Technological Institute of the Philippines - Manila
(ChE Research 1, First semester, 4th year - Group 1)
Production of Chalk using Calcium derived
from Tilapia Bones
[1] Keinth Joseph Pintoy Cantor, [2] Krizzia Anne Sheng Cemanes Mauricio, [3] Khim Julius De Luna Patiño,
[4] Queenie Rose Insigne Percil, [5] Ma. Stephanie Tinambunan Santos, [6] Patricia Kaye Macalindong Vidal
Key Words: chalk, calcium, fish bones, calcium oxide,
calcium carbonate, tilapia
I. INTRODUCTION
Background of the Study
Chalk has been around since 19th century as one
of the leading writing instruments in schools. It is
widely used by teachers and students during class
discussions and reports. In the Philippines, both
private and public schools make use of the chalk
mainly because of its affordability and effectiveness
as a teaching tool.
According to an article posted by the North
Carolina University entitled “Mini-Encyclopedia of
Papermaking Wet-End Chemistry”, Chalk is a form of
calcium carbonate having the same chemical
composition as ground calcium carbonate, limestone,
marble, and precipitated calcium carbonate (PCC).
Calcium carbonate is a chemical compound with
the formula of CaCO3. This very common substance
is found in our natural environment and it can be
found all around the world. It is one of the most
common compounds found from within the earth’s
surface and it helps to make up as much as 7 percent
of the earth’s crust. This compound is commonly
found in rocks and many of the outer shells of marine
animals found in the ocean. Calcium carbonate in its
pure form is odorless white powder or clear white
crystals. It has no taste. It is created when Calcium
ions in hard water react with carbonate ions which
create a substance called lime scale (Chase Allen,
2013).
One good natural source of Calcium is the bones
of Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). It is also a good
source of protein and is popular among commercial
fisheries. The annual production around the world is
about 1,500,000 tons with the approximate value of
1.8 billion U. S. dollars, which is similar to total value
of salmon and trout. (Bung-Orn Hemung, 2013).
Cantor, Keinth Joseph Pintoy,
Chemical Engineering Department, Technological
Institute of the Philippines, Quiapo, Manila City,
Phone:09274797236.
(email: keinthjoseph19@gmail.com)
Mauricio, Krizzia Anne Sheng Cemanes,
Chemical Engineering Department, Technological
Institute of the Philippines, Quiapo, Manila City,
Phone:09272311594.
(email: krizziamauricio@gmail.com )
Patiño, Khim Julius De Luna, Chemical
Engineering Department, Technological Institute of
the Philippines, Quiapo, Manila City,
Phone:09752039488.
(email: khimtip1310081@gmail.com)
Percil, Queenie Rose Insigne,
Chemical Engineering Department, Technological
Institute of the Philippines, Quiapo, Manila City,
Phone:09168206602.
(email: inniedc14@gmail.com )
Santos, Ma. Stephanie Tinambunan,
Chemical Engineering Department, Technological
Institute of the Philippines, Quiapo, Manila City,
Phone:09479296263.
(email: stephaniesantoscloud3721@gmail.com)
Vidal, Patricia Kaye Macalindong,
Chemical Engineering Department, Technological
Institute of the Philippines, Quiapo, Manila City,
Phone:09363398285. (email: pkmvidal@yahoo.com)
In a study, Marine capture fisheries contribute
over 50% of total world fish production, and more
than 70% of this production has been utilized for
processing. As a result, every year a considerable
amount of total catch is discarded as processing
leftovers and these include trimmings, fins, frames,
heads, skin, and viscera. (FAOSTAT, FAO statistical
databases, fisheries data, Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations, 2001)
Recent estimates revealed that current discards
from the world’s fisheries exceed 20 million tons
equivalent to 25% of the total production of marine
capture fish. Therefore, there is a great potential in
marine bioprocess industry to convert and utilize
more of these by-products as valuable products.
(Won-Kyo Jung, Fereidoon Shahidi, Se-Kwon Kim,
2008)
The aforementioned statements served as basis
for the conduction of this study.
Significance of the Study
This study will be of great significance to a
number of people especially to teachers and students
who are the primary users of chalk.
The researchers believe that the results of this
study will be beneficial as well to lessen the
environmental impact by utilizing some of waste fish
bones disposed by commercial and household units.
Furthermore, this research can also serve as future
reference for studies of the same interest.
Scope and Delimitations
The scope of this research is to evaluate the
feasibility of producing chalk from fishbone as the
main raw material. The research has also its
limitations. The study is limited only to the existing
literature about chalk production and fishbone since
there are no existing researches about the production
of chalk from fishbone.
It requires a deep understanding on all aspects
underlying behind the production of chalk, and the
fishbone as the main raw material from which
Calcium carbonate will be produced. It is important to
know all of the things involved in the process of chalk
production and it is a requirement to have enough
knowledge on different parameters that is being
considered.
II. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
Review of Related Literature and Studies
Chalk is calcium carbonate and has the same
chemical composition as limestone, marble, ground
calcium carbonate and precipitated calcium carbonate.
The most common chemical formulas for chalk are
CaCO3 (calcium carbonate) and CaO (calcium
oxide). Chalk is a soft, porous sedimentary rock that
is a form of limestone and is mainly composed of
calcite (calcium carbonate).
Marine capture fisheries contribute over 50% of
total world fish production, and more than 70% of
this production has been utilized for processing. As a
result, every year a considerable amount of total
catch is discarded as processing leftovers and these
include trimmings, fins, frames, heads, skin, and
viscera. In addition to fish processing, a large
quantity of processing by-products are accumulated
as shells of crustaceans and shellfish from marine
bioprocessing plants. Recent estimates revealed that
current discards from the world’s fisheries exceed 20
million tons equivalent to 25% of the total
production of marine capture fisheries. Therefore,
there is a great potential in marine bioprocess
Industry to convert and utilize more of these by-
products as valuable products. However, most of
these recycled products possess low economic value.
Recently, bioactive compounds from remaining fish
muscle proteins, collagen and gelatin, fish oil, fish
bone, internal organs, and shellfish and crustacean
shells were reviewed by Kim and Mendis. Among
fish by-products, fish bone or skeleton is considered
as a potential source to obtain calcium, which is an
essential element for the human health. However,
only few studies have been carried out to identify
bioavailability of fish bone calcium and its potential
applications.
Generally, calcium is obtained from the diet and it
is severely deficient in most of the regular diets.
Therefore, to improve calcium intake, several calcium
fortified products are in the market and demand for
these products is growing continuously. It is well
documented that consumption of whole small fish is
nutritionally beneficial providing with a rich source of
calcium. Calcium in fish could be absorbed to the
body as tested in vivo. However, very little
information is available on the beneficial effects of
larger fish bone and few attempts have been made to
test their usage for benefits of human health. Fish
bone material derived from processing of large fish is
a useful calcium source where the quantity of calcium
is concerned. To incorporate fish bone into calcium-
fortified food, it should be converted into an edible
form by softening its structure. This can be achieved
utilizing different methods including hot water
treatment and hot acetic acid solutions. In this study,
it has been observed that calcium-binding activity of
the fish bone peptides (FBP) II was similar to that of
CPP. Further, the pH of the reaction system was
maintained at 7.8, because low pH could increase the
solubility of the insoluble calcium salt. As reported by
Jiang and Mine, the solubility of 36.3 mgL of Ca
could be obtained at 200 mgL of the
oligophosphopeptide from egg yolk phosvitin with
35% phosphate retention, and the solubility was
higher than that of commercial CPP II (Meiji
Seika Co., Ltd., Tokyo, Japan). Furthermore, in
vivo studies with osteoporosis modeling rat have
elucidated that the FBP II f ractionated in the
molecular weight range of 5.0–1.0 kDa increased Ca
solubility and bioavailability. Menopause is a time
when estrogen deficiency leads to accelerated bone
resorption and negative bone balance. Another study
has been undertaken to evaluate the beneficial effects
of FBP as a Ca fortifier in osteoporosis induced by
ovariectomy and a concurrent low-Ca diet. During the
experimental period corresponding to the menopause
with osteoporosis disease, the loss of bone mineral
(Ca) was decreased by FBP II supplementation in the
ovariectomized rats. After the low-Ca diet, the FBP II
diet, including both normal levels of Ca and vitamin
D, significantly decreased Ca loss in feces and
increased Ca retention as compared with the control.
The levels of femoral total Ca, bone mineral density,
and breaking strength were also significantly
increased by FBP II diet to a level similar to those of
the CPP diet group (no difference; P < 0.05). Based on
these data, it was suggested that increased Ca retention
by FBP II intake may lead to the prevention of mineral
loss in the osteoporosis-modeling rats. As reported by
Larsen et al. [3,4], the intake of small fish with bones
can increase Ca bioavailability, and the small fish may
be an important source of Ca, especially in population
groups with low intake of milk and dairy products.
Thus, these results prove the beneficial effects of fish
meal in preventing Ca deficiency owing to increased
Ca bioavailability by FBP intake. Furthermore, there
is a potential to these fish peptides to provide a novel
nutraceutical with a high bioavailability for Ca to
Oriental people with lactose indigestion and
intolerance and Ca-fortified supplements, such as fruit
juice or Ca-rich foods, as alternatives to dairy
products. (Calcium from Fishbone and other Marine
Resources)
Calcium is generally obtained from dairy
products, broccoli, tofu, oysters, sardines and similar
soft sources of bone. Edible fishbone contains a high
amount of calcium. In general, there is a lack of
scientific documentation of nutritional value of marine
by-products. The bone fraction from fish has been
regarded as waste. Due to the high mineral content of
fish bones, this material can be well suitable as a
natural calcium source. Fishbone ash consists of 34-
36% calcium, particularly calcium phosphate.
Fishbone of Nile Tilapia (Tilapia nilotica), available
as waste from a fish leather factory, should be a
potentially good source of calcium. (Development of
calcium supplement from the bone of Nile Tilapia
(Tilapia nilotica))
Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) was originally found
in Africa. Tilapia is the good source of protein and
also it is popular among commercial fisheries. It can
be fed by algae or plant-based feed. Therefore, the
cost of production can be reduced practically. China is
the largest tilapia producer country followed by
Egypt. The annual production around the world is
about 1,500,000 tones with the approximately value of
1.8 billion U. S. dollars, which is similar to total value
of salmon and trout. The whole tilapia can be
processed into skinless and boneless fillets. The yield
of these processes has been reported in the range of
30-37 %, depending on fish size and trimming
process. Thereafter, the left parts of fish have been
turned to be waste or by-products. The left part
contains bone, skin, protein, scale, fat, and blood. In
the left part, bone is the main component consisting
of 10-15% of total fish biomass. Bone is also the
source of important minerals: sodium, phosphorous,
and calcium. Among them, calcium ion (Ca2+) is
important for development of human bone and teeth
particularly in infant. Utilization of fish bone can be a
natural source of Ca2+ for being food ingredient and
Ca2+ supplementary. It would be the strategy to
maximally utilize fish resource as well as to
effectively reduce the waste from fishery industry.
As far as the bioavailability of Ca 2+ in the
supplementary has been concerned, the bioavailability
should be tested. It can be performed based on the
enzymatic reaction. This is because Ca2+ is the
cofactor for several enzymes. Since the reaction is
dependent on available Ca2+, this reaction could be
used to evaluate the bioavailability of soluble Ca2+.
Therefore, the objective of this study was to produce
and characterize tilapia bone powder. In addition, the
bioavailability of Ca2+ in the tilapia bone powder
was also investigated, which is based on the activity
assay of crude tTGase from tilapia muscle.
(Properties of Tilapia Bone Powder and Its Calcium
Bioavailability Based on Transglutaminase Assay)
Conceptual Framework
In this research, we are going to use calcium
derive from tilapia bone to make a chalk. We decided
to use tilapia fish bone instead of other fish since this
is more efficient since it will yield to more product.
In general, there is a lack of scientific
documentation of nutritional value of marine by-
products. The bone fraction from fish has been
regarded as waste. Due to the high mineral content of
fish bones, this material can be well suitable as a
natural calcium source. In the present study, apparent
calcium absorption of different fish bone sources was
tested using growing pigs. The experimental diets
consisted of boiled salmon frames, or salmon, saithe
or cod bones treated with enzymes. Calcium
carbonate (CaCO(3)) was used as control. The
experimental diets were formulated to contain 0.7%
total calcium of which the added calcium source to be
tested contributed about 71% (study 1) and 86%
(study 2). Except for the calcium and phosphorus
sources, the animals received similar basal diets.
Apparent calcium digestibility coefficient was
calculated using yttrium as indicator (both studies)
and was based on complete collection of faeces and
urine (study 2). The experimental design was parallel
and cross-over in study 1 and study 2, respectively. In
study 1, piglets getting salmon bone treated with
enzymes had significantly higher calcium absorption
than piglets getting boiled fish bone or calcium
carbonate. Therefore, in the second study only
enzymatically treated fish bones were included. The Research Paradigm
higher calcium absorption from enzymatically treated
salmon bone was also found in study 2, but this time INPUT
not significant. Calcium from boiled salmon bones in
study I, and from enzymatically treated saithe and cod A. Knowledge Requirements:
bones in study II were absorbed as well as the calcium  Chalk Properties
carbonate control. The results indicate that fish bones  Tilapia Bones Properties
may be a useful and well absorbed calcium source.  Chalk-making Procedures
Due to the high mineral content of the bone fraction, B. Hardware Requirements:
 Oven
salmon bones can be well suitable as a natural calcium
 Beaker
and phosphorus source in, for example, food, feed or  Mortar and Pestle
as supplement. (© 2010 The Authors. Journal of  Funnel
Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition © 2010  Filter
Blackwell Verlag GmbH.)  Petri dish
 Dry ice
Chalk is formed naturally from limestone, a  Mold
sedimentary rock that is made of calcium carbonate.  Analytical Balance
Limestone deposits develop as coccoliths (minute  Blackboard Surface
calcareous plates created by the decomposition of
plankton skeletons) accumulate, forming sedimentary
layers. Plankton, a tiny marine organism, concentrates
the calcium found naturally in seawater from 0.04 PROCESS
percent to 40 percent, which is then precipitated when
the plankton dies. (Boynton, Robert, 1980) A. Collecting fish bones
B. Drying fish bones
The whole tilapia can be processed into C. Extracting Calcium from fish bones
skinless and boneless fillets. The yield of these  Alkaline Treatment with NaOH
processes has been reported in the range of 30-37 %,  Neutralization with HCl
depending on fish size and trimming process.  Filtration
Thereafter, the left parts of fish have been turned to be  Pulverization
waste or by-products. The left part contains bone, D. Converting Calcium to Calcium Carbonate
skin, protein, scale, fat, and blood. In the left part,  Oxidation of Calcium
bone is the main component consisting of 10-15% of  Hydration of Calcium Oxide
total fish biomass. Bone is also the source of  Precipitation of Calcium Carbonate
important minerals: sodium, phosphorous, and E. Making of Chalk
calcium. Among them, calcium ion (Ca2+) is  Molding of Calcium Carbonate
important for development of human bone and teeth F. Tests to be Conducted
particularly in infant. Utilization of fish bone can be a 1. Compatibility with Blackboard Surface
natural source of Ca2+ for being food ingredient and 2. Brittleness
Ca2+ supplementary. It would be the strategy to 3. Density
maximally utilize fish resource as well as to 4. Texture
effectively reduce the waste from fishery industry.
(Bung-Orn Hemung, 2013)
Chalk is usually made by stirring calcium
carbonate, color pigment, clay, and a binding agent to OUTPUT
form a doughy material, which is then pressed into Final Chalk
cylindrical shapes and cut into sticks of chalk. But for
this research, to make chalk, the researchers must first
extract the calcium from the “tilapia bones”. Then the
derived calcium from “tilapia bones” will be Evaluation of Acceptability
converted to calcium carbonate through the oxidation
of calcium.
Definition of Terms III. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY OR
OPERATIONAL FRAMEWORK
For a better understanding of this study, the following
terms are operationally defined. Project Design
Chalk. A soft, porous sedimentary rock that is a form
of limestone and is mainly composed of calcite Below is the experimental diagram of the study
(calcium carbonate).
Identify Chalk Properties
Calcium. A substance that is found in most plants and
animals and that is especially important in people for
strong healthy bones. It is well documented that Chalk Making
consumption of whole small fish is nutritionally
beneficial providing with a rich source of calcium. 1. Chalk from Tilapia Bones

Fish bones. The main component consisting of 10-

15% of total fish biomass. Bone is also the source of
important minerals: sodium, phosphorous, and Testing of the Chalk
calcium.
1. Chalk from Tilapia Bones
Calcium Oxide. A caustic solid CaO that is white Test Conducted
Compatibility with Blackboard Surfaces
when pure and that is the chief constituent of lime.
Brittleness
Density
Calcium Carbonate. A chemical compound with the Texture
formula of CaCO3. Calcium carbonate in its pure form
is odorless white powder or clear white crystals. It has
no taste. It is created when Calcium ions in hard water
Evaluation of Acceptability
react with carbonate ions which create a substance
called lime scale. 1. Chalk from Tilapia Bones

Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). The good source of

protein and also it is popular among commercial
Results
fisheries. It can be fed by algae or plant-based feed.

Limestone. A sedimentary rock that is made of

calcium carbonate.
Coccoliths. Minute calcareous plates created by the
decomposition of plankton skeletons
Plankton. A tiny marine organism, concentrates the
calcium found naturally in seawater from 0.04 percent
to 40 percent, which is then precipitated when the
plankton dies.
Calcium Ion (Ca2+). It is mportant for development
of human bone and teeth particularly in infant.
Utilization of fish bone can be a natural source of
Ca2+ for being food ingredient and Ca2+
supplementary.
Proposed Testing and Operational
Procedures
Proposed Testing
We will test the product breaking strength,
how clear it writes, the dust it produces since
people nowadays prefer chalk that is dustless, its
effects on humans since some people are allergic
to chalk, we will also test if it is smooth and if it
is erase cleanly. The product that we will make
from this will be tested on blackboards.
Operational Procedure
 The process of taking the calcium from tilapia
fish bones:
Fish bone material derived from processing
of large fish is a useful calcium source where the
quantity of calcium is concerned. To incorporate
fish bone into calcium-fortified food, it should be
converted into an edible form by softening its
structure. This can be achieved utilizing different
methods including hot water treatment and hot
acetic acid solutions. In addition, (Ishikawa et al.)
used superheated steam to reduce the loss of
soluble components from fish tissue and that
enabled better recovery of bone within a shorter
period. Furthermore, the treated bones need to be
subjected to saponification, degreasing, and
degumming. Biological utilization and clinical
trial showed that the bone preparation is a good
source of bioavailable calcium, much better than
common calcium powders. ( Jung et al.)
Performed enzymatic degradation in acetic acid
solution (pH 2.0) by pepsin to easily dissolve
both mineral and organic parts of fish bone.
( Calcium from Fish Bone and Other Marine
Resources Won-Kyo Jung, Fereidoon Shahidi,
and Se-Kwon Kim)
The treated fish bones were milled for
easy handling. The product of fish bone powder is
small particle size, white colour and without fish
odour. The Ca : P ratio of fish bone extract
powder was close to 2:1 and its calcium content
of three kinds of fish bone occurs between from
21g and 24 g per 100g of fish bone extract
powder. (Luu, P. H.; Nguyen, M. H.)
of limestone necessary to make chalk suitable for
writing purposes. Wet grinding is carried out in
ball mills—rotating steel drums with steel balls
inside that pulverize the chalk until it is very fine.
ii. Dehydrating gypsum
Gypsum, like treated fish bones, is also
quarried and pulverized. The major difference in
processing gypsum is that it must be dehydrated
to form calcium sulfate, the major component of
colored chalk. This is done in a kettle, a large
combustion chamber in which the gypsum is
heated to between 244 and 253 degrees
Fahrenheit (116-121 degrees Celsius). It is
allowed to boil until it has been reduced by
twelve to fifteen percent, at which point its water
content will have been reduced from 20.9 percent
to between 5 and 6 percent. To further reduce the
water, the gypsum is reheated to about 402
degrees Fahrenheit (204 degrees Celsius), at
which point it is removed from the kettle. By
now, almost all of the water has evaporated,
leaving calcium sulfate.
iii. Sifting, cleaning, and shipping
the chalk
The particles of chalk or calcium sulfate
are now conveyed to vibrating screens that sift
out the finer material. The ensuing fine chalk is
then washed, dried, packed in bags, and shipped
to the manufacturer. Upon receiving chalk or
calcium sulfate, the chalk factory usually grinds
the materials again to render them smooth and
uniformly fine.

The process of making chalk from the Calcium of

tilapia fish bones:
iv.
i. Pulverizing the chalk
Pulverized to meet the demands of the
chalk industry. The first step is primary crushing.
Various crushers exist, but the principle is the
same: all compress the treated fish bones with
jaws or a cone, or shatter it through impact.
Secondary crushing is accomplished by smaller
crushers that work at higher speeds, producing
pebbles which are then ground and pulverized.
The next phase, wet grinding, washes
away impurities. It is used to make the fine grade
Making white classroom chalk
To make white classroom chalk, the
manufacturer adds water to form a thick slurry
with the consistency of clay. The slurry is then
placed into and extruded from a die—an orifice
of the desired long, thin shape. Cut into lengths
of approximately 24.43 inches (62 centimeters),
the sticks are next placed on a sheet that contains
places for five such sticks. The sheet is then
placed in an oven, where the chalk cures for four
days at 188 degrees Fahrenheit (85 degrees
Celsius). After it has cured, the sticks are cut into
80 millimeters lengths.
 v. Making colored classroom chalk determined using a tap density test apparatus
employing USP type I test in which the cylinder is
Pigments (dry, natural, colored raised by a height of 14+2 mm and then allowed to
drop under its own weight.
materials) are mixed in with the calcium
carbonate while both are dry (the procedure is
similar to sifting flour and baking powder
together before adding liquid, as in a cake recipe).
Water is then added to the mixture, which is then
baked in the same manner as white classroom
chalk.

(Boynton, Robert. Chemistry and

Technology of Lime and Limestone. John Wiley &
Sons, 1980.
Cobb, Vicki. The Secret Life of School
Supplies. J. B. Lippincott, 1981.
Institution of Civil Engineers Staff, eds.
Chalk. American Society of Civil Engineers,
1990.)

Proposed Method of Evaluation

The chalk will be evaluated by teachers,
professors and students. They will use the sample in
blackboards. The test panel was evaluated in terms of
[1] how clear the experimental chalk will be once
used in the blackboard. [2] It will also be evaluated in
in terms of found particle (dust) size measurement
during writing process. Large particle size favors
sedimentation in the air rather than staying in air for a
longer time. This makes good quality carbonate chalks
dustless. [3] Another is terms of breaking strength
based on breaking strength Instrument which gives
vertical compressive load value. Compressive strength
was measured to understand behavior of chalk particle
interaction. Tightly packed particle generate less dust
and give higher breaking strength whereas loosely
pack particle generate more dust and also having less
breaking strength. This Instrument gives maximum
load (KGF) applied on chalk. LabVIEW based serial
communication system is used to acquire data in to
computer and to observe real time chart. It is observed
that when chalk breaks it gives peak from high to low
load. The necessary features like to store data in excel
and store maximum peak value during experiment
was developed in the software. [4] And lastly is in
terms of measuring the poured bulk density of CaCO3
powder using tapped density apparatus, this powder
mainly used as a raw material in chalks. For the
measurement gently filling the powder sample in a
glass cylinder by keeping the cylinder in a slightly
inclined position and pouring the powder into it so as
to avoid the compaction of the powder during free
fall. The poured volume and mass of powder were
noted. The tap density of powder samples were