of salt into the upper
soil layers. Subsurface drainage will maintain the water table at a level below the rooting zone of
crops. Once the water table has been lowered, rainfall or irrigation water in the discharge area
can leach the surface salts down out of the rooting zone.
In many cases, installing irrigation and subsurface drainage is not economical. Usually the most
reasonable solution is to establish a salt tolerant vegetation. This will not remove salts from the
soil but it will stop the spread of the salt affected area.

SUMMARY
In this activity you have learned the relationship between electrical conductivity and soil salinity.
The conductivity of a soil solution is recorded in milliSiemens/cm, the standard unit used on soil
test reports.
Knowing the conductivity level of a soil solution allows you to determine the appropriate field
crops that can be grown in such a soil.

PRACTICE QUESTIONS MODULE C2

1. What is the relationship between electrical conductivity and soil salinity?
Electrical Conductivity is a measurement of the ability of a soil to conduct electrical current.
Conductivity is directly proportional to the presence of soil salt.
 1. Given the following information about a soil sample, identify whether the soil is saline,
sodic, saline-sodic, alkaline, acid or neutral.
a. EC = 5 SAR = 13 pH = 7.5
Saline – sodic
a. EC = 6 SAR = 10 pH = 8.3
Saline
a. EC = 3 SAR = 10 pH = 7.4
Alkaline
a. EC = 3 SAR = 15 pH = 8.6
Sodic

1. If the conductivity value is 4 mS/ cm, which annual crop should be grown; peas, red
clover, sugar beets or field peas?
Sugar beets.

1. The ECx10^3 value is 0.45 mS/cm. The best vegetable crop to grow is garden beets,
peas, red top or any vegetable crop?
Any vegetable crop.

1. When the EC value is 7mS/cm, which of the following crops could be grown; any crop,
barley, salt tolerant crops or only very high salt tolerant crops?
Barley.

1. The most appropriate forage crop that can be recommended for a soil with an EC value
of 5mS/cm is potatoes, red clovers, alfalfa, red top or timothy?
Alfalfa.

MODULE C3 - SOIL COLLOIDS

WHAT ARE SOIL COLLOIDS?
The ability to soils to supply nutrients for plant growth depends largely on the smallest of all soil
particles known as colloids. Soil colloids are defined as particles with a diameter of less
than .001 mm. While this places them within the clay texture size category (<.002 mm), they
may be composed of both clay and humus (organic matter) particles.

PROPERTIES OF SOIL COLLOIDS

The two most important characteristics of soil colloids from the viewpoint of plant nutrition are as
follows:
- they have a huge surface area per volume of soil compared to silt or sand sized particles
- Negative electrical charges are found along their surfaces

You will see in this section how these two characteristics make it possible for soil colloids to be
both a storehouse of nutrients and a regulator of their release to plant roots.

KINDS OF COLLOIDS
If you could view colloids under an electron microscope, you would see vast numbers of
particles floating in the thin films of water that separate them. On close examination two kinds of
particles would be seen: Clay and humus.
- Clay Particles
o Clay particles sometimes appear like wafer-thin crystals, haphazardly stacked like
playing cards dropped on a table. While not all clays are rectangular, they share the
characteristic of having very large surface areas per gram of soil. Various clays have been
calculated to have from 15 to 800 m2 of surface areas per gram! Furthermore, this surface area
contains negative charges capable of attracting large number of positively charged particles
(cation) from the soil war. The negative charge in clays is essentially permanent. However, the
amount of charge can vary considerably among kinds of clays.
- Humus Particles
o Humus particles are highly decomposed bits of organic matter with irregular shapes
which are mixed in among the clay crystals. Humus particles also have negatively charged sites
distributed along their surface that interacts with dissolved ions in the soil water. Humus
particles contain higher levels of negative charge per gram than clay.

PLANT NUTRIENTS
These six plant nutrients taken from the soil in largest amounts are called macronutrients. They
are:
Nitrogen (N) Phosphorus (P) Potassium (K) Sulphur (S) Calcium (Ca)
Magnesium (Mg)

Not all forms of these elements can be taken up and utilized by plants, however. For a nutrient
element to be taken up, it must be dissolved in water and it must be one of the available forms
are ions; that is, they have an electrical charge which enables them to be dissolved in water.
Ions with a positive charge are called cations. Ions with negative charges are called anions.

The Ionic Forms of Major Nutrients Available to Plants

Nutrient Element Plant Available Cation Plan Available Anions

Nitrogen NH4+ (ammonium) NO3- (nitrate)

 Phosphorus H2PO4- + HPO4 =
(orthophosphate)

Potassium K+

Sulphur SO4 (Sulphate)

Calcium Ca++

Magnesium Mg++

ION ADSORPTION AND CATION EXCHANGE

Ion Adsorption
The ionic charge of each available nutrient determines how it behaves in the soil. Most of the
cation nutrients dissolve in soil water will be drawn to the negatively charged colloid surfaces
where they are loosely held or absorbed. Cations with strong charges (such as Ca++) are
adsorbed more tightly than those with a weaker charge (such as K+). Anions, on the other hand,
are not adsorbed but rather remain mobile in the soil water. This mobility not only makes these
nutrients more able to reach plant roots, but also more subject to leaching if the soil water
should drain out of the plant rooting zone.
H+> Al+3 > Ca+2 > Mg+2> K+ = NH4+>Na+

Cation Exchange
Cations adsorbed onto soil colloids are not permanently fixed in that one of two ways:
-An adsorbed cation may switch with a cation of a similar charge from a soil solution. For
example, a Ca++ ion dissolved in a soil solution may move close to a colloid surface and switch
places with an equally charged Mg++ ion (or perhaps two K+ ions) adsorbed to the colloid.
Plants take advantage of this exchange process by giving off H+ ions from their roots into the
soil solution. These H+ ions may replace nutrient cations such as NH4+ and Ca++ that are
adsorbed on colloid surfaces. Once removed from colloid surfaces, the nutrient cations can be
taken up by plants.
- Cations may also be exchanged by a process known as “dynamic equilibrium”. Dynamic
equilibrium is natural chemical process which establishes a relationship between the amounts of
a given cation on adsorption site and the amount of a given cation on adsorption sites and the
amounts of that cation in soil water. When the equilibrium between adsorbed and mobile cation
is disturbed, it will naturally re-establish itself. In this way, cations are continually released from
exchange sites into soil solution to replace the nutrient cations taken up by growing plants. The
reverse may also occur. If high concentrations of a cation accumulate in soil water (due perhaps
to fertilizer additions), the equilibrium will be re-established by moving the excess amount of
cations to adsorption sites. This movement of cation fertilizer nutrients from solution to
adsorption site effectively stores the nutrients and prevents them from being leached.

THE EXCHANGE COMPLEX

The adsorption and exchange of nutrients occurs in the zone of soil water surrounding colloids
known as the “exchange complex”. The exchange complex consists of three components: (1) a
negatively charged colloid surface, (2) a layer of adsorbed cations concentrated near the
surface, and (3) the mobile ions located in the rest of the soil water.

CATION EXCHANGE CAPACITY

Soils are often compared on the basis of their capacity to adsorb nutrient cations and exchange
them into soil solution. This is known as cation exchange capacity and is measured in units of
milliequivilent/100 grams of soil, which are essentially units of negative charge. Generally
speaking, soils with high CEC are more fertile than those with low CEC.

Typical CEC of Soils of Various Textures

SOIL TEXTURE CEC (me/100g)

Sands 1–5

Loams & Silt Loams 5 – 15

Clay Loams 15 – 30

Clays >30

Organic Soils >100

A rough estimate of a soil’s CEC can be calculated of the clay and organic matter % are known.
The formula used is:

Approx CEC (meq/100g) = (1/2 clay %) + (2 x OM %) where OM = Organic matter

For example, a soil with 20% clay and 5% organic matter would have a CEC of roughly:
(20 x 0.5) + (5 x 2.0) = 20 meq/100g

NUTRIENT AVAILABILITY
The properties of soil colloids (large surface areas carrying a negative charge) effect plant
nutrient availability in three main ways:
- the negative charges, found on colloid surfaces, act as storehouses of plant nutrients by
preventing them from being leached away
- the exchange reactions that occur on colloid surfaces act to regulate the supply of cations
by releasing cations when solution levels are low, and adsorbing them when solution levels are
high
- most anion nutrients are not adsorbed to soil colloids to a significant extent and therefore
are both highly available to plants and susceptible to leaching

Some negatively charged ions including phosphate are not susceptible to leaching because
other reactions restrict their mobility. Phosphate, for example, combines very readily with Ca++
ions in soil solution to form fairly insoluble minerals. Nitrate NO3- and sulphate SO4 --, on the
other hand, do not react readily with available cations and therefore remain highly mobile,
available for plant uptake or subject to leaching.

PRACTICE QUESTIONS MODULE C3

1. Define cation.
Cation is a positively charged ion.

2. Name two fundamental properties of soil colloids that enable them to act as nutrient
storehouses.
a) The negative electrical charge found on soil colloid surfaces that is capable of adsorbing
cations.
b) The large surface area per volume of soil which provides many positions for cations to be
adsorbed.

3. What is meant by CEC?

Cation Exchange Capacity. The capacity of a soil to adsorb cations and exchange them in
solution.

4. Rank the CEC of the following materials from highest to lowest.

a) sandy loam b) clay c) organic soil d) loam
Organic soil, clay, loam, sandy soil.

5. State the relationship between CEC of a soil and its susceptibility to nutrient loss by leaching.
The higher the CEC, the larger the total number of cation nutrients that can be adsorbed by the
soil and prevented from leaching. Therefore, leaching potential drops as CEC rises.

6. Write out the chemical symbols for the macro nutrient ion that are taken up by roots as
cations.
NH4+ (ammonium)
K+ (potassium)
Ca++ (calcium)
Mg++ (magnesium)