FEATURE

Feature
The stiff upper LIP: investigating the High
Arctic Large Igneous Province
The Canadian Arctic Islands expose a complex network of dykes and sills that
belong to the High Arctic Large Igneous Province (HALIP), which intruded
volatile-rich sedimentary rocks of the Sverdrup Basin (shale, limestone,
sandstone and evaporite) some 130 to 120 million years ago. There is thus
great potential in studying the HALIP to learn how volatile-rich sedimentary F.M. Deegan1,
rocks respond to magmatic heating events during LIP emplacement. The HALIP V.R. Troll1,2, J.H.
remains, however, one of the least well known LIPs on the planet due to its Bédard3, C.A.
remote location, short field season, and harsh climate. A Canadian–Swedish Evenchick4,
team of geologists set out in summer 2015 to further explore HALIP sills and
K. Dewing5,
their sedimentary host rocks, including the sampling of igneous and meta-
S. Grasby5, H.
sedimentary rocks for subsequent geochemical analysis, and high pressure-
Geiger1, C. Freda2,
temperature petrological experiments to help define the actual processes and
V. Misiti2 & S.
time-scales of magma–sediment interaction. The research results will advance
our understanding of how climate-active volatiles such as CO2, SO2 and CH4
Mollo2
1
Department of Earth
are mobilised during the magma–sediment interaction related to LIP events, a Sciences, Centre for
process which is hypothesised to have drastically affected Earth’s carbon and Experimental Mineralogy,
sulphur cycles. In addition, assimilation of sulphate evaporites, for example, Petrology, and
is anticipated to trigger sulphide immiscibility in the magma bodies and in so Geochemistry (CEMPEG),
Uppsala University,
doing could promote the formation of Ni-PGE ore bodies. Here we document
Villavägen 16, 75236
the joys and challenges of ‘frontier arctic fieldwork’ and discuss some of our Uppsala, Sweden
initial observations from the High Arctic Large Igneous Province. frances.deegan@geo.uu.se
2
Istituto Nazionale di
Large Igneous Provinces form during short-lived magmatic gasses (CO2, SO2, H2O, etc.) are likely to be
Geofisica e Vulcanologia
pulses of extensive, usually plume-related, magmatic released in large quantities, due to the large volumes
(INGV), via di Vigna Murata
activity and have created vast igneous terranes such of magma involved. On the other, the fact that the
605, 00143 Rome, Italy
as continental flood basalts or oceanic plateaux. One magmatic roots of the ‘killer’ LIPs (e.g. the Siberian 3
Geological Survey of
of the most curious aspects of LIPs, apart from their and Deccan traps) are emplaced into volatile-rich
Canada (GSC-Québec), 490
size, is that many of them coincide with climate shifts sedimentary rocks such as shale, limestone, dolostone
de la Couronne, Québec,
and some correspond with mass extinction events; for and evaporite suggests that volatiles released from
Québec G1K9A9, Canada
example the Siberian traps match the end Permian crustal rocks may play a pivotal, if not vital, role in 4
Geological Survey of
mass extinction, the Deccan traps match the end determining the severity of the climate impact of a LIP.
Canada (GSC-Pacific),
Cretaceous mass extinction, and the North Atlantic To put the case forward in numbers, Henrik Svensen
1500-605 Robson
Igneous Province was coeval with the Eocene Thermal and co-workers (see Further reading) calculated that
Street, Vancouver, British
Maximum. The reasons for the apparent capability of the Siberian traps released c. 20 000 Gt of magmatic-
Columbia V6B 5J3, Canada
LIPs to affect climate and, in turn, the biosphere, derived CO2, while the metamorphic CO2 released 5
Geological Survey of
remain enigmatic and are currently the subject of from basin sediments is estimated to be as great as
Canada (GSC-Calgary),
lively scientific debate (see Further reading). 114 000 Gt, or a staggering 5.7 times greater than
3303 33rd Street N.W.,
A central aspect of this debate concerns the the magmatic CO2 budget. Therefore, volatiles sourced
Calgary, Alberta T2L 1N4,
origin of the gases emitted by LIPs. On the one hand from sedimentary rocks can in some cases exceed the
Canada.

92 © John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Geologists’ Association & The Geological Society of London, Geology Today, Vol. 32, No. 3, May–June 2016

magmatic output by an order of magnitude, which
enhances their potential to dramatically perturb
atmospheric chemistry and induce intense climate
stress such as global warming, oceanic anoxia and
ozone depletion. Because of the strong case for the
role of volatile-rich crustal rocks in magnifying the
destructive potential of LIPs, the dynamics, efficiency,
and rates of mass transfer and degassing are of
central interest in current research efforts. In order
to help establish the range of possible processes and
their controlling effect on gas emissions at LIPs, we
chose the High Arctic LIP (the HALIP, Fig. 1) as
a target area for our research. The Canadian High
Arctic boasts an outstanding exposure of a wide
range of gas-producing basin rocks intruded by mafic
(dolerite) HALIP sills, which are notably coeval with
a period of acute environmental distress known as
the Oceanic Anoxic Event (OAE) 1a. A multi-tiered
research plan that combines extensive geochemical
analyses of the collected samples with high pressure–
temperature experimental simulations of degassing
during a magma–sediment interaction will hopefully
help answer what exactly turns an ordinary LIP into
a ‘killer’.
‘Keep going north’
In July 2015, two researchers from Uppsala University,
Sweden, participated in a research expedition by the
Canadian Geological Survey to tackle some of these
issues in one of the remotest places on Earth. Frances
M. Deegan and Valentin R. Troll from Uppsala
University joined forces with field officers Jean Bédard,
Keith Dewing, Steve Grasby, and Carol Evenchick
from the Geological Survey of Canada to embark on a
frontier field campaign in the Canadian HALIP above
© John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Geologists’ Association & The Geological Society of London, Geology Today, Vol. 32, No. 3, May–June 2016
FEATURE
80°N (Fig. 1). Fig. 1. a. North polar projection
Being such a remote locality, travelling to the map to show the location of the
Canadian High Arctic is an exercise in adaptive Canadian Arctic Islands and the
planning and patience. We set off with a flight that travel stops during the 2015
left Ottawa, Ontario for Iqaluit, Nunavut, but was expedition. b,c. Close-up of the
forced to divert to Kuujjuaq, only to be sent back to field targets (black box in a).
Ottawa later the same night (Fig. 1). A new attempt AH = Axel Heiberg Island, EL =
the next day got us to Iqaluit with hopes (fulfilled, Ellesmere Island. The locations
luckily) for a connecting flight to Resolute Bay on of Resolute Bay, the weather
the following day. But now with the weather in our station at Eureka are labelled for
favour, the journey continued onwards in a small reference. (Base maps generated
using GeoMapApp http://www.
Twin Otter aircraft that brought us to Eureka. The
geomapapp.org and modified
outstanding support from the Polar Continental Shelf
with geological information
Project (PCSP) helped immensely and allowed the
after Evenchick et al. (2015), see
team to ‘keep going north’, despite all manner of
Further Reading.)
weather- and logistically-induced schedule changes.
Eureka moments
Eureka is one of the three most northerly inhabited
weather stations in the world, located at 80°N on
Ellesmere Island. Life in the research base is surprisingly
comfortable, despite being located on the outermost
fringe of civilization. Researchers visiting Eureka are
superbly well taken care of by the staff and regaled with
tales from the frontier at the world’s ‘most northerly
bar’. The people deployed to this remote and icy
corner of the world counterbalance the climate with
their uncommon warmth, happily sharing stories of
their arctic experiences and adventures. ‘Boots on the
ground’ field work is routinely supported by helicopter
travel for days out with emergency drop-bags placed
within walking distance in case of accidents or if the
weather precludes a pick-up (Fig. 2a,b). For yet more
remote areas, crews are deployed to multi-day fly-
camps (Fig. 2c–f), fully equipped with sturdy tents,
93
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freeze-dried food, bear-repellent, bear bangers, flares,
and of course a shotgun big enough to take down a
large and uncompromising beast. These precautions
are wise, as arctic wildlife abounds. Muskox (the
largest member of the goat family), caribou (reindeer),
arctic hares, and arctic wolves (Canis lupus arctos) are
frequently seen or encountered (Fig. 3), but luckily
polar bears are rarely spotted in the study area in the
arctic summer. One may witness one of nature’s most
intense spectacles, such as arctic wolves stalking a
herd of large game, a scene we watched in awe right
on the first day of our fieldwork and which we took
as an omen for successful rock-hunting to come.
The HALIP
Because of its remoteness and arctic climate, the
Jurassic‒Cretaceous HALIP is less well studied than
94 © John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Geologists’ Association & The Geological Society of London, Geology Today, Vol. 32, No. 3, May–June 2016
Fig. 2. a. Aerial view of the
Eureka weather station during
a helicopter approach. b.
‘South Geodetic Hills’ field
site, accessible from Eureka by
helicopter transfer. Sampling
transects through Sverdrup
Basin siliciclastic sediments
and intruded dolerite sills were
undertaken. c. The mechanisms
of evaporite diapirism were
investigated at the ‘North
Hare Fiord’ fly-camp where
the Carboniferous Otto Fiord
Formation evaporites and
limestones were studied. d. Fly-
camp move by helicopter shuttle.
e, f. Detailed sample transects
through dolerite sills and their
surrounding petroleum-bearing
host rocks (Murray Harbour
Formation black shale) were
carried out at the ‘South Hare
Fiord’ field site.
many other large igneous provinces on the globe.
The HALIP was an intermittent, intermediate-
volume, magmatic event that spread across much
of the Arctic region, including extensive remnants
in northern Canada, northern Greenland, and on
Spitsbergen. The HALIP, unlike many other LIPs,
has had a protracted history that lasted for more
than 40 million years, although it likely occurred in
pulses of activity. A tholeiitic phase of magmatism
began at c. 130 Ma followed by a later alkaline phase
that commenced at c. 94 Ma. Both extrusive and
intrusive components are preserved in the HALIP,
such as dykes, sills and volcanic rocks, and a small
number of central complexes are also known. In
the Canadian Arctic Islands, the ascending HALIP
magmas encountered rocks of the Sverdrup Basin
that are part of a Carboniferous to late Cretaceous
sedimentary sequence of marine to terrestrial
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affinities, comprising carbonates, siliciclastic is that assimilation of small amounts of this rock
sedimentary rocks and extensive evaporite horizons by magma would provide considerable amounts of
(Figs 2, 4, 5). Notably, the sedimentary basin includes sulphur and even PGEs, which could trigger sulphide
hydrocarbon-bearing black shales thought to be the (S2–)-melt immiscibility in Ni-rich primitive melts thus
source rock for the oil and gas present in the region, leading to a concentration of magmatic sulphides.
and it is frequently pierced by kilometre-sized gypsum On the other hand, sulphates are dominated by
and halite diapirs (Figs 2, 4, 5). The maturation and SO42– complexes that would oxidise the melt and,
associated degassing of these hydrocarbon-bearing if assimilated in large quantities, could prevent the
rocks and the release of climate-active volatiles such formation of immiscible sulphides. It is therefore
as CO2, SO2 and CH4 from sedimentary rocks by HALIP important to understand how exactly evaporites can
magmatism are the primary targets of our work. affect magmatic processes and influence the ore-
forming potential of a particular LIP.
Magma–crust interaction, climate, and natural
resources
One of the fundamental questions concerning
LIPs is their link to global climate. To improve
our handle on the gas budget emitted by LIPs, we
sampled detailed traverses through a series of sills
and dykes, including their contact aureoles within
the adjacent host sedimentary rocks (Fig. 5). This
work will contribute to testing recent concepts
proposed by, for example, H. Svensen and his team,
as well as N. Arndt and colleagues, who propose a
definite link between sedimentary rock composition,
magmatic intrusions, gas emissions, and climate
effects (see Further reading). In the field, we found
plentiful crystal-lined former gas vugs in evaporite,
carbonate and hydrothermal breccia, which represent
previous pathways for extensive volatile migration
through these host rocks (Fig. 4). Notably, most of
the dolerite sill intrusions in shale and siltstone that
we investigated are surrounded by hornfelsed contact
aureoles of several metres thickness and have locally
sulphurous vein fills and fracture networks that, in Fig. 3. Arctic flora and fauna.
turn, extend for metres into the sill interiors (Fig. 5). a. Arctic hare, c. 60 cm tall. b.
A small number of intrusive sheets, however, show Paw-print of an arctic wolf in
only centimetre-scale aureoles, a phenomenon which soft sediment, c. 10 cm long
seems particularly common near the outer tips of sills, from claw to back. c. A herd
where they begin to peter-out. This observation most of muskox arranged in ‘battle
probably implies that stagnant magma intrusions formation’, the adults are c.
affected the host rocks to a lesser degree than 1.2–1.5 m tall. The dominant
through-flow systems where magma flux would have male stands ahead of the line
delivered greater and temporally sustained heat flow (on the left), while the two
into the surrounding country rocks. Not only does strongest females or young bulls
this suggest that crustal magma storage and ascent in guard the flanks. The young are
the HALIP played a considerable role in both magma typically protectively kept in
the centre. d. A patch of purple
evolution and gas emissions, but also that massive
saxifrage flowers. These plants
volumes of eruptives must have been fed through
are low-growing and thrive
these sill-dominated plumbing systems.
in rocky environments. Purple
Another consequence of LIP emplacement into
saxifrage is culturally important
evaporite-bearing sedimentary rock is the potential
in arctic Canada, as reflected
for sulphide ores, an aspect with obvious economic in its status as the ‘official
implications. It has been proposed that assimilation flower of Nunavut’ (http://
of sulphate (SO42–) may be an important component www.assembly.nu.ca/about-
in the development of Noril’sk-type Ni-PGE (PGE, legislative-assembly/official-
platinum group elements) ore bodies. The argument flower-nunavut).

© John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Geologists’ Association & The Geological Society of London, Geology Today, Vol. 32, No. 3, May–June 2016 95
 FEATURE

Fig. 4. a. Hiking over a

snow covered passage while
on traverse between sills.
b. Sampling at an evaporite
diapir. c. Surveying interbedded
evaporite and limestone from
across a steep gulley at North
Hare Fiord. d. Inspecting porous
textures and crystal-lined vugs
in evaporite and limestone in a
gulley at North Hare Fiord. e, f.
Centimetre-sized crystal-lined
vugs in encrusted hydrothermal
breccia, e., and limestone, f.

Our approach to these nested problems includes Doing the trick

regional sill and aureole sampling combined with
Two experimental series are planned, to simulate
high spatial resolution (sub metre-scale) sample
different aspects of shale and sulphate evaporite
profiles through selected intrusions injected into
assimilation in magma under controlled temperature
volatile-rich host lithologies (Figs 4, 5). This will
and pressure conditions. One approach involves step-
help us to quantify the mobility of specific elements
heating samples of shale and gypsum under a vacuum
such as sulphur, nickel and PGEs during contact
and analysing the liberated gas fraction at each step.
metamorphic processes and establish the consequent
This technique allows us to monitor the evolving gas
reactions that this element transfer will initiate. We
composition released by different sedimentary and
will also aim to construct experimental simulations
igneous rock types at various stages of heating.
of sedimentary rock assimilation in magma that will
The other experimental series involves loading
help to answer questions about the processes that
small (c. 10 mm long) experimental charges with
prevent or modulate incorporation of sulphate into
pristine HALIP basalt and sedimentary rock (shale
magma and thus give insight into the processes that
or evaporite) and exposing them to magmatic
control magmatic sulphide deposits in LIPs.
temperatures and crustal pressures. The chemical
interaction between magma and sedimentary rock

96 © John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Geologists’ Association & The Geological Society of London, Geology Today, Vol. 32, No. 3, May–June 2016
 FEATURE

Before our HALIP field campaign began, we tested

our experimental approach using Swedish alum
shale and basaltic andesite from the rock collection
at Uppsala University. These first shale assimilation
experiments were carried out in a vertical tube gas
mixing furnace at the Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e
Vulcanologia (INGV) in Rome, Italy and they provided
a tantalising glimpse into the likely active processes
during shale assimilation into magma. For instance,
the shale is seen to disintegrate in the magma
along its cleavage planes, where it produces copious
amounts of gas bubbles through which volatiles in
the shale are mobilised into the magmatic system and
eventually, the atmosphere (Fig. 6).
Further experiments will be carried out using
HALIP starting materials and the piston cylinder
apparatus at INGV, which will allow us to apply
both high temperatures and crustal pressures to
the experimental system and to perform subsequent
detailed in-situ analyses (see Further reading). The
HALIP experimental products will be analysed
using micro-beam techniques for their major
element composition and in particular for stable
isotope ratios (sulphur, oxygen and boron isotopes).
These experiments will thus allow us to determine
assimilation rates and associated elemental transport,
as well as potential isotopic fractionation effects, and
they might help answer the question of where and
Fig. 5. a. Low ground between how Noril’sk-type Ni-PGE ore bodies form.
two inclined sills that are
highlighted with yellow broken
lines, South Hare Fiord. b.
Acknowledgements
Close up of a contact between We are greatly indebted to the GEM-II (Geo-mapping
a dolerite sill and interbedded for Energy and Minerals) programme of the Geological
shale and sandstone at the Survey of Canada. We are also grateful to the Polar
Blue Mountains. c. Sill with Continental Shelf Project for logistical support and the
sulphurous lower margin in Swedish Polar Research Secretariat and the Swedish
contact with shale (highlighted
Research Council for generous financial support of
with broken yellow line), South
our Swedish partners.
Hare Fiord. d. Sampling shale
at the upper contact of a sill,
highlighted with broken yellow Suggestions for further reading
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98 © John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Geologists’ Association & The Geological Society of London, Geology Today, Vol. 32, No. 3, May–June 2016