In chemical analysis, chromatography is a laboratory technique for the separation of a mixture into its components.

The
mixture is dissolved in a fluid solvent (gas or liquid) called the mobile phase, which carries it through a system (a column, a
capillary tube, a plate, or a sheet) on which a material called the stationary phase is fixed. Because the different
constituents of the mixture tend to have different affinities for the stationary phase and are retained for different lengths
of time depending on their interactions with its surface sites, the constituents travel at different apparent velocities in the
mobile fluid, causing them to separate. The separation is based on the differential partitioning between the mobile and
the stationary phases. Subtle differences in a compound's partition coefficient result in differential retention on the
stationary phase and thus affect the separation.
Chromatography may be preparative or analytical. The purpose of preparative chromatography is to separate the
components of a mixture for later use, and is thus a form of purification. This process is associated with higher costs due
to its mode of production. Analytical chromatography is done normally with smaller amounts of material and is for
establishing the presence or measuring the relative proportions of analytes in a mixture. The two types are not mutually
exclusive.
filtration, the process in which solid particles in a liquid or gaseous fluid are removed by the use of a filter medium
that permits the fluid to pass through but retains the solid particles. Either the clarified fluid or the solid particles
removed from the fluid may be the desired product. In some processes used in the production of chemicals, both the
fluid filtrate and the solid filter cake are recovered. Other media, such as electricity, light, and sound, also can be
filtered.

Evaporation is the process of a liquid turning into a gas. It is a form of vaporization that usually happens on the
surface of liquids and it involves the transition of the liquid particles into the gaseous phase. Evaporation is the
conversion of a liquid to its vapor below the boiling temperature of the liquid. If the water is kept in a closed
container, the water vapor molecules do not have a chance to escape into the surroundings, and so the water level
does not change. As some water molecules become vapor, an equal number of water vapor molecules condense
back into the liquid state. Condensation is the change of state from a gas to a liquid. In order for a liquid molecule to
escape into the gas state, the molecule must have enough kinetic energy to overcome the intermolecular attractive
forces in the liquid. A given liquid will evaporate more quickly when it is heated. This is because the heating process
results in a greater fraction of the liquid’s molecules having the necessary kinetic energy to escape the surface of the
liquid. The figure below shows the kinetic energy distribution of liquid molecules at two temperatures. The numbers
of molecules that have the required kinetic energy to evaporate are shown in the shaded area under the curve at the
right.

Crystallization is a technique used for the purification of substances. It is a separation technique to separate solids
from a solution. Crystallization can be defined as the process through which the atoms/molecules of a substance
arrange themselves in a well-defined three-dimensional lattice and consequently, minimize the overall energy of the
system. When a substance is subjected to crystallization, its atoms or molecules bind together through well-defined
angles.
The crystallization process consists of two major events: nucleation and crystal growth, which are driven by
thermodynamic properties as well as chemical properties. Nucleation is the step where the solute molecules or
atoms dispersed in the solvent start to gather into clusters, on the microscopic scale (elevating solute concentration
in a small region), that become stable under the current operating conditions.
There are two main families of crystallization processes: Cooling crystallization and Evaporative crystallization. In
cooling crystallization, the solution is heated in an open container, and the solvent molecules start evaporating,
leaving behind the solutes. When the solution cools, crystals of solute start accumulating on the surface of the
solution. The crystals are collected and dried as per the product requirement. The size of crystals formed during this
process depends on the cooling rate. Many tiny crystals are formed if the solution is cooled at a fast rate, while large
crystals are formed at slow cooling rates.

Crystallization can also occur naturally as materials solidify from a liquid or as they precipitate out of a liquid or
gas. This can be caused by a physical change, such as a temperature change, or a chemical change such as acidity

Simple distillation is employed when the component of the liquid mixture have boiling point gaps close to fifty
degrees. This involves boiling the mixture at first, and the compound with the lowest boiling point will start
vaporizing.
Fractional distillation is a technique employed for many complex liquid mixtures, i.e., mixtures with components that
have closer boiling points. For such systems, simple distillation will be meaningless. Therefore, a modified distillation
is required. For fractional distillation to be effective, the components should be miscible.

A separatory funnel, also known as a separation funnel, separating funnel, or colloquially sep funnel, is a piece
of laboratory glassware used in liquid-liquid extractions to separate (partition) the components of a mixture into
two immiscible solvent phases of different densities. Typically, one of the phases will be aqueous, and the other
a lipophilic organic solvent such as ether, MTBE, dichloromethane, chloroform, or ethyl acetate. All of these solvents
form a clear delineation between the two liquids. The more dense liquid, typically the aqueous phase unless the
organic phase is halogenated, sinks to the bottom of the funnel and can be drained out through a valve away from
the less dense liquid, which remains in the separatory funnel.
Sublimation in chemistry is a phase transition in which matter changes state from a solid immediately into a gas,
without passing through an intermediate liquid phase. Sublimation occurs when atmospheric pressure is too low for
a substance to exist in liquid form. Iodine crystals and solidified carbon dioxide are examples of substances that
sublimate at room temperature and regular atmospheric pressure.
Separation Techniques