NURS 106 FINAL OUTCOMES

1. Define the terms “Anatomy” and “Physiology”.

2. Define each of the following levels of organization that make up the human body:
chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, and system.
3. Identify the principle systems of the human body and list representative organs of
each system.
4. Describe the orientation of the human body in the anatomical position.
5. Define several directional terms used in association with the anatomical position of
the human body.
6. List and describe the types of body movements that can occur at various joints, for
example, abduction, adduction, flexion and extension, etc.
7. Describe the principal body cavities, the organs they contain.
8. Name and describe the abdominopelvic quadrants. Understand the clinical application
of abdominopelvic quadrants.
9. Discuss the principle of homeostasis as a central theme of physiology
10. Describe the components of a feedback system.
11. Describe the nature of negative and positive feedback loops and explain how these
mechanisms help to maintain homeostasis.
12. Describe the basic composition of matter.
13. Define the terms atomic mass and atomic number
14. Explain the formation of chemical bonds including ionic, covalent, and hydrogen
bonds.
15. Distinguish between nonpolar and polar covalent bonds
16. Define a chemical reaction and describe the various types of chemical reactions.
17. Differentiate between inorganic and organic chemicals
18. Define the term “carbohydrate, and list the functions of carbohydrates in the body.
19. Define the term “lipid” and list the functions of lipids in the body.
20. Define the term “protein” and list the main functions of proteins.
21. Define the term “nucleic acid” and describe the structure of a nucleotide.
22. Describe briefly the steps of protein synthesis.
23. Explain how RNA is produced according to the genetic information in DNA and
distinguish between the different types of RNA.
24. Outline the events that occur in the four phases of mitosis.
25. Describe the events that occur in meiosis, and compare them to those that occur in
mitosis.
26. Define a cell and list its principal parts.
27. Describe the structure of the plasma (cell) membrane and explain its functional
significance.
28. Describe the structure and functions of the following cellular structures: cytoplasm,
nucleus, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum (ER), Golgi complex, mitochondria,
vaults, lysosomes, perioxisomes, cytoskeleton, centrioles, flagella, and cilia.
29. Describe the structure and composition of plasma membrane and different types of
cell to cell adhesions.
30. Compare and contrast passive and active cell transport processes.
31. Describe the processes of diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis, and filtration.
32. Define the term tonicity and distinguish between isotonic, hypertonic, and hypotonic
solutions.
33. Describe the characteristics of active transport.
34. Compare exocytosis and endocytosis for similarities and differences.
35. Define the term “tissues”, and classify the tissues of the body into 4 major types.
36. Discuss the distinguishing characteristics of epithelial tissue.
37. List the structure, location and function for the basic types of epithelial tissue.
38. Discuss the distinguishing characteristics of connective tissue.
39. List the structure, function, and location of the basic types of connective tissue.
40. Define the term “membrane” and describe the location and functions of the
membranes listed below:
1. mucous membrane (mucosa)
2. serous membrane (serosa)
3. cutaneous membrane
4. synovial membrane
41. Compare and contrast the three types of muscle tissue with regard to structure,
function and location.
42. Discuss the basic structure and function of neural tissue
43. Define the term integumentary system and describe the functions.
44. Identify the four types of cells found within the epidermis and their protective
functions.
45. Explain the basis for different skin colour.
46. List and identify the various type of glands associated with the skin.
47. Compare and contrast sebaceous and sudoriferous (sweat) glands
48. Identify the different types of bone cells and list the functions of each.
49. Describe the histological features of bone tissues.
50. List and describe the gross feature of a long bone.
51. Classify bones on the basis of their shapes, locations and give examples for each
type.
52. Describe how the skeleton is divided into axial and appendicular divisions.
53. Identify the bones of the axial skeleton.
54. Identify the bones of the skull and sutures.
55. Skull bone
1. Identify the sutures
2. Identify the cranial bones, frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital, mastoid
process (feel in your head)
3. Identify the facial bones, maxilla, mandible, nasal, zygomatic bone
4. Identify the foramen magnum
5. Identify the names and functions of paranasal sinuses
56. Describe the general structure of vertebrae and explain the primary and secondary
curves.
1. Count the number of vertebral bones and identify cervical, thoracic, lumbar,
sacrum and coccyx
2. Describe the atlas, axis, and features of typical cervical vertebra
3. Describe the special characteristic features of cervical, thoracic and lumbar
vertebrae
4. Feel the spinous process of the 7th cervical spine on your neck
57. Identify the parts of the rib cage and compare and contrast the various types of ribs.
1. Count the pairs of ribs, how many true ribs, false and floating ribs? What are
the features?
2. Identify head, neck, costal angle, costal groove and body of the rib bone
3. Count the intercostal spaces on your body. Feel the collar bone and sternal
angle.
4. Identify sternum, sternal angle, suprasternal notch, xiphoid process. Feel for
the trachea at supra sternal notch on your body.
58. Identify the bones of the pectoral girdle and upper limb and their prominent surface
features.
59. Identify the bones that form the pelvic girdle and lower limb and their prominent
surface features
60. Scapula
Identify anterior and posterior surface, spine, acromion process, glenoid cavity
61. Identify the following bones and its parts in the upper extremity.
1. Clavicle – sternal end and acromial end
2. Humerus – Proximal, distal, shaft (diaphysis), head, lateral and medial
epicondyles, condyles (capitulum, trochlea)
3. Radius – Head, neck, shaft
4. Ulna – Olecranon, shaft, head and styloid process
5. Carpals, Metacarpals and phalanges of the hand
62. Identify the following bones and its parts in the lower extremity.
1. Bones of the pelvis, anterior superior iliac spine, obturator
foramen, acetabulum and list the skeletal differences between male and female
pelvis
2. Femur – Head, neck, proximal and distal end, greater and lesser trochanter,
shaft, lateral and medial condyle and epicondyle
3. Fibula – Head, shaft, lateral malleolus (how to identify medial or lateral?)
4. Tibia – Medial condyle, lateral condyle, shaft and medial malleolus (how to
identify medial or lateral, proximal and distal?
5. Tarsals, metatarsals, and phalanges of the feet
6. Patella
63. Define a joint
64. Compare and contrast the structural and functional classification of joints
65. List the structure of a synovial joint and explain the functions.
66. Describe how synovial joints are classified.
67. List and discuss the general functions of skeletal muscle tissue.
68. Outline the structure and organizational level of skeletal muscle, from the whole
muscle (organ), through muscle fibre (cell) and myofibril (complex organelle), down to
the myofilament (macromolecular structure).
69. Describe the microscopic structure and functional roles of the myofibrils,
sarcoplasmic reticulum and T tubules of skeletal muscle cells..
70. Describe the series of steps that occur in muscle contraction.
71. Describe the sliding filament theory of contraction.
72. List the events that occur during cross-bridge cycles and describe the role of ATP in
muscle contraction.
73. Define the term motor unit and explain how motor units are used to control muscle
contraction.
74. Distinguish isometric and isotonic contraction.
75. Describe the anatomical and functional characteristics of cardiac and smooth muscle
and compare these muscle types to skeletal muscle.

1. Explain how muscles are described according to their location and cooperative
function.
2. Explain what is meant by synergistic and antagonistic muscle groups.
3. Locate the major muscles of the axial skeleton. Define the major actions of each
muscle.
4. Use the name of muscle to help identify and remember its orientation, location,
appearance and action.
5. Predict the actions of a muscle on the basis of its name, origin and insertion
6. Muscles of the head and neck: facial muscles – Sternocleidomastoid muscle
7. Muscles of the spine
o Oblique and rectus muscles
 o Oblique muscles can compress underlying structures or rotate the spinal
column. Include – scalenes, external intercostals/internal intercostals, external
oblique/internal oblique, tranversus abdominis
o Rectus muscles are for flexion of the spine. Include – diaphragm, rectus
abdominis
o Muscles of the pelvic floor
8. List the names and functions of muscles of respiration

For each of the following muscles, learn the name, location and function/action:

 Orbicularis oris
 Orbicularis oculi
 Zygomaticus major
 Masseter
 Temporalis
 Sternocleidomastoid
 Rectus abdominis
 External oblique
 Internal oblique
 Transversus abdominis
 Diaphragm
 External intercostal
 Internal intercostals
 Identify the following major muscles of the appendicular skeleton (upper limb)
o Muscles of the pectoral girdle and upper limbs
 Muscles that position the pectoral girdle
 Posterior view – trapezius, rhomboideus, levator scapulae
 Anterior view – pectoralis minor, pectoralis minor, serratus
anterior
 Muscles that move the arm
 Pectoralis major, Deltoid, Biceps, Triceps
 Teres major and Teres minor
 Coracobrachialis
 Latissimus dorsi
 Supraspinatus, infraspinatus and subscapularis
o Muscles that move the forearm
 Anterior (flexors) in the forearm
 Brachioradialis, pronator teres, flexorcarpiradialis, palmaris
longus, flexor carpi ulnaris, flexor digitorum (superficialis and
profundus)
 Posterior (extensors) in the forearm
 Extensor carpi radialis longus and brevis, extensor digitorum,
extensor carpi ulnaris, supinator
 Identify the following major muscles of appendicular skeleton (lower limb)
o Muscles of the thigh: The gluteal group, Lateral rotator group, adductor group,
Iliopsoas group.
o Muscles that move the leg: Flexors of the knee - Biceps femoris,
semimembranosus, semitendinosus, sartorius, poplitueus. Extensors of the
knee – Rectus femoris, vastus intermedius, vastus lateralis, vastus medialis
o Muscles that move the foot: Tibialis anterior, Tibialis posterior, gastrocnemius
 76. Compare and contrast the anatomical and physiological subdivisions of the nervous
system.
77. Distinguish between neuroglia and neurons
78. List and describe the different types of neuroglia and their functions
79. Describe the structure of a typical neuron
80. Review the different types of synapses
81. Describe how the resting membrane potential is established.
82. Describe the role of Na+/K+ pumps in the maintenance of the resting membrane
potentials.
83. Describe the structure of a neuron and explain the functional significance of its
principal regions.
84. Describe the different types of neurons.
85. Describe the sequence of events that occur during the production of an action
potential.
86. Explain the significance of the all-or-none law and the refractory periods.
87. List and describe the structural components of a synapse.
88. List the steps occurring when a neurotransmitter carries a signal across a synapse.
89. List the neurotransmitters.
90. Define and explain the following: EPSP and IPSP, temporal summation and spatial
summation, presynaptic inhibition and facilitation.
91. Discuss the structure and functions of the spinal cord.
92. Describe the protective structures (hard bony skull, vertebral column, and meninges)
of the brain and spinal cord.
93. Describe the peripheral distribution of spinal nerves.
94. Define nerve plexus and identify the four main spinal nerve plexuses
95. Describe the structural and functional components of a reflex arc, and explain the
relationship of reflexes to homeostasis.
96. Identify the major regions of the brain and describe their functions.
97. Describe the cortex, gyri, fissures and sulci of the cerebrum
98. Identify and describe the ventricles of the brain including the formation circulation
and functions of CSF.
99. Describe the functions of the basal ganglion and the limbic system

100.Identify the major arteries that supply blood to the brain and explain the importance
of blood-brain barrier.

101.Describe the locations and functions of the sensory, association and motor areas of
the cerebral cortex

102.Describe the location, structural components, and function of the diencephalon, and
brain stem.

103.Describe the structure and function of the cerebellum

104.Define the term “cranial nerve” and identify the twelve pairs of cranial nerves by
name, number, and functions.

105. Explain how the anatomical name of a spinal tract tells you where the tract begins and
ends within the CNS.

106.List and identify the sensory and motor tracts of the spinal cord.
107.Describe the route by which afferent and efferent information enters the spinal cord.
108.List the ascending and descending tracts found in the white matter of the spinal cord.
Explain how ascending and descending tracts are named and the significance of the
tracts.
109.The brain and cranial nerves – classify cranial nerves as primarily sensory, special
sensory, motor or mixed.
110.Compare the structural and functional characteristics of the somatic and autonomic
nervous system.
111.Identify the principal structural features of the autonomic nervous system.
112.Describe the preganglionic and postganglionic neurons of the autonomic nervous
system.
113.Compare the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous
system in terms of structure, physiology and neurotransmitters released.
114.Describe the levels of integration and control of the autonomic nervous system.
115.Describe the autonomic reflex arc. Compare the sympathetic and parasympathetic
divisions of the autonomic nervous system for similarities and differences.
116.Identify the autonomic neurotransmitters and receptors. Explain the physiological
and clinical significance of these receptors
117.Discuss the relationship of adrenal glands to the sympathetic nervous system.
118.Discuss briefly on autonomic reflexes.
119.Describe the major functional areas of the cerebral cortex.
120.Explain the functions of the association areas of the cerebral cortex.
121.Describe the location and functions of the following: diencephalon, basal nuclei,
limbic system, and the reticular activating system.
122.Explain the basis for memory and behaviour patterns developed in the brain and
compare short-term and long-term memory
123.Define sensation.
124.Discuss the different categories of sensory receptors, and distinguish between
visceral afferent and sensory afferent pathways.
125.Briefly describe the olfactory receptors and the neural pathway for olfaction.
126.Briefly describe the gustatory receptors and the neural pathway for gustation.
127.Discuss the principal steps in the visual transduction process from the absorption of
light to the electrical response.
128.Discuss image formation by describing refraction, accommodation, and constriction
of pupil.
129.Describe the visual pathway and deficits associated with lesions in the pathway.
130.List the principal events in the physiology of hearing and equilibrium.
131.Discuss the causes of deafness and blindness.
132.Define endocrine gland, exocrine gland and list the endocrine glands of the body.
133.List the general chemical categories of hormones and give examples of hormones
within each category.
134.Describe the location, histology, hormones and functions of the anterior and
posterior pituitary glands (adenohypophysis and neurohypophysis).
135.List the hormones secreted by the adenohypophysis and neurohypophysis
136.Describe the location, structure and histology of the thyroid gland. List the actions of
the thyroid hormones.
137.Briefly describe the parathyroid glands and the action of its hormone.
138.Describe the location, structure and histology of the adrenal (suprarenal) glands.
139.Explain the subdivisions of the adrenal glands into cortex and medullary portions.
140.List the hormones secreted from the adrenal glands.
141.Describe the location, structure and histology (endocrine and exocrine portions) of
the pancreas.
142.Identify the location of the pineal and thymus glands and indicate their endocrine
functions.
143.Discuss the location and functions of the thyroid and parathyroid glands.
144.Describe the location and action of the hormones released by the adrenal gland.
145.Describe the types of cells found in the pancreatic islets and their hormone
secretions.
146.Discuss the actions of insulin and glucagon.
147.Describe some endocrine disorders resulting from the hypersecretion or
hyposecretion of hormones.
148.Discuss the etiology and clinical features of Diabetes Mellitus and Diabetes Insipidus.
149.Outline the composition of the blood and discuss their functions.
150.Discuss the clinical significance of hematocrit value.
151.Describe the characteristic features of erythrocyte and haemoglobin.
152.Compare the five kinds of leukocytes for morphological similarities and differences.
153.Explain the significance of a differential white blood cell count.
154.Briefly describe the characteristics and functions of platelets.
155.Define hemostasis and explain the stages involved in blood clotting.
156.Describe ABO and Rh blood grouping system and explain the clinical significance of
the blood types.
157.Briefly discuss about bleeding disorders.
158.Discuss the significance of Rh factor and describe the effect of Rh incompatibility
between mother and fetus.
159.Describe the location of the heart in relation to other structures of the thoracic cavity
and identify its borders.
160.Describe the structure and functions of the pericardium and heart wall.
161.Describe the internal anatomy of the chambers of the heart.
162.Trace the flow of blood through the heart and distinguish between the pulmonary and
systemic circulations.
163.Discuss the route of blood in coronary (cardiac) circulation.
a. The right coronary artery, atrial branches, right marginal, posterior
interventricular branches
b. The left coronary artery, circumflex, anterior interventricular branches
164.Describe the location of parts of the conduction system of the heart and trace the
pathway of impulse initiation and conduction.
165.Identify the major structures of the heart and trace the flow of blood through the
pulmonary and systemic circulations.
166.Describe the cycle of contraction and relaxation of the atria and ventricles (cardiac
cycle).
167. State the events that produce heart sounds.
168. Discuss the factors affecting heart rate and stroke volume that control cardiac
output.
169.Discuss the structures and pathways of electrical impulse conduction in the heart.
170.State the events that produce the ECG waves and correlate the ECG waves with the
events of the cardiac cycle.
171.Contrast the structure and function of arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules and
veins.
172.Prepare a flow chart of arterial branches of the head, neck, chest and abdomen.
173.Define blood pressure and discuss the factors affecting blood pressure.
174.Explain the following: pulse pressure, mean arterial pressure, peripheral resistance,
and venous return.
175.Describe the mechanisms that aid in returning venous blood to the heart.
176.Discuss the structure and functions of capillaries and the pathophysiology of edema.
177.Identify the major arteries and the locations at which arterial pulsations can be best
detected.
178.Define hypertension.
179.List the risk factors and explain the classification of hypertension according to the
etiology.
180.Clinical application for nurses:
a. Locating pulses
b. Venipuncture (puncturing veins) – blood draws and IV starts
c. Understanding disease states (DVTs, peripheral vascular disease, aneurysms,
emboli and why they lodge where they do)
181.List the major structures involved in the lymphatic system
182.State the purpose of the lymphatic system.
183.Describe the major pattern of lymphatic drainage and its relationship with blood.
184.Discuss the role of immune cells and types of immunity.
185.Identify the structures of the respiratory system and describe their locations.
186.Distinguish between the conducting and respiratory portions of the respiratory tract.
187.Identify the boundaries of the nasal cavity and its relationship with the paranasal
sinuses.
188.Differentiate the three anatomical regions of the pharynx.
189.Describe the structure of the larynx and explain its function in respiration and voice
production.
190.Describe the location and structure of the respiratory tubes that form the bronchial
tree and bronchopulmonary segments.
191.Describe the structure and function of the respiratory membranes, the division of the
lungs into lobes and compare the structure of the right and left lung.
192.Describe the pleural cavities and pleural membranes
193.Identify and describe the actions of the muscles involved in both quiet and forced
respiration.
194.Describe external and internal respiration.
195.Define pulmonary ventilation and outline the mechanism of normal quiet inspiration
and expiration with an application to the principle of Boyles law
196.Explain how the intrapulmonary and intrapleural pressures vary during ventilation..
197.List the various volumes and capacities and define each of them. Explain the
clinical application of forced vital capacity and forced expiratory volume.
198.Describe the role of airway resistance in pulmonary ventilation.
199.Explain the principles of partial pressures (Dalton’s law).
200.Explain the principles of gas diffusion and solubility coefficient (Henry’s law and
Fick’s law).
201.Describe the structure and function of the respiratory membrane.
202.Explain how oxygen is transported in the blood.
203.Interpret changes in the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve with alterations in
blood pH, temperature and 2, 3 BPG.
204.Explain how carbon dioxide is transported in blood and what is meant by Bohr and
Haldane effects.
205.Describe the respiratory system changes associated with acclimatization to a high
altitude.
206.Discuss the physiology of the control of respiration.
207.Explain the role of the respiratory system in maintenance of the acid base balance.
208.Discuss briefly on respiratory acidosis and respiratory alkalosis.
209.Define the following:
hypoxic hypoxia, anemic hypoxia, circulatory hypoxia, histotoxic hypoxia,
hypercapnea, apnea, dyspnea.
210.Clinical application – Respiratory distress syndrome, pneumothorax, pleural effusion
211.GASTRO – INTESTINAL TRACT IN GENERAL
a. Identify the organs of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract and the accessory organs
of digestion.
 b. Describe the general histology of the four layers of the gastrointestinal tract.
c. Describe the peritoneum and its folds.
212.MOUTH (ORAL CAVITY)
a. Describe the structure of the tongue.
b. Identify the location and histology of the salivary glands.
213.GASTROINTESTINAL STRUCTURES
a. Describe the anatomy and histology of the esophagus.
b. Describe the anatomy (including major regions) and histology of the stomach.
c. Describe the gross and microscopic structure of the small intestine and how it
is modified for digestion and absorption.
d. Describe the gross anatomy and histology of the large intestine.
e. Identify the differences between the walls of large intestine and the small
intestine.
f. Describe the four basic digestive processes.
g. Briefly describe the structure and functions of the pharynx and esophagus.
h. List the cell types of the gastric mucosa and their secretions and explain how
gastric secretion is regulated during the cephalic, gastric and intestinal phase.
i. Describe the roles of several digestive hormones on gastrointestinal functions.
j. Describe the following events in the stomach, small and large intestines:
mechanical digestion, chemical digestion, and absorption.
k. Describe the location and functions of the brush border enzymes of the small
intestine.
l. List the accessory organs of digestive system.
m. Describe the anatomy and function of the liver and pancreas.
n. Discuss the histology of liver including hepatic portal triad.
o. Describe the anatomy and functions of the gallbladder.
p. Describe the pathways of hepato-biliary ducts in detail.
q. Explain the exocrine and endocrine functions of the pancreas.
214.List the components of the urinary system and their general functions.
215.Describe the location of the kidneys and the gross anatomy of a kidney.
216.Describe the structure of a nephron.
217.Describe the blood supply to the kidney.
218.Describe the location and gross anatomy of the ureters, urinary bladder and urethra.
219.Outline the general characteristics of the following processes: glomerular filtration,
tubular reabsorption, and tubular secretion.
220.Define the term “Glomerular Filtration Rate” and explain how glomerular filtration
rate is measured, the nature of the glomerular filtrate, and the factors that affect
filtration rate.
221.Describe how specific segments of the renal tubules and collecting ducts reabsorb
water and solutes.
222.Describe the mechanism of countercurrent multiplication on nephron function and
explain how it helps concentrate urine; explain how dilute urine is formed.
223.Define the term renal plasma clearance, and explain how it can be applied to
determine the GFR.
224.Discuss the causes and clinical features of renal failure.
225.Explain the general principle and purpose of renal dialysis.

Anatomy of the Male Reproductive System

1. Describe the location, structure and functions of the organs of the male reproductive
system.
2. List the various spermatic ducts and describe the location and structure of each
segment.
 3. Trace the path of sperm cells following from the site of their production to the site of
fertilization.
4. Describe the structure of sperm cell and explain the function of each of its parts
5. Describe the structure and contents of the spermatic cord.

Physiology of the male reproductive system

1. Outline the process of spermatogenesis and explain how this process is regulated.
2. Discuss the functions of each part of a spermatozoon.
3. List the hormones that influence the male reproductive system and describe their
functions.
4. Describe the anatomy and functions of male accessory reproductive glands.

Anatomy of the Female Reproductive System

1. Describe the location, structure and functions of the organs of the female
reproductive system
2. Describe the position of the ovaries, uterus, and fallopian tubes.
3. Describe the structure and normal position of the uterus.
4. Identify the principal parts of the uterus.
5. Describe the gross anatomy of the mammary glands
6. Define and describe “perineum”

Physiology of the female reproductive system

1. Discuss the process of oogenesis and follicular development from the embryonic
stage of adulthood.
2. Describe the major events (uterine and ovarian cycle), that occur during a menstrual
cycle. Correlate the phases of the uterine cycle with those of the ovarian cycle.
3. Compare Oogenesis and Spermatogenesis.
4. Explain the cyclical variations in plasma hormone levels that occur during the
menstrual cycle. Describe how these hormones regulate the ovarian and uterine
changes that occur during this cycle.
5. Summarize the actions of estrogen and progesterone.

226. Explain the major development events that occur during the embryonic period,
including cleavage, morula formation, blastocyst development, and implantation.
227.Name the 3 germ layers and the structures developed.
228.Describe the development and function of the placenta and umbilical cord.
229.Define fetus and distinguish between the embryo and fetus.
230.Explain the events associated with the three stages of labor.
231.Describe the hormonal changes associated with pregnancy and labor.
232.List the three stages of labor.
233.Describe the physiology of positive feedback control system during parturition.
234.Clinical application – discuss different types of abnormal placentation