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 ROAD PAVEMENT
Introduction

 Pavement is the structure which separates

the tires of vehicles from the underlying
foundation material.

 Road pavements in Malaysia have

traditionally been classified as flexible
pavement and rigid pavement.

 The flexible pavement usually consists of

three main layers, the bituminous surfacing
(wearing & binder course), the base or road
base and the sub base,

 For the rigid pavement consists of two layers,

concrete slab and the subbase.

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 PAVEMENT STRUCTURE
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT

Wearing Course
Surface
Binder Course
Base (Tapak)

Sub-base (Sub Tapak)

Formation Level
Subgrade

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 SUBGRADE PREPARATION
The subgrade is the in-situ material
upon which the pavement structure
is placed.

The subgrade can often be the

overriding factor in pavement
performance.

Increasing the load-bearing capacity

of the subgrade soil will most likely
improve pavement load-bearing
capacity and thus, pavement
strength and performance.

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 SUBGRADE PREPARATION

Additionally, greater subgrade

structural Capacity can result in
thinner (but not excessively thin) and
more economical pavement structures.

The finished subgrade should meet

elevations, grades and slopes specified
in the contract plans.

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 SUBGRADE PREPARATION
Subgrade Performance

A subgrade’s performance generally depends on

two interrelated characteristics:

(1) Load bearing capacity

- The subgrade must be able to support
loads transmitted from the pavement
structure.

- This load bearing capacity is often

affected by degree of compaction,
moisture content, and soil type.

- A subgrade that can support a high

amount of loading without excessive
deformation is considered good.
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 SUBGRADE PREPARATION
Subgrade Performance

(2) Volume changes

- Most soils undergo some
amount
of volume change when
exposed
to excessive moisture.

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 Improving Subgrade Performance
(2) Stabilization with a cementitious or asphaltic binder
The addition of an appropriate binder (such as lime, portland cement or
emulsified asphalt) can increase subgrade stiffness and/or reduce
swelling tendencies.

(3) Additional base layers

- These layers spread pavement loads over a larger subgrade area
- When designing pavements for poor subgrades the temptation may
be to just design a thicker section with more base material because
the thicker section will satisfy most design equations.

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Poor subgrade should be avoided if
possible, but when it is necessary to
build over weak soils there are several
methods used to improved subgrade
performance:

(1) Removal and replacement (over-

excavation)
Poor subgrade soil can simply be
removed and replaced with higher
quality fill.

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Good Practices in Subgrade Preparation

(1) Ensure the compacted subgrade is able to

support construction traffic

If the subgrade ruts excessively under

construction traffic it may cause premature
pavement rutting and will result in variable
paving thicknesses.

(2) Remove all debris, large rocks, vegetation

and topsoil from the area to be paved

These items either do not compact well or

cause non-uniform compaction and mat
thickness.

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 SURFACE PREPARATION
Prime Coats

The granular base layer can be prepared with a

prime coat if necessary. A prime coat is a sprayed
application of a cutback or emulsion asphalt
applied to the surface of untreated subgrade or
base layers in order to (Asphalt Institute, 2001):

1. Fill the surface voids and protect the subbase from weather.
2. Stabilize the fines and preserve the subbase
material.
3. Promote bonding to the subsequent pavement layers.

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 SURFACE PREPARATION
Tack Coats

A tack coat is a thin bituminous liquid asphalt,

emulsion or cutback layer applied between HMA
pavement lifts to promote bonding.

Adequate bonding between construction lifts and

especially between the existing road surface and
an overlay is critical in order for the completed
pavement structure to behave as a single unit
and provide adequate strength.

If adjacent layers do not bond to one another they

essentially behave as multiple independent thin
layers.

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 SURFACE PREPARATION

COMPACTION

Compaction is the process by which the volume of air in an Hot Mix Asphalt
(HMA) mixture is reduced by using external forces to reorient the constituent
aggregate particles into a more closely spaced arrangement.

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 SURFACE PREPARATION

COMPACTION

Compaction is the greatest determining

factor in dense graded pavement
performance.

Inadequate compaction results in a

pavement with decreased stiffness,
reduced fatigue life, accelerated
aging/decreased durability, rutting,
raveling, and moisture damage.

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 SURFACE PREPARATION

Factors Affecting Compaction

(1) Environment Factors

Temperature, Ground temperature, Air
temperature, Wind speed, Solar flux

(2) Mix Property Factors

i. Aggregate
Gradation, Size, Shape, Fractured
faces, Volumes
ii. Asphalt Binder
Chemical properties, Physical
properties, Amount

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 SURFACE PREPARATION

Factors Affecting Compaction

(3) Constructions Factors

i. Rollers
Type, Number, Speed and timing,
Number of passes, Lift thickness
ii. Others
HMA Production, Temperature, Haul
distance, Haul time, Foundation
support

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 SUBGRADE PREPARATION:
Volumetric Calculations
Calculation of Soil and Water required for Embankment construction

Embankment Borrow pit

Length of proposed road = 10 km

Height of road embankment = 2.0 m
Cross-sectional area of embankment = 20 m2
Distance of borrow pit from embankment = 5 km

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EXAMPLE : SUBGRADE PREPARATION: Volumetric
Calculations

Results from Laboratory Compaction Test:

Max. dry density = 1.75 Mg/m3 Please Give
me your
Optimum moisture content = 10% answer?

Borrow material:
Bulk density = 1.65 Mg/m3
Water content = 7%
Bulking factor = 1.25

Specification: Soil is to be compacted to 97% of the maximum dry

density determined in BS 1377 compaction test.

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Determine,
(a)Volume of borrow material required for 1 cubic meter
of compacted road embankment

(a)Volume of additional water required for the entire

volume of embankment.

(a)The number of truckloads of soil required if hauling

capacity per truck is 10 m3.

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(a) Dry density of borrow material dry = bulk / (1 + w)
= 1.65 / (1 + 0.07) = 1.54 Mg/m3

Compaction requirement: 97% of max. dry density:

0.97 x 1.75 Mg/m3 = 1.70 Mg/m3
1 m3 compacted embankment requires 1.70/1.54 = 1.10 m3 of
borrow material.

(b) Total volume of embankment = AL = 20 x 10,000 = 200,000 m3

Additional water required = (OMC – WC) x dry x V
= (0.10 – 0.07) x 1.70 x 200,000
= 10,200 Mg

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 Assuming unit weight of water is 1 Mg/m3,
Total volume of water required = 10,200 m3

(c) Soil inside truck is in loose condition, i.e. volume is the volume
after
excavation which is subjected to swelling (bulking).
Soil before excavation = 1.10 x 200,000 = 220,000 m3
Soil after excavation = 1.25 x 220,000 = 275,000 m3

Truckloads of soil required = 275,000 m3 / 10 m3 = 27,500

truckloads

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 Bituminous pavement course is the combination of aggregates and
binder.

 The surface layer consists of two layers which known as the binder
course and the wearing course.

 The surface course usually consists of a mixture of mineral

aggregates and asphaltic materials.

 It should be capable of withstanding high tyre pressure, resisting

the abrasive force due to traffic, providing a skid-resistance driving
surface and preventing the penetration of surface water depending
on the expected traffic on the pavement.

 Its quality depends on the mix design of the asphalt concrete used.

 The materials used to construct this layer are aggregates, bitumen

and filler.
In general, the asphaltic concrete materials are considered as
follows:

Aggregates – provide interlocking structure, sustain load and

distribute to the layer beneath.

Bitumen – binder material which binds the aggregates to produce a

strong and stable mixture.

Filler – to fill the voids in the mixture and improve the elasticity of
the bitumen to produce a durable mixture and to reduce bleeding
in bituminous mixture.
 MARSHALL MIX DESIGN PROCEDURE
Aggregate Selection Sample Preparation
• determine physical properties Binder Selection
• 5 blends with 3 samples each
• perform blending calculations • determine appropriate binder
• mixing and compaction
to achieve aggregate gradation

Density & Voids Calculation

Stability Determination
• Bulk density, Theoretical Max. SG
• Marshall stability and flow test
• VTM, VFB & VMA

Optimum Binder Content Selection

• based on the combined results of Marshall
stability and flow, density analysis and voids
analysis
• OBC is determined through graphical method
 MARSHALL MIX DESIGN
 The most used method for the mixture design is the Marshall
Method (ASTM D 1559).
 The objective of the Marshall design is to determine the mixing
ratio of aggregates and optimum bitumen content to produce the
durable, stable and adequate of voids, workable, flexible,
economy and quality.

The most common method used to determine the optimum bitumen

content is the method proposed by the Asphalt Institute. The
procedure of this method is given as follows:

a. Determine
- Bitumen content for the maximum stability
- Bitumen content for the maximum density
- Bitumen content at the median of the specification of VTM
- Bitumen content at the median of the specification of VFB
b. Calculate the mean value from these 4 values
c. Based on this mean value, determine the values from the
Marshall properties curve as listed below (Figure 2-2).

Stability (S)
Flow (F)
Stiffness (S/F)
Void in Total Mix (VTM)
Void Filled with Bitumen (VFB)

Compare the values obtain from (c) with the specification

values (Table 2-6).

If it fulfills the specification, the bitumen can be considered as

the optimum bitumen content.

If it does not fulfill the requirement, the mixture needs to be

redesigned.
 EXAMPLE

% AC Density Stability Flow Stiffness VTM VFB

4.0 2.259 1339.2 2.62 511.8 6.49 57.96
4.5 2.270 1469.3 2.79 526.0 5.33 65.50
5.0 2.289 1551.0 3.19 486.2 3.86 74.59
5.5 2.272 1321.3 3.25 407.0 3.89 76.06
6.0 2.260 1196.7 3.70 323.1 3.70 78.40

3.80 550.0
3.60 500.0
3.40
450.0
3.20

Stiffness
3.00 400.0
Flow

2.80 350.0
2.60 300.0
2.40
250.0
2.20
2.00 200.0
3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5

%AC %AC
 2.295 1600.0
2.290
1500.0
2.285
1400.0
2.280

Stability
Density

2.275 1300.0
2.270
1200.0
2.265
1100.0
2.260
2.255 1000.0
3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5
%AC %AC

7.00 80.00
6.50
75.00
6.00
70.00
5.50
VTM

VFA
5.00 65.00
4.50
60.00
4.00
55.00
3.50
3.00 50.00
3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5
%AC %AC
 Average = (5.02 + 4.85 + 4.55 + 4.98) / 4 = 4.85 %

1600.0 550.0

1500.0 500.0

450.0
1400.0

Stiffness
Stability

400.0
1300.0
350.0
1200.0
300.0
1100.0 250.0

1000.0 200.0
3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5
%AC %AC

3.80 7.00
3.60 6.50
3.40 6.00
3.20
5.50
3.00
Flow

VTM

5.00
2.80
4.50
2.60
2.40 4.00

2.20 3.50
2.00 3.00
3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5
%AC %AC
 80.00

75.00

70.00

VFA
65.00

60.00

55.00

50.00
3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5
%AC

Parameter Results Specification Remarks

(Binder course, JKR 1988)
Stability 1530 kg > 450 kg OK
Flow 3.04 mm > 2.0 mm OK
Stiffness 495 kg/mm > 225 kg/mm OK
VTM 4.42 % 3.0 – 7.0% OK
VFB 71.1% 65 – 80% OK

 Optimum Binder Content, OBC = 4.85%

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 CHIP SEAL
 Also known as seal coat or surface dressing or surface treatment.
 The application of a thin layer of bituminous binder onto a primed coating
road base or existing road surface and immediately covered by the application of
aggregate.
 The aggregate is rolled to embed into the binder.
 After accomplishing of the chipping, excess aggregate must be swept off to
minimize whip-off by traffic.

The main purpose of the The purpose of the aggregate is:

bituminous binder is:
• to protect the binder from damage
• to seal the fine cracks in the by vehicle tires
underlying pavement’s surface
• to prevent the ingress of water • to provide a high skid resistance
surface for vehicles
• to hold the covered aggregate
(1) Binder application (2) Aggregate spreading

(4) Sweeping (3) Rolling

Chip seal is a non-structural layer, therefore, chip seal does not contribute
to the strength or bearing capacity in pavement thickness design.
However, the application technique of chip seal is relatively simple and fast and
involves relatively low construction cost.

Extends the life of the pavement by preventing water from seeping

into the base and subgrade.
Improves skid resistance by providing a coarse macro-textured
surface.
Capable of rehabilitating weathered asphalt surface.
Provides dust-free running surface for newly constructed road
with low to medium traffic load.
 Multiple Chip Seal (Double / Triple Chip Seal)

Single Chip Seal 2nd coat

1st coat

- Recommended for bituminous - Recommended for non- bituminous

layers layers (unbound layers)
- Aggregate size of 2nd coat is half
the size of the aggregate used for 1st
coat
 CHAPTER 3

CONCRETE PAVEMENT
THICKNESS DESIGN
Portland Cement Association.s (PCA)
METHOD
1. Rigid pavements are so named because the pavement structure deflects
very little under loading due to the high modulus of elasticity of their
surface course.

2. A rigid pavement structure is typically composed of a PCC surface

course built on top of either
(1) the subgrade or (2) an underlying base course.

3. Because of its relative rigidity, the pavement structure distributes loads

over a wide area with only one, or at most two, structural layers.
Basic Elements of a Rigid Pavement

(1) Surface Course – Concrete Slab

(2) Base Course / Subbase Course

PCC Surface

PCC Slab
 JPCP JRCP
Jointed Plain Concrete Jointed Reinforced Concrete
Pavement Pavement
CRCP
Continuously Reinforced
Concrete Pavement
 Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement (JPCP)

1. no steel reinforcement
2. uses contraction joints to control
cracks
3. transverse joints are spaced in order
to prevent joint-cracks due to
temperature and moisture stresses
 Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement (JPCP)

4. dowel bars are used at transverse joints to assist in load transfer

5. tie bars are typically used at longitudinal joints
 Jointed Reinforced Concrete Pavement
(JRCP)
1. uses steel reinforcement
2. steel reinforcement and
contraction joints assist in crack
control
3. the reinforcing steel / wire mesh
is used to hold the cracks tightly
together
 Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavement (CRCP)

1. No contraction joints
2. transverse cracking is allowed but is held tightly together by the continuous steel
reinforcement
 Concrete pavement showing
contraction joints

Skewed contraction joints

Dowel bars

Tie Bars
 Concrete Pavement Thickness Design
(PCA Method)

Design Criteria:
1. Fatigue Analysis
2. Erosion Analysis

Design Factors:
1. Concrete Modulus of Rupture
2. Subgrade and Subbase Support
3. Design Period
4. Traffic
 Concrete Pavement Thickness Design
(PCA Method)
Design Criteria:
1. Fatigue Analysis – recognizes that rigid pavements fail due to fatigue of
concrete.
Fatigue analysis

1. based on the edge stress midway between the transverse joints, with the
most critical loading position.

2. Because the load is near the midslab far away form the joints, the present
joints has practically no effect on the edge stress.

3. Average modulus of subgrade reaction, k is used for the entire design period,
and the stress due to warping and curling are not considered.
Design Criteria:
2. Erosion Analysis – recognizes that rigid pavements fail due to pumping,
erosion of foundation, and joint faulting.
Erosion Analysis

1. Pavement distresses such as pumping, erosion of foundation and joints

faulting are related more to pavement deflections than to flexural stresses.

2. The most critical pavement deflection occurs at the slab corner when an axle
load is placed at the joint near the corner,
Design Factors:
1. Concrete Modulus of Rupture
• The flexural strength of concrete is defined by the modulus of rupture,
which is determined at 28 days and used as the design strength.
• The variability of strength and the gain in strength with age should be
considered in the fatigue analysis
2. Subgrade and Subbase Support
• The subgrade and subbase support is defined by the modulus of subgrade
reaction, k.
Design Factors:
2. Subgrade and Subbase Support
• It is not economical to used untreated subbase for the sole purpose of
increasing k values.
Design Factors:
Subgrade and Subbase Support
• It is not economical to used untreated subbase for the sole purpose of
increasing k values.
Design Factors:
3. Design Period
 The term “design period” should not be focus with the term “pavement
life”
 a design period of 20 years has commonly been used.
4. Traffic
 the average daily truck traffic (ADTT) and the axle load distribution.
 Axles Load Distribution: Data on the axle load of truck traffic is
needed to compute the number of single and tandem axles of various
weights expected during the design period.

 Load Safety Factor:

The axle load must be multiplied by a load-safety factor (LSF).
 uninterrupted traffic flow and high volume of truck traffic, LSF = 1.2
 highways and arterial streets where there will be moderate volumes
of truck, LSF = 1.1.
Design Table and Charts
Separate sets of tables and charts are used to evaluate fatigue and erosion damage.

The following parameter values are used in their development:

● elastic moludus of concrete = 4 x 106 psi (28GPa),

● poisson ration of concrete = 0.15
● diameter of dowels = 1/8 in./in. of slab
● spacing of dowels = 12 in. (305mm)
● modulus of dowels support = 12 x 106 pci (543GN/m3)
● spring constant for aggregate interlock joints = 5000 psi (34.5 MPa)
● spring constant for tied concrete shoulder = 25,000 psi (173 MPa).
Design Example:
The design involves a four-lane interstate pavement with doweled
joints and no concrete shoulders. A 100 mm untreated subbase will be
placed on a clay subgrade with a k value of 27 MPa/m. Other
information include concrete modulus of rupture = 4.5 MPa, design
period = 20 years, current ADT = 12,900, annual growth rate = 4% and
ADTT =19% of ADT.

Solution:
Use:
Load Safety Factor, LSF = 1.2
Trial Slab Thickness = 240 mm
Total Fatigue Percent and Total Damage Percent
Calculate the total fatigue and damage percents.
 Pavement Management System
A Pavement Management System (PMS) is a set of tools or
methods that can assist decision makers in finding cost effective
strategies for providing, evaluating, and maintaining pavements in
a serviceable condition. PMS has two basic components:

A comprehensive database, which contains current

and historical information on pavement condition,
pavement structure, and traffic.

A set of tools that allows us to determine existing

and future pavement conditions, predict financial
needs, and identify and prioritise pavement
preservation projects.
The basic purposes of PMS are:

• To achieve the best value possible for the available public

funds.

• To provide safe, comfortable and economical transportation.

PMS involves two main levels:

(1) NETWORK LEVEL

(2) PROJECT LEVEL

Pavement Evaluation
• Used to provide information about
Functional surface characteristics that
Evaluation involves road user’s safety, comfort
and serviceability.
• Focuses on the ability of the
Structural pavement structure to withstand
Evaluation traffic loading and environmental
effects.
 Evaluation Type Pavement Function Pavement Examples of Indices
Characteristic and Indicators
FUNCTIONAL Serviceability Roughness IRI (International
EVALUATION Roughness Index)
PSI (Present
Serviceability Index)
QI (Quality Index)
Safety Texture Microtexture
Macrotexture
Skid Resistance Skid Resistance
Coefficient
IFI (International
Friction Index)
STRUCTURAL Structural Capacity Mechanical Deflections
EVALUATION Properties
Pavement Distress Cracks, Defects
Profile Deformations
Pavement Structural Evaluation Methods
Destructive Testing, which involves sampling and testing in
situ and at the laboratory, includes the following methods:
• Coring
• Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP)
DCP is an instrument designed to
measure of the in situ strength of
subgrade, base, subbase and
weakly-cemented materials.
Non-destructive testing (NDT) is one of the most reliable
methods for structural evaluation.
Two of the most common NDT equipment are:

(1) Benkelman Beam

(2) Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD)
Pavement Distress
(A) Pavement Cracks

Crocodile (Alligator) cracks Block cracks

Longitudinal cracks

Transverse cracks
Edge cracks
Crescent-shaped cracks
(B) Surface Deformation

Rutting Corrugation
Depression Shoving
(C) Surface Defects

Bleeding Ravelling
Polishing Delamination
(E) Pothole (F) Patch

For a detailed guide on identifying pavement distresses, refer to:

“A Guide to the Visual Assessment of Flexible Pavement Surface Conditions”
– JKR (20709-2060-92)
Maintenance vs. Rehabilitation
• A set of organised activities carried out
Maintenance to keep the pavement in its best
operational condition with minimum
cost incurred.

• The task of repairing sections of an

Rehabilitation existing pavement that has deteriorated
(i.e. to reset the deterioration process).

Pavement
Condition
(i) (i) (i) (i) Maintenance
(ii)
(ii) Rehabilitation

Time
 Types of Maintenance
Preventive Maintenance
Planned strategy of cost-
effective treatments to an
existing roadway system and its
appurtenances that
• preserves the system
• retards future deterioration
• maintains or improves the
functional condition of the
system
without increasing load-carrying
capacity.
Corrective Maintenance
Performed in response to the
development of a deficiency or
deficiencies that negatively
impact the safe, efficient
operations of the facility and
future integrity of the
pavement section.
Activities such as pothole
repair, and patching (e.g. edge
failures and/or drop offs) are
considered examples of
corrective maintenance.
Emergency Maintenance
Performed during an
emergency situation, such
as a severe pothole, flood
or road washed out, land-
slide, or trip hazard that
needs repair immediately.
This could also include
temporary treatments that
hold the surface together
until a more permanent
treatment can be
performed.
Restoration Reconstruction
• Rejuvenating
• Partial-depth Reconstruction
• Crack Sealing
• Full-depth Reconstruction
• Cutting and Patching
• Thin Bituminous Overlay
- Surface Dressing
- Slurry Seal
- Thin Hot Mix Overlay Pavement
• Surface Recycling
Maintenance and
Rehabilitation Methods

Resurfacing Recycling
• Hot Plant Mix Recycling
• Hot In-Place Recycling
• Cold In-Place Recycling

Pothole Repair
Work Crew/Personnel
At least three workers – one as flagman
(traffic controller) and others to do the work,
i.e. operate machinery, cut, patch, compact
and clean.
Equipment
Pavement cutter (or any pavement
breaking tools), compactor
(portable roller or tamping foot),
brush/broom or air compressor,
shovel, scoop, straight edge, ruler,
marker (chalk), traffic cones and
traffic signs.
Material
Hot mix asphalt or cold mix asphalt,
and tack coat (emulsified asphalt or
cutback asphalt).
Safety
Work carried out in accordance to
safety requirements. Refer to safety
manuals for work zone safety
control and equipment handling
safety. Site crew must be clearly
visible to drivers and traffic must be
controlled.
 Pothole Repair Procedure
Install traffic safety devices (i.e.
traffic cones, traffic warning signs,
work zone speed limit signs, etc.)

Mark the area around the

pothole that requires repair. Cut
and remove the marked area.

Clean the patch by ensuring no

loose material is left. Air blower
may be used to clean and dry the
patch. Then, apply tack coat.

Lay the hot mix asphalt into the

patch and clean the outer area of
debris and overspill.

Compact the mix, clean the area

up and remove traffic safety
devices. Move on to next pothole.
4) Thin Bituminous Overlays

Improves the surface riding condition and can extend the service
life of a pavement.

It can also be used as a short term measure to address specific

distress condition.

The most commonly used thin asphalt overlays are:

• Surface Dressing
• Slurry Seal
• Thin Hot Mix Overlays
Pavement Resurfacing
The aim of pavement resurfacing is to place the needed
thickness of hot mix asphalt on an existing pavement.

This is used to maintain the serviceability of pavement and

provide the necessary structural strength for pavement design
period.
Resurfacing Cracked Surfaces

Resurfacing Rutted Surfaces

Resurfacing Bleeding Surfaces

Resurfacing Corrugated Surfaces

 HIGHWAY DRAINAGE
Sources of surface and subsurface water:
Highway drainage is a process which:
Controls and directs sub-
Diverts and removes water
surface water into proper
from the pavement surface
channels

A well maintained drainage system:

Enhances safety
Prevents
to motorists by
highway surface
removing water Reduces the risk
water from
away from the of water damage
flooding
road and to the highway
neighbouring
pavement
properties
surface
Poor drainage affects driving safety by causing:
Reduction in the grip
Water spraying on the
between the tyre and the
windshield, thus reducing
road which can lead to
visibility
skidding

Also called aquaplaning.

Occurs when a layer of water builds
between the rubber tires of the vehicle and
Flooded the road surface.
road
This leads to the loss of traction and thus
Tyre preventing the vehicle from responding to
lifted
off
steering, braking or accelerating.
the
road It becomes, in effect, an unpowered and
unsteered sled.
EFFECTS OF MOISTURE ON:

1) Highway Surface
Pools of water on the road (water-ponding) can:
 slow down traffic
 cause accidents due to skidding

2) Highway Structure
Surface run-offs and subsoil moisture can reduce the
strength of the construction materials:
 High moisture content in the subgrade will reduce the
stability of the soil, leading to pavement failure.
 Prolonged contact with water can cause stripping of
aggregates from the bituminous pavement, leading to the
formation of potholes which slows down traffic and cause
damages to vehicles.

3) Soil
Excess moisture content in the underlying soil can increase
the weight of the soil and increase stress conditions. These
are the two main reasons for failure of slopes and
embankment foundations.
Flexible Pavements are Rigid Pavements are
prone to waves and prone to failures caused
corrugations due to by mud-pumping:
poor drainage: Excess water stagnating in
the subsurface of rigid
pavements may cause mud-
pumping
Highway drainage can be categorized as
1) Surface Drainage – removes surface water
2) Subsurface Drainage – removes subsurface water
3) Cross Drainage – allows flow of water from a stream
crossing the path of a road Surface Drainage

Cross Drainage

Subsurface Drainage
 SURFACE DRAINAGE

Transverse Longitudinal Longitudinal Curbs and

Slope Slope Channels Gutters

Surface drainage for rural highways should include adequate transverse

and longitudinal slopes on both pavement and shoulder to ensure
positive runoff.

Besides this, it should also include longitudinal channels (ditches),

culverts and bridges to provide for the discharge of surface water.

Storm drains and inlets are also provided on the median.

For urban highways, adequate transverse and longitudinal slopes are

needed. Longitudinal drains are usually underground pipe drains.
SUBSURFACE WATER SOURCES
The sources of subsurface water are as follows:

(1) Seepage from higher grounds

(2) Seepage
from road (3) Surface water that permeates through
shoulders cracks and joints in the road pavement

Subgrade

(4) Groundwater that moves up as a result of capillary action

Subsurface drainage plays an integral part in the overall highway
drainage system.

Subsurface drainage should operate together with surface drainage in

order to provide an efficient drainage system for highways.

Drainage layer

Transverse drains Drainage blanket

Longitudinal Subsurface
Well systems
drains Drainage
DRAINAGE BLANKET

A drainage blanket is a layer of material that is highly permeable. The

blanket can be used to facilitate the flow of sub-surface water away from
the pavement.

It also facilitates the removal of water that has permeated through cracks
in the pavement, as well as subsurface water originating from artesian
sources.
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