Motion of a fluid

Flow of a fluid, is considered to be a mass flow involving its continuous deformation. Fluid
mechanics studies such flows of fluids, i.e. motions of material bodies of continuous mass
distribution, under fundamental laws of mechanics.

A fluid may be defined as a substance that does not permanently resist distortion. An attempt to
change the shape of a mass of fluid will result in layers of fluid sliding over one another until a
new shape is attained. During the change in shape, shear stresses (forces parallel to a surface) will
result the magnitude of which depends upon the viscosity of the fluid and the rate of sliding.

Fluid Classification
Fluids can be classified based on their viscosity. An imaginary fluid of zero viscosity (viscosity is
the ability of a material to resist flow) is called a Pascal fluid. The flow of a Pascal fluid is termed
inviscid (or non-viscous)flow. Viscous fluids are classified based on their rheological (viscous)
properties.

Mechanism of fluid flow

Types of flow

When fluids move through a closed conduit of any cross-section, one of two different types of
flow may occur. These two flow types are most easily visualized by referringto a classic
experiment first performed by Osbome Reynolds in 1883. In Reynolds’experiment, a glass tube
was connected to a reservoir of water in such a way that the velocity of the water flowing through
the tube could be varied. A nozzle was inserted in the inlet end of the tube through which a fine
stream of colored dye could be introduced.

Reynolds found that when the velocity of the water was low, the “thread” of dye color
maintained itself throughout the tube. By locating the nozzle at different points in the cross-
section, it was shown that there was no mixing of the dye with water and that the dye flowed in
parallel, straight lines.

At high velocities, it was found that the “line” or “thread” of dye disappeared and the entire mass
of flowing water was uniformly colored with the dye. In other words, the liquid, instead of
flowing in an orderly manner parallel to thelong axis of the tube, was now flowing in an erratic
manner and so there was completemixing.

These two forms of fluid motion are known as laminar or viscous flow (low velocity), and
turbulent flow (high velocity). The velocity at which the flow changes from laminar to turbulent is
defined as the critical velocity

The Reynolds number, Re, is a dimensionless quantity, and can be shown to be the ratio of
inertia to viscous forces in the fluid:

where L is a characteristic length, v is the average velocity,  is the fluid density, µis the dynamic
(or absolute) viscosity, and  is the kinematic viscosity. In flow through round pipes and tubes, L
is the diameter, D.

The Reynolds number provides information on flow behavior. Laminar flow is always
encountered at a Reynolds number, Re, below 2100 in a circular duct, but it can persist up to
higher Reynolds numbers in very smooth pipes.

However, the flow is unstable and small disturbances may cause a transition to turbulent flow.
Very slow flow (in circular ducts) for which Re is less than 1 is termed creeping or Stokes flow.
Under ordinary conditions of flow (in circular ducts), the flow is turbulent at a Reynolds number
above 4000. A transition region is observed between 2100 and 4000, where the type of flow may
be either laminar or turbulent,and predictions are unreliable.

Classification of Fluids

1. Newtonian fluids obeys Newton’s law of viscosity (i.e., the fluid shear stress is linearly
proportional to the velocity gradient). All gases are considered Newtonian fluids. Examples are
water, benzene, ethyl alcohol, hexane and sugar solutions. All liquids of a simple chemical
formula are normally considered Newtonian fluids.
2. Non-Newtonian fluids do not obey Newton’s law of viscosity. Generally they are complex
mixtures (e.g., polymer solutions, slurries, and so on).

Non-Newtonian fluids are classified into three types:

Time-independent fluids are fluids in which the viscous properties do not vary with time which
are further classified into three groups.

i. Pseudoplastic or shear thinning fluids have fluid resistance that decreases with
increasing stress ( e g , polymers).
ii. Dilatant or shear thickening fluids have resistances that increases with increasing
velocity gradient or applied stress. These are uncommon, but an example is
quicksand.
iii. Bingham plastics are fluids that resist a small shearing stress. At low shear stress
these fluids do not move. At high shear the fluids move. The fluid just starts
moving when sufficient stress is applied. This stress is termed the yield stress. When
the applied stress exceeds the yield stress, the Bingham plastic flows. Examples are
toothpaste, jelly, and bread-dough

Time-dependent fluids are fluids in which the viscous properties vary with time.

i. Rheopectic fluids are characterized by an increasing viscosity with time. Example

is Rubber cement.
ii. Thixotropic fluids have a decreasing viscosity with time. Examples are Slurries or
solutions of polymers.

Visco-elastic or memory fluids are fluids with elastic properties that allow them to “spring back”
after the release of a shear force. Examples include egg-white and rubber cement.

Example 1

A liquid with a viscosity of 0.78cP and a density of 1.50 g/cm3 flows through a 1-inch diameter
tube at 20 cm/s. Calculate the Reynolds number.Is the flow laminar or turbulent?

Solution
By definition, the Reynolds number (Re) is equal to:

Example 2

A liquid has a specific gravity (SG) of 0.96 and an absolute viscosity of 9 cP. The liquid flows
through a long circular tube of radius, R = 3 cm. The liquid has the following linear distribution
of the axial velocity, v, (the velocity in the direction of the flow):

where r is the radial position (in meters) measured from the tube centerline. A total of 20 m3 of
liquid passes through the tube.Calculate the

i. average velocity of the fluid and the volumetric flow rate. Also,
ii. time for a specified volume (or mass) of fluid to pass through asection of the duct.
iii. time to pass 20 m3 of the liquid through the cross-section of the pipe.
Solution

Write the equation for q in a differential equation form in terms of r, the radial coordinate.

By definition,