Chapter 02 - 11.12.2017

Chapter Two
Review of Literature and Related Studies

Chapter Two Review of Literature & Related Studies
Chapter Two
Review of Literature and Related Studies

This chapter consists of two sections. The first section highlights
the theoretical background. The researcher aimed to present principles
of evaluation including definitions, types and foci. Moreover, he
presented some topics related to the critical reading and digital
storytelling environment. The second section deals with related
studies which investigated educational evaluation, critical reading and
digital storytelling environment.
Section One: Review of Literature

In this section, the researcher discussed the concept of critical
reading, distinguished from literal reading and in relation to critical
comprehension and critical literacy. Furthermore, current practices for
developing critical reading skills are discussed. With the expanding
usage of visuals to support reading, the use of graphic novel and
digital storytelling were discussed wit regard to the development of
critical reading skills. The characteristics of the participants were
taken into consideration in the light of their need to critical reading.
Textbook Evaluation
Evaluation, in the light of the rapidly changing life, is inevitably
a must for curriculum developers, as modern technologies imposed
new needs for readers. Consequently, periodical evaluation processes
should continue to keep syllabi up with these new shifting needs.
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Evaluation is the process of revising assessment information;

analyzing and interpreting the information; judging learners’
achievement in the light of curriculum intended outcomes, and making
decisions based on the information gathered (Hidri & Coombe, 2016).
Hussain, Dogar, Azeem, and Shakoor (2011) considered the
evaluation of a curriculum is to be a modification process to meet
learners’ needs and to modify it to adopt quality criteria.
Textbooks play the main role in teaching reading in EFL

classrooms. Therefore, evaluating reading skills in textbooks is a
necessity to stand on points of strength and weakness. As Al Fraidan
(2012) explained that evaluating reading materials justifies the
selection of textbooks, and validates decisions made. AbdelWahab
(2013) highlighted the importance of evaluating textbooks to insure
their suitability to the pupils. Bacha, Ghosn,and McBeath (2008)
indicated that Egyptian schools depend on textbooks of foreign
publishers and they may not be used in EFL classroom in the ways the
authors intended. These views call for paying attention to evaluating
reading materials and textbooks before integrating them in the
curriculum.
For evaluating textbooks, Ansary and Babaii (2002) and Al

Fraidan (2012) agreed that there are two sets of criteria for evaluation;
internal criteria which are language-related and external criteria which
are appearance-related. Karamoozian, and Riazi (2008) pointed out
three methods for conducting reading material evaluation: a) the
impressionistic method: depends on obtaining general impression
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about the author and the publisher and a skimming throughout the
book. b) the in-depth method: examines the language, implied values
and assumptions about learning. And c) The checklist method:
possesses four advantages. As checklists are systematic that ensures
that all elements that are considered, they are cost and time effective,
checklists help arranging information in convenient format, and they
are easy to be used. Nazeer, Shah, and Sarwat (2015) assumed that
checklist is the most popular tool for textbook evaluation.
Additionally, several studies employed checklists for evaluation
textbooks (Karamifar, Barati, & Youhanaee, 2014, Nazeer, Shah, &
Sarwat, 2015, Tok, 2010). For reading comprehension material,
Mukundan, Hajimohammadi, and Nimehchisalem, (2011) used an
Evaluation Checklist to judge the appropriateness of the textbooks.
With regard to evaluation of critical reading skills in textbooks,
Zabihi, and Pordel (2011) recommended using a checklist to examine
whether a EFL textbooks promotes critical reading or not.
Therefore, learners’ needs analysis is necessary for developing

reading materials evaluation, as reading material should not be
imposed on learners, rather it should emerge from learners’ needs.
From this perspective, Long (2005) suggested that learners’ needs
analysis can be based on the following sources: published and
unpublished literature, learners themselves, teachers and domain
experts, applied linguists and triangulated sources (a blend of two or
more of these sources). Long suggested that pre-experience or pre-
service learners may not be able to express clearly their needs in some
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areas. Thus, if EFL learners are unable to express their needs, teachers
will be the closest source to collect data about their pupils’ needs.
Littlejohn (2011) suggested that practitioners (teacher-analysts) could
evaluate reading materials. They have to “examine different sections
of the materials, move through different levels of analysis, making
more and more inferences - and subjective judgments”.
Accordingly, for pupils’ needs analysis, reviewing literature and

surveying of teachers’ opinions can help in determining appropriate
critical reading skills. For evaluating learning outcomes, pupils’
scores on critical reading skills test can help in assessing their level of
critical reading. For evaluating reading materials, an Evaluation
Checklist relying on teacher’s grading of current reading material may
help in conducting reading material evaluation, and so, making
judgments and decisions regarding developing the reading materials.
Critical Reading
During the 21st century, the rapidly changing life demanded new
qualifications for readers and new characteristics of reading materials
in schools. Since reading is fundamentally important in the Egyptian
syllabi, it requires more attention. Before proceeding to critical
reading, the idea of “criticality” should be clarified. Enever (2006)
referred to the term “Critical” as “those hidden values and cultural
meanings that may lie behind the texts of books” (59). Wallace (2012)
distinguished between two views of criticality, the first involves
checking the credibility and validity of the idea, the second considers
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ideas from a perspective of power, which implies a preparation to

challenge existing views of the relationship between the self and the
other, or the reader and the wider society.
Teaching critical reading in EFL classroom has gained a global

interest as a requirement for literacy learning. Mulumba (2016)
justified the interest in critical reading by the increased availability of
print and online resources in the twenty-first century which require
critical readers. Critical reading is assumed to be an activity which is
practiced in and out of the classroom in daily life (Lee, 2015). The
nature of today’s texts has put further demands on the readers. Beach,
Appleman, Fecho and Simon (2006) indicated that critical readers
view the texts from multiple perspectives, otherwise, they are
transmitting traditional cultural messages, Thus, the reader should be
equipped with critical reading skills that can help him deal with such
texts. Wallace (2003) emphasized that texts cannot be ideologically
neutral, texts have backgrounds as do the messages implied within
them.
Critical reading is a complicated process that combines reading

comprehension and critical thinking. Reading comprehension is the
process of extracting and constructing meaning through interaction
and involvement with written language (Snow, 2002), and critical
thinking is the intellectually disciplined process of conceptualizing,
applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and evaluating information
(Mulnix,2010). Some scholars tried to define critical reading. Carr
(1988) regarded critical reading as “learning to evaluate, draw
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inferences, and arrive at conclusions based on evidence” p.2. Wilson,

Devereux, Macken-Horarik, and Trimingham-Jack (2004) described
critical reading as “the process of engaging in dialogue with texts-
both listening to the voices of the texts and responding to them”
(para.1). Anderson (2012) defined critical reading simply as the
process of applying critical thinking to reading, in his opinion, the
reader is a person who can practice and apply critical thinking in other
activities, can apply it to read critically.
The relation between critical reading and critical thinking can

explain how a critical reader employs both of them. Critical reading
involves both the process of critical thinking and reading
comprehension (Abdullah,1998; Anderson, 2012 and; Okeke,2010).
According to Khorsand (2009), critical reading refers to a careful,
active, reflective, and analytic reading. Critical thinking involves
reflecting on the validity of the text in light of our prior knowledge
and understanding of the world. According to Kurland (2015. para.5):
“In actual practice, critical reading and critical

thinking work together. Critical thinking allows us to
monitor our understanding as we read, if we sense that
assertions are ridiculous or irresponsible (critical
thinking), we examine the text more closely to test our
understanding (critical reading)”
According to evident-based research, critical thinking and

critical reading are interdependent. Critical thinking is highly
correlated with reading comprehension (Kamgar & Jadidi, 2016;
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Karimi, & Veisi, 2016; Marzban & Barati, 2016; Samadi, Kohzadi,
& Azizmohammadi, 2014; and Yousefi & Mohammadi, 2016) and
highly correlated with critical reading skills for EFL learners (Dianti,
2016). On the same track, Sen (2011) indicated, critical readers
possess the skills of critical thinking. A clear distinction may be
demonstrated in the University of Toronto’s comparison between
traditional and critical reading:
Table 2
Comparison between Traditional Critical and Critical Reading
Traditional Reading Critical reading
Purpose To get a basic grasp of To form judgments about HOW a text
the text. works.
Activity Absorbing/Understanding Analyzing/Interpreting/Evaluating
Focus What a text SAYS What a text DOES and MEANS
Question What is the text saying?
How does the text work? How is it
s What information can Iargued?
get out of it? What are the choices made? The
patterns that result? What kinds of
reasoning and evidence are used? What
are the underlying assumptions and
perspectives? What does the text mean?
Is the text effective? How can I use it to
develop my own argument?
Direction WITH the text (taking for AGAINST the text (questioning its
granted it is right) assumptions and argument, interpreting
meaning in context)
Response Restatement, Summary Description, Interpretation, Evaluation
(University of Toronto Scarborough, 2015.p.2)
Critical reading achieves several merits for learners. Muchsonah

(2015) highlighted the importance of the process requiring the reader
to engage with logical inquiry/critical thinking approach to
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understand, analyse, evaluate and judge information and messages in

texts by reflecting to his/her prior knowledge. Nasrollahi, Krish, and
Noor (2015) considered that critical reading encourages learners to use
each of the cognitive processes in the three upper levels of Bloom's
Taxonomy. Pupils can think critically and use higher order thinking
elements to analyze, synthesize and evaluate a text.Dale, and Hyslop-
Margison (2010) argued that in schools the interest is on how to teach
texts for learners than on teaching them how to read critically any text
regardless of content. Critical reading requires some knowledge of the
various ways that text delivers ideas and implies ideological messages.
Correia (2006) explained that the major benefit of critical reading is
the high level of enthusiastic student participation. This may be due to
questions pupils thought would be answered in the text, rather than
trying to answer superficial comprehension questions or true-false
statements prepared by the textbook writer.
Several studies discussed the processes a critical reader performs

while reading. A critical reader must be an active reader—able to
suspend judgment until relevant facts are collected, willing to consider
author viewpoint and allow for the possibility of bias (Huijie, 2010
and Khorsand, 2009). McDonald (2004) stated that "critical ways of
reading are intended to construct readers who can identify texts as
crafted objects, who are alert to the values and interests espoused by
the text, who recognize their position as compliant or resistant
readers"p.18. Okeke (2010) added that critical readers infer, analyze,
predict, synthesize and use any other higher-order thinking with
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different kinds and mediums of texts. Such critical reading skills are
not limited to the study of literature but are also essential in
questioning different beliefs, laws, and theories in life. Meanwhile,
the process of preparing a critical reader could require hard efforts on
the parts of learners and teachers. Zemliansky (2008) assumed that
learners may take a long time to be critical readers requiring a lot of
practice and patience. Correia (2006) suggested that developing
critical reading skills can be time-consuming and difficult for EFL
student. It can be accomplished with practice, and it is worth the
effort.
As for the teachers have an essential role to encourage their

pupils’ critical practice, Rhodes and Robnolt (2009) considered that,
in the 21st century, it is an important teacher’s task to assist pupils to
be critical readers of the contents on the Internet. Aliakbari and Faraji
(2011) argued that teachers have to raise their pupils’ awareness, learn
from pupils, appreciate pupils’ viewpoints and to take part in the
dialogical process.
Consequently, it can be concluded that critical readers utilize

critical thinking skills: analysis, synthesis, evaluation while reading.
This meant that they practice critical thinking in reading searching for
deeper understanding other than superficial one. The merits that
critical reading justified the required solid efforts for preparing critical
readers. Therefore, current textbooks should be modified to serve this
purpose.
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Critical Reading Sub-Skills
Surveying literature searching for a set of critical reading sub-

skill, a fixed set was not found, rather, every study adopted a set for
itself. This is logical with regard to the nature of every study
participants’ characteristics and the needs or limitation of the syllabus.
As a result, counting most important critical reading sub-skills is
required for the purpose of test construction and material design.
Moreover, systematic procedures for learners’ needs analysis were
identified. Recent studies in the last decade and key references about
critical reading were surveyed with focus on sub-skills to determine
most common sub-skills.
The first common critical reading sub-skill is recognizing the

author's viewpoint/purpose which is defined as “The reader’s ability
to determine the author's purpose and point of view and their effects
on the text” (Camozzi, 2002.p.60). For instance, in the reader book
“Journey to the center of the Earth,” when third-year preparatory
pupils read how Axel insisted on helping his uncle in the journey, they
are expected to understand the author’s viewpoint regarding family
relations. It was mentioned by Abdelhalim (2011), Albeckay (2014),
Ali (2013), Alderson (2002), Camp and Camp (2013), and Elmahdy
(2012).
The second common critical reading sub-skill is drawing

inferences which is defined as “The process of creating connections
and making educated guesses what goes beyond the author’s exact
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words or images.” (Zwiers, 2004. P.99). To make an inference, a

reader draws a conclusion based on his/her past experiences (Spears,
2003). For example, in the reader book “Journey to the Center of the
Earth,” When pupils read that the explorers prepared weapons for the
journey, pupils can infer that there is something deadly will encounter
the explorers in the journey. It was mentioned by Abdelhalim (2011),
Albeckay (2014), Ali (2013), Alderson (2002), Elmahdy (2012), and
Helmy (2011).
The third frequent critical reading sub-skill is differentiating fact

from opinion which is defined as “The reader’s ability to decide
whether a piece of information is: a FACT: “a statement whose truth
can be verified by observation, experimentation, or research” or an
OPINION “statement of belief, judgment, or feeling that can’t be
proved or disproved”. (Blakesley and Hoogeveen, 2012.p.92). When
pupils read that professor Lidenbrok tells Axel that they descend to
the volcano and come back alive, pupils can realize that the statement
is an opinion of this character. It was mentioned by Abdelhalim
(2011), Abdelrasoul (2014), Albeckay (2014), Ali (2013), Alderson
(2002), Elmahdy (2012), and Helmy (2011).
The fourth common critical reading sub-skill is detecting bias.

Carter (2011.p.505) defined this skill as “recognizing the side, the
author or a character takes on an issue”. While reading critically,
pupils are expected to notice and comment on the marginal role of
women in the reader book “Journey to the Center of the Earth”. It was
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mentioned by Abdelhalim (2011), Ali (2013), Alderson (2002),

Elmahdy (2012), and Helmy (2011).
The fifth frequent critical reading sub-skill is evaluation Moon

(2007.p.32) defined evaluation as “The reader’s ability to make a
judgment on an object in the text e.g. character, situation or a piece of
writing”. A critical reader could evaluate the role of Hans through the
story events. It was mentioned by Abd Kadir, Subki , Haneemm ,
Jamal, and Ismail (2014), Albeckay (2014), Ali (2013), Alderson
(2002), Belet and Dala (2010), Daud and Husin (2004), Gray (2006),
Karadağ (2014), and Mendenhall and Johnson (2010).
Finally, comparing and contrasting is the sixth common critical

reading skill, sometimes described as identifying similarities and
differences. When pupils read the novel, a critical reader could
compare the reaction of two characters in similar situations. It was
mentioned by Abdelhalim (2011), Abdelrasoul (2014), Ali (2013),
Anderson (2002), Helmy (2011), Mendenhall and Johnson (2010).
Since every population has a specific nature, the set of the most
common critical reading sub-skills cannot be generalized; rather they
should be presented within a checklist to practitioners to determine
which of them is of significance for their pupils.
Critical Reading Strategies
Recent research in EFL discussed such critical reading strategies

suggesting them as: annotating, previewing, scaning and skimming,
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monitoring, summarizing, paraphrasing, and questioning (Shokrpour,

Sadeghi, & Seddigh, 2013; Marashi & Noochirwani, 2011; Khabiri, &
Pakzad, 2012; Rajabi & Tabatabaee; Nasrollahi, Krishnasamy, and
Noor (2015a); Fahim, Bagherkazemi, & Alemi, 2010 ; Rajabi &
Tabatabaee, 2015). Moreover, Nasrollahi, Krishnasamy, and Noor
(2015b) identified these strategies as:
1. Annotating which referes to reading reactions to and questions

about a text directly on the page.
2. Previewing which indicates getting an overview of text structure,

text cues, pictures, and personal experiences before reading a
text.
3. Scanning and Skimming which mean finding out the key features
of the reading and reading to get only the gist of the text.
4. Monitoring as understanding occurs by checking to see if the

text makes sense.
5. Summarizing that implies presenting the main ideas of the text,

writing a paragraph or more that presents the main ideas in your
words.
6. Paraphrasing that requires restating and clarifying the meaning

of a few sentences from the text. Reread the passage to be
paraphrased and look up unknown words.
7. Questioning which requires the reader to write questions while

reading a text for the first time.
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For dealing with literary texts, questioning strategy may offer

the best opportunities for critical reading. Birch (2005) demonstrated
that the notion of interrogation is important for analyzing implied
assumptions of a text. McDaniel (2004) denoted that raising questions
related to the events of the story could help pupils think deeper and
reflect on their reading. Janssen (2002) supposed that questioning is
helpful in small and whole-class group discussion, it triggers self-
questioning, and pupils can live the story they are reading.
Importantly, pupils can be exposed to higher order divergent questions
which are necessary for critical reading. The researcher suggests that
questioning strategies can be easily facilitated by multimedia when
texts are presented online or through computers. As computerized
texts can be designed to leave a space for readers to answer relevant
questions.
Questioning Strategy for Critical Reading
The previous discussion of critical reading strategies highlighted

the importance of questioning strategy for critical reading
development. Shaunessy (2005) related questioning strategies to the
critical reading skills of differentiating fact and opinion, comparing
and contrasting, drawing inferences, recognizing points of view and
recognizing assumptions. However, it is necessary to understand how
questioning work.
Questioning strategy is defined as “different procedures teachers

use in asking questions and the various kinds of questions they ask”
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(Richards & Schmidt, 2013.p.477). Questions can be developed to

promote higher order thinking skills. Cotton (2001) distinguished
lower cognitive and higher cognitive questions. Lower cognitive
questions are those that ask the student merely to recall information
(as closed questions) in texts previously read or studied. Higher
cognitive questions ask the student to manipulate information
previously learned to produce logically-dependent ideas. Higher
cognitive questions are open-ended questions which are interpretive,
evaluative, interrogative, inferential, and synthesis. Consequently, to
address critical thinking, higher- order questions can be used
(Conklin, 2011). Bello-Rodriguez and Franco-Martin (2016) showed
that EFL text-based questioning can promote reading comprehension
and critical thinking skills. Accordingly, questioning strategy may be
considered adequate for critical reading.
For teaching critical reading in the EFL classroom, critical

questions could be useful. Lewin (2010) highlighted the role of
questioning in improving critical reading. Urlaub (2013) found that
questions not only foster the criticality of learners, they also stimulate
classroom discussions. Hoffman, Afflerbach, Duffy-Hester,
McCarthey, and Baumann, (2014) recommended questioning as a
critical reading strategy, discussing that questions raised in classroom
stimulate critical thinking. Peterson (2010) suggested using open-
ended questions to invite pupils critically read graphic novels.
Similarly, Zadina, Smilkstein, and Daiek (2013) considered that using
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questioning, before, during, and after reading, is beneficial for critical

reading.
Questioning can make teaching more effective for critical

reading. Questions raised before, while and after teaching could
encourage pupils to participate in group discussion. Higher-order
questions, if used in the classroom, are expected to foster pupils’
critical reading. The teacher should consider inviting pupils to raise
higher-order questions and discuss answers during reading classes.
Critical Reading Assessment
The selection of an assessment tool according to research

evidence-based practices may secure the precession of this tool. For
assessing critical reading skills tests are the most common among
assessment tools (Collegeboard, 2009). Generally, there are several
kinds of tests; according to test purposes, they are; (a) proficiency:
used to test overall competence in a language; (b) diagnostic; used for
discovering difficulties; (c) placement: used to place a learner into a
particular level; (e) language aptitude: focuses on abilities that are
related to the acquisition, rather than the use of language. Moreover,
(d) achievement test: is used to determine whether learning objectives
have been met,; (Bachman, 1990; and Edge, Garton, 2013). The
current study used an achievement test.
Selecting types of questions for the critical reading test should

consider question types appropriate for the research purpose. Tofade,
Elsner and Haines (2013) and Ehara (2008) discussed the taxonomy of
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reading questions, distinguishing lower-order, convergent and higher-

order, divergent questions. Low-order questions, where the answer is
in the words of the text, are appropriate for literal reading as they
depend on readers’ recall of knowledge. Convergent and close-ended
questions are examples of this type. Conversely, higher-order
questions, which require the reader to make inferences and evaluation,
are appropriate for critical reading. Divergent and open-ended
questions are examples of this type. Questioning strategy can bring in
higher-order or open-ended questions which communicate higher
levels of comprehension more clearly than multiple-choice items and
give better guidance for instruction. (Badger & Thomas 1992;
Brookhart 2010; and Shaunessy, 2005)
It can be concluded that to assess critical reading, divergent

open-ended questions are recommended. e.g. short answer questions.
This type of question is assigned in the readers book “Journey to the
Center of the Earth” for formative and summative assessment, and no
objective questions are assigned (MOE, 2015). This type of questions
can be practiced during reading, along with classroom presentation
while practicing questioning strategies, and it is included in the final
exam specification. Once the assessment depends on a subjective
achievement test, in this case, the problem will be the subjectivity of
the test which will certainly lower its reliability. Hence, to overcome
this problem, Hughes (2003) suggested employing two independent
scorers; their scores should be reviewed by a senior expert to
investigate discrepancies.
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Narratives and Critical Reading

Narrative texts are commonly adopted as an essential element of
EFL reading material. The integration of narrative in language
programs helps transferring cultural aspects which are necessary for
critical pedagogy (Morrell, 2002). Firstly, to define the term narrative,
Richards and Schmidt (2013.p.384) defined it as “The written or oral
account of a real or fictional story”. In Egypt, 3rd year studnets at the
preparatory stage study the reader book “Journey to the Centre of the
Earth” as a narrative text with limited number of pictures. This leads
to discuss how it can be employed to serve teaching critical reading.
Narrative texts are recommended to teach critical thinking and

critical reading. Sejnost (2010) maintained that narrative texts are
important for developing higher-level thinking skills Alsup (2013)
explained that fictional narratives lead to the improvement of critical
thinking skills. Stories can make critical thinking skills highly
accessible by embodying abstract and complex ideas (Abdullah, 2012;
Hoffman, Afflerbach, Duffy-Hester, & Leicester, 2010). For
introducing critical thinking to learners of literature, Hakes (2008)
suggested two ways. The first, teacher may wait till a point of critical
stance arises, then he or she can direct the pupils to it. The second one,
depends on learners trained to apply criteria to interact with the text
critically. EI-Maleh (2006) reported that using literature circle
improved critical reading skills for EFL first year secondary school
pupils.
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Considering the views supporting using literature and narratives

for critical reading. The Egyptian syllabi include such type of texts,
which can be used to teach critical reading. Means that, the current
reading materials will not be modified, rather, teaching them can be
redirected to target critical reading.
Digital Storytelling as an Interactive Learning Environment
The expansion of technological media such as computers, tablets

and smartphones lead to the emergence of a new form of narratives
literature, but nowadays it is multimedia-based. Digital storytelling
can be described as the modern form of graphic novel in the digital
era.
Digital storytelling is a combination of multimedia and graphic

stories, as it blends multimedia to enhance and enrich the printed or
audio story. It may incorporate images, audio, and video with
narration and sometimes a music background (Frazel, 2009; Sylvester
& Greenridge, 2010; and Abdel-Hack & Helwa 2014; Rosalia &
Gorman, 2016). The blend of digital storytelling and literature can be
helpful for EFL pupils, as Wales and Mohamed (2013) claimed, both
forms provide chances to the readers’ to understand themes, ideas, and
issues, besides, they can highlight learners’ beliefs, feelings and ideas.
Wilson and Chavez (2014) advocated using digital narratives in
language art classroom. They regarded that digital narratives offer
multimodal context that can express traditions, family and personal
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traits, values and life experiences, claiming that digital narratives

helped pupils develop interfering abilities.
Teaching process may require presenting digital storytelling as

an interactive material. Digital storytelling as a learning environment
may include: Audios (dubbing-music), videos (real images or
animation), (written texts and visuals) related to the content in the
digital storytelling process and (illustrations, graphics, photos) that
constitute the environment (Eristi, 2014). However, as an interactive
digital storytelling, it should include the ability to (a) re-view or skip
chapters and content, and pause to process content. (b) use electronic
indices to support further inquiry, (c) answer electronic pop-up
questions to direct focus and/or check for understanding. and (d)
prompt the student to select what information is to be learned next
(Schwan & Riempp 2004). Shelton, Warren, and Archambault
(2016.p.466) defined interactive digital storytelling as “video that
includes scaffolding features to prompt pupils to actively engage with
the content, and is designed to tailor the learning experience to
individual pupils’ needs”. Thus, to achieve that, the multimedia
program which carries the interactive digital storytelling should utilize
an interface with interactive questions and control bar which
combine: next and back buttons, navigation or progress, volume and at
the end a summary report to give feedback about learning progress.
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Figure 1. A Sample Snapshot of the Digital Storytelling
As a learning material, digital storytelling and graphic novel

share the features of multimodal texts; images and texts. Besides,
digital storytelling affords sound, narration and interactivity. These
features can be helpful for language learning in general and for higher-
order comprehension in particular.
Using Digital Storytelling for Critical Reading in EFL

Classroom
As digital storytelling reproduces narratives and valuable literary

works, it can be expected to carry the merits of literature with regard
to critical thinking and critical reading.
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Digital storytelling can be used as a project-based learning or a

learning material (Lunce , 2011; Seifeddin, Zakareya &
Ebrahim,2015). Robin (2006) identified three types of digital
storytelling as (a) Personal Narratives: a student tells about his/her
experiences. (b) Historical: based on historical material that pupils
study in the classroom. (c) Instructional: reflect instructional material
in content areas. Digital storytelling may be useful for pedagogical
purposes. Frazel (2009.) demonstrated the benefits of digital
storytelling in the classroom. They include: (a) creativity and
innovation (b) communication and collaboration. (c) research and
information fluency. (d) Critical thinking, problem-solving, and
decision making (e) digital citizenship and (f) technology operations
and concepts. Ivala (2015) depicted that digital storytelling creates
various opportunities in language classroom for pupils’ discussion and
engagement. Digital storytelling has various merits in teaching. EFL
teaching can be taught with digital storytelling to develop language
skills.
Whether digital storytelling is a project or a learning material, it

was recommended for pedagogical purposes in language courses.
Pupils can practice critical reading while reading a story they are
interested in. McAdams and Gentry (2013); Sullivan and Gainer
(2013); and Rosalia and Gorman (2016) explained that digital
technologies, such as digital storytelling can foster pupils’ critical
thinking skills. Similarly, Gregori-Signes (2014) ascertained the
usefulness of digital storytelling in enhancing critical thinking
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focusing on education and recommended including multimodal

explicit teaching in the curriculum. Robin (2005) claimed that digital
storytelling can bring in improving the ability to evaluate, synthesize
and evaluate information. McGee (2014) argued that pupils enhance
pupils’ critical thinking through debating while reading a digital story.
Tiba and Chigona (2015) explained that digital storytelling encourages
learners to think critically about the images. Miller (2010)
demonstrated that teachers may use pictures in a digital storytelling to
initiate questioning activity for pupils. This practice can develop their
critical thinking. Clemens and Kreider (2011) demonstrated that, by
digital storytelling, pupils’ background knowledge is combined with
critical thinking to help them make decisions. In other several
research, digital storytelling was recommended for developing
reader’s critical thinking (Barber, 2016; Lunce, 2011; Ohler, 2008;
Ohler, 2005; and Teehan, 2006). Gregory, Steelman, and Caverly
(2009) indicated that digital storytelling possesses the characteristics
to be a promising teaching tool for critical reading and critical
thinking. Obviously, digital storytelling presents an opportunity for
pupils to discuss and negotiate about a story and make evaluative
judgments. This makes digital storytelling address critical thinking
and critical reading. Therefore, the research in the area of literacy
learning implies that digital storytelling can be employed in EFL
classroom for this purpose.
With regard to higher level comprehension, digital storytelling

and graphic novel are recommended to enhance pupils’ critical
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thinking and critical reading. While critical reading requires a reader

searching for deeper understanding of the text, the text should be
interesting and attractive. Digital storytelling and graphic novel are
engaging for readers and exceptionally helpful for struggling and
reluctant readers. Both digital storytelling and graphic novel are
qualified as learning tools for teaching critical reading.
The Graphic Novel Format for Supporting Teaching of

Critical Reading
Sometimes, narrative texts are supported by visuals, such as

picture, signs or symbols to help to simplify the ideas for learners. A
critical thinker could critically understand and interpret visuals in their
relation to words. for preparing reading materials for this purpose; the
choice may be difficult. The issue may be whether to leave pupils to
read merely words and make their mental image, or to support words
with pictures to facilitate their comprehension. Whereas critical
reading is a higher order comprehension, the contribution of images to
texts has to be investigated.
The English proverb “A picture is worth a thousand words” is a

part of the title of six studies that addressed the contribution of images
to literacy learning and advocating their instructional values and
applicability to courses design. (Gardner, 2003; & Graham, 2000;
Hibbing & Rankin-Erickson, 2013;; Leask-Smith, 2008; Pagliaro,
2014; Whitley, 2013). Visuals are helpful teaching tools for enhancing
39
pupils’ reading comprehension and clarification of complex meanings

of words (Flood, Heath, & Lapp, 2005: Newfield, 2011: Norton &
Vanderheyden, 2004; Rowsell, McLean & Hamilton, 2012; Spalter
&Van Dam, 2008). Cimermanová (2015), Liu (2004) and Meuer
(2016) explained the functions of visuals as following: (a)
Representation: Visuals repeat the text’s content or substantially
overlap with the text. (b) Organization: Visuals enhance the text’s
coherence. (c) Interpretation: Visuals provide the reader with more
concrete information. (d) Transformation: Visuals target critical
information in the text and recode it in a more memorable form, and
(e) Decoration: Visuals are used for their aesthetic properties or to
spark readers’ interest in the text. Further, Visual media was assumed
to empower the effect of texts. Since individuals need to develop
visual literacy to know how to question and criticize an image's
purpose and emotional effect, thus, readers can critically read a picture
(Callow,2008; Holdren, 2012; Guven & Aktas, 2011;Park, 2012;
Schieble, 2014; Zambo,2009). Enever (2006) indicated that authentic
picture books provide opportunities for the learner to engage
holistically in the process of meaning making, drawing widely on
previous experiences as they make sense of the text.
The graphic novel format is an example of visual narrative.

Graphic novel is a term used to describe a long comic in book form
containing a fictional or non-fictional narrative with a thematic unity
(Stringer,1996) Graphic novel differs from comics, which are images
40
in a sequence telling a story by presenting carefully selected moments

of varying length within panels (Duncan, Smith, & Levitz, 2015).
Actually, graphic novels are self-contained, rather than continuing,
stories. This means that they tell one story keeping thematic unity.
Traditional graphic novel is widely popular in teaching literacy in the
classroom. Commonly, educators appraised its usefulness for teaching
literacy skills (Brozo, Moorman & Meyer, 2013; Gavigan and
Tomasevich, 2011; Walker (2013), and motivating and engaging
power. (Connors, 2012; Derrick, 2008; Moje, Young, Readence, &
Moore, 2000; Short & Reeves, 2015; Versaci, 2001;) Monnin (2010)
demonstrated the main page elements of a graphic novel - here applied
on the graphic novel “Journey to the center of the Earth” – as follows:
1. Panel: squares or rectangles that contain a single scene.
2. Gutters: Space between panels
3. Dialog balloons: contain communication between/among
characters.
4. Thought Balloons-contain a character’s thoughts.
5. Captions-contain information about a scene or character.
6. Sound effects
41
Thought Balloon
Dialog Balloon
Panel
Sound Effects
Captions
Gutters
Figure 2. An Example of the Graphic Novel Page
A huge body of literature appreciated using graphic novel for

improving critical thinking (Bakis, 2014; Ching & Fook, 2013;
Gavigan & Tomasevich, 2011; Jacobs,2007; Kelley, 2010; Miller;
2015; Research and Development Committee [ALSC], 2006). As for
critical literacy, graphic novels were employed in ESL classrooms
(Carter, 2007; Chun, 2009; Drucker, 2008a; Drucker, 2008b; Maloy,
2016; Whittier, 2015, Thompson, 2008;Vie Dieterle, 2016). While
reading graphic novels, learners can engage in deeper thinking of
booth of images and texts (Boerman‐Cornell, 2016; Hansen, 2012;
Johnson & Reed, 2015; and Pantaleo, 2014). Moreover, graphic novel
can encourage the reader to read critically (Hatfield, 2004; Peterson,
2010; Vecchione, 2015). Further, employing comics and graphic
42
novels in the classroom can enhance learners’ analytical and critical

reading of visual texts (Angel, 2013; Johnson and Reed, 2015;
Mollegaard, 2014; Mollegaard, 2015; Peterson, 2010; Schwartz &
Rubinstein‐Ávila, 2006). Similarly, the experiment of utilizing graphic
novels to teach literature is applied in some countries such as
Malaysia, as the storybook under title "Journey to the Center of the
Earth (retold by Katherine McLean Brevard)” is assigned as a graphic
novel for EFL secondary school pupils -among the literature elements
- (Yunus and Suliman 2014).
Anyway, the graphic novel is considered as a kind of visual
narrative which is recommended for young adults. It brings the merits
of literature to the classroom in a motivating style. These views lead to
the assumption that graphic novel can be employed as format for the
digital storytelling to develop learners’ critical reading skills.
43
Section Two: Related Studies

The researcher presented a number of studies which focused on
evaluation and developing pupils' critical reading. Therefore, the
researcher divided the related studies into four parts: The first part
deals with studies that focused evaluating instructional and reading
material. The second part dealt with studied that investigated
developing EFL critical reading skills. the third part deals with studies
that highlighted the contribution of digital storytelling environment in
particular. The forth part presented the studies that examined the
graphic novel format as a form of narrative and its employment in the
EFL classroom.
(A) Textbook Evaluation
The researcher reviewed relevant studies which addressed

Textbook Evaluation of EFL curricula. The researcher focused on the
studies which their objectives, methodologies, tools and results can
direct this research.
Tayel (2017) aimed to define the difficulties in teaching the

‘reader’ for 3rd year preparatory stage from teachers’ perspective. In
order to answer the research questions, the researcher adopted the
descriptive analytical approach. The sample of the study consisted of
(n=30) female and male preparatory stage EFL teachers in (8)
governmental schools in Al-Gharbia governorate. A five-point likert-
scale questionnaire of (44) items divided into three domains
44
representing the three main sources of the difficulties (teacher,

student, reader). A panel of referees validated the scale to be used as
the main research tool. Results indicated some difficulties related the
textbook as: poor teacher’s guide, neglecting individual differences,
poor multimedia support. She suggested that teachers should be given
training in teaching literature, and they should be provided with audio-
visual aids to teach literature.
Abdallah (2016) evaluated the textbook 'Time for English', a

new English language-learning (ELL) textbook series currently
assigned for Egyptian governmental schools. This involves: (1)
identifying to what extent the textbook series meet the national ELL
standards; (2) exploring the merits and demerits of the series as well
as the difficulties faced by EFL teachers who teach this series; (3)
providing some suggestions and guidelines that should help with
improving textbooks delivery in the future. The researcher employed
an evaluative method using: (a) a standards questionnaire
administered - both face-to-face and online - to some expert English
language teachers (n=55); (b) focus groups to enable both pre-service
(n=50) and in-service (n=300) EFL teachers to discuss many aspects
related to the series; and (c) a selective content analysis assisted by
computer as a confirmatory procedure for triangulation purposes - to
understand and cross-check participants ’ accounts based on reviewing
all textbooks, and thus provide more accurate and comprehensive
results. Findings indicated that the textbook series did not consider
45
cultural aspects for the Egyptian society. The researcher recommended

making better use of technology media for teching the series.
Abd-AlMaksoud (2015) evaluated EFL textbooks in the light of

a value criterion. The value criterion is a list of values suggested by
the researcher depending on the Egyptian National Standards of MOE
and the new trends for EFL. Value criterion was validated by a jury
panel of twenty jurors. The EFL textbooks content was analyzed.
Results reflected the shortage of necessary values in Egyptian EFL
textbooks according to MOE standards. Curriculum designers might
have focused on the cognitive domain more than the affective one.
She resorted to psychology experts to give their views to include the
values in the preparatory stage EFL textbooks. Finally, she suggested
to direct curriculum designers in the future. She concluded that
textbooks need to include values into their main topics to help to
develop the pupils’ personalities.
Abdelwahab (2013) investigated developing an English

language textbook Evaluation Checklist. First, he distinguished three
types of Textbook Evaluation methods, namely: impressionistic,
checklist, and in-depth method, he preferred the checklist for its
practicality and saving time and effort. He presented an overall view
of evaluating an ELT textbook with a focus on the instrument of a
checklist. He showed the procedures for checking validity, and
reliability. The comments and suggestions of many TEFL professors
were taken into consideration to improve the items of the checklist in
46
reference to their clarity and inclusiveness. He concluded more games,

activities, tasks together with their classroom implementations should
be added to the textbooks.
Zabihi and Pordel (2011) investigated the extent to which

reading comprehension textbooks meet the standards for improving
critical reading skills. They aimed to identify and investigate the
presence of those items within reading textbooks which help promote
critical reading. Reviewing literature on critical thinking, the basis of
critical reading, a checklist is designed to indicate the extent to which
a text enhances critical reading. Besides, they suggested that
autonomy and engagement are Indispensable for developing critical
reading and task-based instruction is necessary to achieve them. Three
reading textbooks (Select Readings: Upper-intermediate, Active Skills
for Reading: Book 4, and Mosaic Reading 2) are evaluated against
three standards: Critical thinking, tasks appropriateness, and strategic
instruction. The results revealed that these textbooks meet the first
standard to some extent, but they are very poor at the last two ones.
Bosley (2008) evaluated the ways through which critical reading

is taught in freshman composition courses at one university by
generating data from teacher interviews and document analysis. The
primary data source for this study included interviews with seven
composition instructors. Data analysis was based on an inductive,
constant comparative method. The data suggests that reading
47
pedagogy varies widely among composition instructors and that

critical reading was not taught explicitly by participants in this study.
Abol-Ela (2003) evaluated the English story textbook "Journey

to the Centre of the Earth” prescribed for the third-year prep in Egypt.
A criterion was constructed as a means of evaluation. An informal
English questionnaire was introduced to senior EFL teachers, and a
similar Arabic Edition questionnaire was presented to 3 rd year
preparatory stage pupils. The results of both questionnaires proved
that this story is not suitable tor these pupils. The story was
inappropriate to the characteristics and requirements of early
adolescents' growth; and the nature of the Egyptian society and its
literal trends. It was clear that there were clear paradoxical situations
to this story; a lot of the vocabulary in this story are difficult and
higher than the pupils' abilities. In addition, the number of exercises
about every chapter doesn't cover the important points. Furthermore,
there's a kind of confusion resulting from the difference between
meaning in the text and the illustrations. He recommended that these
pupils study a different story which is more suitable for their age and
growth developments.
These studies gave the researcher an insight to appropriate tools

for evaluating textbooks and the reading skills they offer. Commonly,
teachers are the participant who can decide the appropriateness of
textbooks to their pupils. However, a few studies handled evaluating
curricula for preparatory school syllabi in Egypt. EFL textbooks of
48
third-year preparatory school did not receive much attention with

regard to the need to periodical evaluation. It is clearly evident that
EFL reading materials require more examination and development.
Koura (1990) developed and standardize criteria for ESP

textbooks design, selection and evaluation and used these criteria in
evaluating the ESP teaching materials currently used in Mansoura
Faculty of Education. Initially a 100 – item questionnaire was
developed and used to get the responses of 30 juries of ESP specialists
and professionals on the suggested criteria. Based on these responses a
91 – item Checklist of Criteria for design, selection and / or evaluation
of ESP teaching materials was constructed and standardized (i.e.
proved valid and reliable). The second major aim of the study was
achieved when the checklist of criteria was used to evaluate the ESP
teaching materials currently used in Mansoura Faculty of Education.
Statistical analysis revealed that the ESP materials sampled in this
study are poorly designed, haphazardly selected, and severely
deficient in the proper characteristics of effective ESP teaching
materials.
(B) Critical reading
With a massive body of literature about reading comprehension,

the critical level of comprehension is still in need for more
investigation. Recent research of critical reading is surveyed for
deeper understanding of critical reading skills.
49
Kyunho (2016) compared patterns of strategies of critical

reading in middle school classroom to actual school pupils and the
pattern and teachers` expectations. The participants were 56 ninth
graders, who were asked to complete self-reports for critical reading
strategies and 16 secondary school EFL language teachers completed
a questionnaire. The questionnaire included 21 specific reading
strategies in three domains: identifying and learning text content,
monitoring, and evaluating. Results showed considerable
discrepancies between pupils’ critical reading strategies use and
teacher expectations. Since, the pupils used the strategies equally. But
the teachers expected that the pupils use strategies in the evaluating
category to a greater extent and the identifying and learning text
content category to a lesser extent. Moreover. These discrepancies
indicated that the four critical reading strategies were adopted
ineffectively in schools.
Nasrollahi, Krishnasamy, and Noor (2015a) aimed to identify

critical reading strategies employed by Iranian EFL pupils. The study
employed the qualitative approaches including observation checklists
and semi-structured interviews for data gathering. The results showed
that pupils are generally familiar with reading strategies, however in
most of the Iranian high school reading strategies are presented as a
set of isolated skills and rarely practiced systematically in the actual
context. Moreover, the findings showed the most common critical
reading strategies among Iranian EFL pupils are: skimming and
scanning, questioning, and annotation. They recommended that pupils
50
need more practice of reading strategies relevant to higher-level

cognitive domains.
Hà (2015) depicted the significance of critical reading in the

modern information era in general and English language teaching in
particular. However, the demonstration of critical reading skills
among the English language teacher trainees leaves much to be
desired. As among the first attempts to enhance these vital skills. He
hypothesized that the use of case studies would be beneficial for the
development of critical reading skills in the Faculty of English
Language Teacher Education. Adopting the action research design, he
reported the ratings and feedback from 80 participants on these early
initiatives. The findings suggest that case studies could foster critical
awareness, critical reading skills as well as the authenticity of
classroom texts and tasks. However, test washback, a lack of
coherence across the curriculum stood out as the major obstacles to
improving the efficiency of this activity.
Khonamri and Karimabadi (2015) investigated to what extent

Collaborative Strategic Reading (CSR) may improve EFL pupils’
critical reading. The paticipants were forty EFL pupils at the
University of Mazandaran. The experimental group pupils studied
using collaborative strategic reading. While the control group pupils
studied conventionally. A pretest and posttest were administered to the
groups. A questionnaire and an interview were also used for the
experimental group only to examine their attitude of pupils toward
51
CSR. The result showed that experimental group pupils outperformed

the pupils in the control one. Therefore, CSR instruction enhanced
pupils’ critical reading and they had a positive attitude toward CSR.
Mohammed (2014) aimed at investigating the effect of using a

WebQuest Model (WM) on the 2nd year secondary stage pupils'
critical reading performance. The participants were 24 female pupils
in the 2nd year secondary stage in each of the experimental and control
groups. Both groups were pre-tested by using the Critical Reading
Performance Test (CRT) for matching between group. The
experimental group studied using CRT while the control one studied
conventionally. The researcher used the t-test to calculate the mean
score differences of the pre- and posttest scores. Results revealed that
using the WebQuest developed 2nd year secondary stage pupils' critical
reading. She recommended that curriculum designers, teacher trainers,
and textbook writers have to employ WebQuest in teaching all
language skills.
Althauser, and Darnall, (2001) explored utilizing peer review

activities for enhancing critical reading and writing. They used a Web-
based, conferencing system demanding the pupils to post draft
answers to home assignment essay questions. Pupils then peer-
reviewed each other's writings. The researchers used regression
analyses to indicate the quality of the review pupils gave their peers.
They found that pupils with higher grades for revising essays showed
higher levels in writing. They suggested that scaffolding or assisted
52
performance played the key role in enhancing pupils’ critical reading

and writing.
Analyzing recent studies regarding critical reading, it was clear

that for developing critical reading, there is not a prescribed effective
strategy. In general, group discussion, questioning, peers’
collaboration may help to create a supportive environment for critical
readers to share and negotiate ideas. Moreover, a test is obviously a
common tool for assessing pupils critical reading. Thus, these studies
provided ideas that can be employed in the current study to develop
critical reading skills.
(C) Digital Storytelling
Digital storytelling is popular today for the majority of EFL

researcher. Digital storytelling can present reading material with ease
of use and active engagement. Teachers can find variety of available
platforms to run a digital storytelling, thus, EFL researchers may find
opportunities to study its influence on reading. Consequently, research
dealing with digital storytelling are to be reviewed.
Shelton, Warren, and Archambault (2016) investigated the effect

of an interactive digital storytelling in a blended learning course. They
studied using interactive digital storytelling video to help learner to
engage with the content of the course. Interactive digital storytelling
encompassed the interactive features as learners could stop, pause and
rewind the content. The sample was 223 university pupils who
53
completed a survey to measure their engagement with the content. The

survey indicated they regarded interactive digital stories supporting
for their engagement, scaffolded learning, and it raised learning gains,
meanwhile, blended learning did not improve their accountability. The
quiz results revealed that pupils who studied using interactive digital
storytelling showed better recall in comparison to the pupils who
studied using traditional videos
Aşık (2016) examined to what extent teachers are interested in

using digital storytelling self-reported reflections of pre-service
English teachers about the use of digital storytelling. Th participants
were (78) pre-service English teachers completed reflection reports
and participated in a focus-group interview after developing a digital
storytelling project, for young learners. Mixed methods (qualitative
and quantitative) were used. The results revealed that pre-service
English language teachers’ attitude was positive towards using digital
storytelling, they reported significant development in their educational
technology skills. She recommended that teacher qualification
programs should assist pre-service teachers to apply technology to
language teaching.
Abdel-Hack and Helwa (2014) explored using of digital

storytelling and Weblogs to improve writing and critical thinking
skills of undergraduate pupils. The participants were (n=40) English
language major pupils at the College of Education - Benha University.
They practiced activities such as storytelling, journal articles, diaries
54
and reflection Weblogs. The researchers developed narrative writing

questionnaire and an EFL narrative writing test; a critical thinking
questionnaire; an EFL critical thinking scale and interview. These
tools were pre-and post administered to the participants. Findings
showed that there is a statistically significant difference between the
mean scores of the study group in the pre and post assessment of EFL
narrative writing and critical thinking skills in favor of the post
assessment. This revealed that using digital storytelling and Weblogs
were effective in teaching narrative writing and critical thinking skills
for English language major pupils at College of Education
Ali (2014) investigated the effects of digital storytelling on

developing English vocabulary skills of EFL third year pupils enrolled
at Rawafea El Qussair Preparatory" School in Sohag. Participants of
the study are female pupils. The control group pupils (n = 40) received
traditional classroom instruction whereas the experimental group
pupils (n = 40) received treatment (digital storytelling program). Data
were collected through the English Vocabulary Test. Descriptive
statistics, independent sample t- test, and Spearman rank older
coefficient of correlation were used
in data analysis. Findings revealed a significant improvement in
English vocabulary performance of the digital storytelling group
compared with the non - digital storytelling group. Findings also
indicated significant gains obtained by the experimental group in the
post- administration of the rest as compared with the pre-
administration. Moreover, the study concluded that digital storytelling
55
has positive effect on developing the subjects' English vocabulary

skills (i, e, recognition, recall and word usage) . Results of the study
confirmed that the digital storytelling program is an effective
instructional tool that enhances the pupils' English vocabulary
performance.
Belet and Dal (2010) explored pre-service teachers’ views about

using storytelling to improve critical reading skills of the primary
school pupils. They used qualitative research methods for the study
design. criterion sampling resulted in 53 participants. The analyzed
collected data using the descriptive analysis. The study results
revealed that pre-service teachers viewed that pre-service teachers
positively viewed storytelling as helpful for improving pupils critical
reading skills. Moreover, pre-service teachers. They recommended
that similar study should be carried out with in-service teachers in
primary education.
Czarnecki (2009) discussed the use of digital storytelling to

improve necessary skills, such as critical thinking, decision making,
and problem-solving. Digital Storytelling enhanced conceptual skills
such as understanding a narrative and employing inductive reasoning
for problem- solving, but the creation of digital stories also requires
the creator to build technology skills through the use of software and
other tools. These skills are especially helpful for pupils, who need
them for an increasingly technology-oriented future career, and adults,
who need them to keep up with a swift shifting world. He
56
recommended do more efforts to prepare learners to create their own

digital storytelling.
The previous studies implied the connection between critical

reading and digital storytelling. Digital storytelling was shown quite
beneficent in enhancing learners’ critical reading. Moreover, teachers
found it helpful in facilitating pupils’ practice of critical thinking.
While critical reading depends on critical thinking, then digital
storytelling can be expected to improve readers’ critical reading.
(D) Narratives and graphic novel
With consideration to previous remarks about weakness and

deficits in teaching and learning a story for EFL learners, narratives
and graphic novels are logical candidates to overcome these problems.
Thus, studies of literature and graphic novels are to be reviewed.
Maloy (2016) examined how graphic novels reading in the light

of critical literacy theory resulted in deeper understanding of
immigrant English language learners. He analyzed the data collected
through classroom observation inductively. The results revealed that
graphic novels using critical literacy theory helped English language
learners connect current issues as immigrant learners, especially what
they faced in their journey and in US public schools. He
recommended training teachers how to deal with learners’ individual
needs, and proper usage of graphic novel in English language
classroom.
57
Meuer (2016) measured the differences between scores on

reading comprehension and memory recall of primary school pupils.
The participants were 7 fifth grade male and female. They were
required to retell some chapter they read, independently in traditional
novel format and other chapters they read in the graphic novel format.
The participants were given multiple choice quizzes after a 24-hour
period, to determine the difference in memory. The findings showed
higher scores on the pupils retelling and memory recall assessments
when they read from the graphic novels in contrast to the traditional
novel. thus, the findings implied that graphic novels may facilitate
reading comprehension and memory recall.
Huh and Suh (2015) investigated how Korean English language

learners read graphic novel employed a critical lens. They explained
how primary school pupils (N=9) were practiced critical literacy while
reading graphic novels. Their practices during a 14-week literacy
learning with the teachers were analyzed and transcribed. Pupils could
attack the ideology of the texts, suggesting instances that did not go
with the ideas existed and that found authors faults. Some practices
showed that pupils presented alternative democratic and broader
viewpoint to interpret the texts. This critical literacy practices related
to their consideration of cultural minorities.
Ching and Fook (2013) investigated the effects of three

multimedia graphic novel instructional modes on secondary school
pupils (n=219). The participants were divided into three groups: The
58
Graphic novel and Narration (GN), Graphic novel, and Text (GT), and
Graphic novel, Text and Narration (GTN) group. This study employed
the quantitative method. ANOVA and ANCOVA analyses were
conducted to test the research hypotheses. The findings indicated that
the (GN) group outperformed their peers in the (GT) group and the
(GTN) group. The study concluded that the GN multimedia graphic
novel can positively influence pupils' critical thinking skills.
Sabeti (2012) used the example of an extra-curricular graphic

novel reading group in order to explore the critical reading practices of
English language learner in the senior years of secondary school. She
examined the interpretive strategies applied to literary texts in the
English curriculum. She indicated that the ‘skills’ required to read
graphic novels in an alternative context (an extra-curricular space), are
the same as those required to read other factual texts.
Critical Analysis
Reviewing recent research has directed the researcher in the two
stages of the research, the evaluation and development stages.
Textbook evaluation must be periodically implemented to stand on the
points of strength and weakness in them. For that purpose, the
common assessment tool to evaluate textbook was the Evaluation
Checklist. It can be easily designed, and its administration is time and
effort saving. Besides, it can be presented to many respondents. The
data about textbooks may be difficult to be obtained from pupils. The
pupils could not understand the statements in the Evaluation
59
Checklist. Therefore, teachers are the closer source of data, as they are
more familiar with textbook. Then, preparatory stage teachers are the
respondents who can complete the Evaluation Checklist.
Unfortunately, no research has been conducted to address textbooks
effectiveness to enhance critical reading skills in Egypt. this fact
justified the first stage of the current research.
The use of narratives in EFL programs is popular in teaching

critical reading. The graphic novel format proved to be helpful for
readers memory recall, retelling, engagement, and critical thinking.
Teachers can use modern technology to add to the graphic novel
format to be presented as digital storytelling. Digital storytelling
combines picture, narration and interactive features to facilitate
reading and critical understanding. Recent research has clearly shown
the potential of digital storytelling for enhancing critical reading and
learners’ enjoyment. Therefore, redesigning reading materials for
young adolescents in the format of graphic novel could help their
critical reading. In Egypt, digital storytelling has been widely used to
develop reading comprehension, but not critical reading. Therefore,
the current research aimed to fill the gap and examine its effectiveness
in developing critical reading skills.
The research depended on recent studies in designing an

interactive digital storytelling that presented the graphic novel format
of the novel “Journey to the Centre of the Earth”, employing direct
instruction, group discussion, and questioning strategies. The purpose
60
of this digital storytelling is to provide directions and questions to the

pupils to enhance critical reading skills. The effect of the digital
storytelling environment on pupils’ achievement was examined using
the experimental method.
61

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Chapter Two

Review of Literature and Related Studies

Review of Literature and Related Studies

Section One: Review of Literature

Evaluation is the process of revising assessment information;

Textbooks play the main role in teaching reading in EFL

For evaluating textbooks, Ansary and Babaii (2002) and Al

Therefore, learners’ needs analysis is necessary for developing

Accordingly, for pupils’ needs analysis, reviewing literature and

ideas from a perspective of power, which implies a preparation to

Teaching critical reading in EFL classroom has gained a global

Critical reading is a complicated process that combines reading

inferences, and arrive at conclusions based on evidence” p.2. Wilson,

The relation between critical reading and critical thinking can

“In actual practice, critical reading and critical

According to evident-based research, critical thinking and

(University of Toronto Scarborough, 2015.p.2)

Critical reading achieves several merits for learners. Muchsonah

understand, analyse, evaluate and judge information and messages in

Several studies discussed the processes a critical reader performs

As for the teachers have an essential role to encourage their

Consequently, it can be concluded that critical readers utilize

Critical Reading Sub-Skills

Surveying literature searching for a set of critical reading sub-

The first common critical reading sub-skill is recognizing the

The second common critical reading sub-skill is drawing

words or images.” (Zwiers, 2004. P.99). To make an inference, a

The third frequent critical reading sub-skill is differentiating fact

The fourth common critical reading sub-skill is detecting bias.

mentioned by Abdelhalim (2011), Ali (2013), Alderson (2002),

The fifth frequent critical reading sub-skill is evaluation Moon

Finally, comparing and contrasting is the sixth common critical

Critical Reading Strategies

Recent research in EFL discussed such critical reading strategies

monitoring, summarizing, paraphrasing, and questioning (Shokrpour,

1. Annotating which referes to reading reactions to and questions

2. Previewing which indicates getting an overview of text structure,

4. Monitoring as understanding occurs by checking to see if the

5. Summarizing that implies presenting the main ideas of the text,

6. Paraphrasing that requires restating and clarifying the meaning

7. Questioning which requires the reader to write questions while

For dealing with literary texts, questioning strategy may offer

Questioning Strategy for Critical Reading

The previous discussion of critical reading strategies highlighted

Questioning strategy is defined as “different procedures teachers

(Richards & Schmidt, 2013.p.477). Questions can be developed to

For teaching critical reading in the EFL classroom, critical

questioning, before, during, and after reading, is beneficial for critical

Questioning can make teaching more effective for critical

Critical Reading Assessment

The selection of an assessment tool according to research

Selecting types of questions for the critical reading test should

reading questions, distinguishing lower-order, convergent and higher-

It can be concluded that to assess critical reading, divergent

Narratives and Critical Reading

Narrative texts are recommended to teach critical thinking and

Considering the views supporting using literature and narratives

Digital Storytelling as an Interactive Learning Environment

The expansion of technological media such as computers, tablets

Digital storytelling is a combination of multimedia and graphic

traits, values and life experiences, claiming that digital narratives

Teaching process may require presenting digital storytelling as

Figure 1. A Sample Snapshot of the Digital Storytelling