Pre-20th Century:

- Ancient civilizations use geological knowledge for construction and aqueducts.

 Mesopotamia and Ancient Crete (ca. 3300–1100 BC)

✓In Mesopotamia, a canal connected

civilization centers to the Euphrates River
and its tributaries for both navigation and
water supply. (ca. 3rd millennium BC)

✓In Ancient Crete, the technology of

transporting water by aqueduct to
palaces. (ca. 3000 BC)

 Ancient Egypt (ca. 3000–67 BC)

✓Achaemenid Persians used a qanat to supply water. A qanat is constructed as

a series of well-like vertical shafts, connected by a gently sloping tunnel.

 Indus Valley Civilization (ca. 2600–1900 BC)

✓constructed extensive subterranean urban plumbing systems including

drains and water pipes feeding baths.

Source:
https://www.google.com/amp/s/www.thearchaeologist.org/blog/sanitation-
of-the-indus-valley-civilisation%3fformat=amp

 Pre-Columbian Cultures (ca. 2600 BC–Early 16 th Century AD)

✓The Maya people constructed aqueducts and causeways that channelized and
diverted water around, away from, and under their sites.

 Historical Times
-Chinese Dynasties and Empires (ca. 770 BC–1911 AD)
✓The history of aqueducts in China can be traced to ca. 3000 years ago. Most aqueducts in
China consist of simply designed, wide, open canal systems. The most typical aqueduct from this
age is the Zheng Guo Qu aqueduct. These aqueducts played an important role in the city water
management for over a thousand years
 -Hittite Empire (ca. 1700–1180 BC)
✓The Hittite Empire constructed collection ponds and dams to serve urban centers. In the
capital Hattusa (near modern Boğazkale, Turkey), two large ponds (36,000 and 20,000 m3) were
fed by groundwater and served to supply water to the city.

-Urartu Kingdom (ca. 1000–700 BC)

The Urartu Kingdom, on the shores of Lake Van in Eastern Anatolia, produced waterworks
including the Menua and Ferhat aqueducts

-Persian Empire (550–331 BC)

Qanats were arguably first invented ca. in the 7 th century BC in what is now Iran, and the
technique spread widely during the Persian Empire between 550 and 331 BC. The qanat
technique was exported to China, Central Asia, and the Middle East

-Etruscan Civilization (ca. 800–100 BC)

The Etruscans constructed aqueducts tunnels that were similar to qanats. Their development
was the basis for agricultural innovation that fuelled the expansion of the Etruscan civilization

-The Classical and Hellenistic Periods (ca. 480–67 BC)

Minoan aqueduct technology was further developed and spread all over Hellas during the
archaic (ca. 750- 500 BC) and classical (ca. 500-336 BC) periods. The advancement of aqueduct
technology and water management is illustrated by the extraordinary example of the water
supply of the Aegean island of Samos, which was admired in antiquity and remains so today.

-Nabataean and Hasmonean Aqueducts

In Israel and Jordan, a large number of aqueducts supplied towns and fortresses in the desert
with water. Aqueducts tapped the small springs and transport water over several kilometers to
the cities in channels that are usually less than 15 cm wide (see Figure 8).

-Roman Period
Roman aqueducts were arguably more common, larger in size and capable of transporting a
greater water volume than their Minoan, Etruscan, and Hellene predecessors. The construction
of public baths demanded large volumes of running water.
 Byzantine Period and Middle Ages

In addition to the repair and the maintenance of pre- existing Roman aqueducts, new aqueducts
were built. In Constantinople, during the first centuries of the Byzantine Empire, the longest ancient
aqueduct was built [67] to deliver water to the new capital city. It supplied spacious cisterns (e.g.,
the Basilica cistern).
  Ottoman and Byzantines Periods

The emergence of the Ottoman Turkish tribe from western Turkey and their conquest of the Balkans
occurred from the middle of the ca. 14 th century AD. The urban infrastructure of many former Byzantine
cities was enriched with various constructions necessary for basic needs, such as: (a) religious buildings
(e.g., mosques); (b) secular buildings (of social-public character and for domestic use, including
commercial buildings); and (c) military architecture (e.g., fortifications and towers

- Leonardo da Vinci studies soil mechanics and foundations.

 His study of rocks and fossils that the world is far older than
Genesis claims.
 Da Vinci’s writings laid the foundations for the principles of
equilibrium and soil mechanics, triggering a new scientific
approach to understanding geotechnics.
Source: theguardian.com

Early 20th Century:

- 1920s: Establishment of geological surveys in various countries.

 The Geological Survey under Sir John Smith Flett, 1920–1935

Source: pubs.usgs.gov

Link: https://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/c1050/1920s.htm

- 1930s: Terzaghi’s work on soil mechanics forms the basis of geotechnical

engineering.

 Dr. Karl Terzaghi was convinced that engineers must find means to
describe soils quantitatively if they were to be used satisfactorily
as a construction material.

Source: chegg.com

- 1940s: Geological investigations play a crucial role in World War II

infrastructure projects.

During World Wars I and II, the role of geologists was partly to gather,
collate, and interpret geological information for particular military use, and
partly to guide site investigation and well drilling. Much military geology was merely hydrogeology or
engineering geology constrained by military objectives and urgency.

Source: https://wires.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/wcc.732

Source: E.P.F. Rose, in Encyclopedia of Geology, 2005

Link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/military-geology

1950s – 1960s:

- Formation of the International Association of Engineering Geology (IAEG) in

1964.

The association aims to promote and encourage the advancement of

engineering geology through technological activities and research. At the same
time it strives to improve teaching and training in engineering geology, and to
collect, evaluate and disseminate the results of engineering geological
activities.

- Geological studies support the construction of major infrastructure

projects, including dams and highways.

Engineering geology plays a critical role in construction projects. It

provides essential information about the geological features, physical
properties of the soil and rock, and the potential hazards that may
impact the construction project.

Source: https://geologyscience.com/geology-branches/engineering-
geology/engineering-geology-for-construction/?amp

1970s – 1980s:

- Advancements in remote sensing and geophysical techniques

revolutionize subsurface investigations.

- Notable figures like Karl Terzaghi and Arthur Casagrande contribute to

geotechnical engineering and soil mechanics.

Arthur Casagrande (1902–1981) is one of the main people responsible for the geotechnics that we know
today.
Source: https://careers.snclavalin.com/fr/blogs/2022-1/quel-est-le-role-des-ingenieurs-en-
geotechnique-et-pourquoi

1990s – 2000s:

- Integration of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) into

engineering geology.

Geographic Information Systems (GIS) are tools for organizing,

analyzing, and presenting spatial data. GIS can be used by
geotechnical engineers to aid preliminary assessment through final
geotechnical design.

Source: https://medium.com/@yukti.aggarwal/gis-technology-fa858148fbb6

- Increased focus on environmental and sustainability aspects in

engineering geology.

Engineering geology has an important role to play in sustainable

development. This is due to the unique perspective that engineering
geologists have of the interfaces between: science and engineering;
the natural and built environments; the past, present and future.

- Notable case studies on geological hazards, such as earthquakes and

landslides.

Source: https://www.mdpi.com/2673-1924/2/2/23

2010s – Present:

- Continued advancements in geotechnical software and modeling.

In recent decades, as the acceleration of urbanization and rapid

economic development, research on underground space development
and utilization, ground improvement, disaster prevention and control in
engineering geology, environmental geotechnical engineering, and
other fields are rising.

Source: https://www.digitaljournal.com/pr/news/geotechnical-modeling-software-market-is-thriving-
worldwide-by-2029-top-key-players-like-agile-frameworks-bentley-systems-datasurge-deep-excavation

- Engineering geology plays a vital role in climate change adaptation and mitigation.
Climate warming is causing sea levels to rise. Warming temperatures are increasing the devastating force
of hurricanes, according to mounting research. We use geological and geotechnical data from the area to
create the best factor of safety for minimising the hazard prone zone.

- Focus on resilient infrastructure in the face of natural disasters and climate change.

The CDRI will serve as a platform where knowledge is generated and exchanged on different aspects of
disaster and climate resilience of infrastructure. It will bring together technical expertise from a
multitude of stakeholders.

**Notable Figures:**

- Karl Terzaghi: Known as the “father of soil mechanics” for his foundational work.

- Arthur Casagrande: Developed soil classification systems and concepts in geotechnical engineering.

- Rachel Carson: Environmentalist whose work highlighted the impact of geological factors on
ecosystems.

**Key Events and Discoveries:**

- 1964: Formation of the International Association of Engineering Geology (IAEG).

- 1970s: Introduction of advanced geotechnical laboratory testing methods.

- 1980s: Emergence of GIS as a valuable tool in geological mapping and analysis.

- 1990s: Increased awareness of geological hazards and risk assessment.

- 21st Century: Application of engineering geology in sustainable development and climate resilience.

**Applications and Case Studies:**

- Geological investigations in major construction projects like dams, tunnels, and skyscrapers.

- Mitigation of geological hazards, such as landslides and subsidence.

- Environmental impact assessments in infrastructure development.

- Geology’s role in sustainable land use planning and natural resource management.

**Advancements in Technology:**

- Remote sensing and satellite imagery for geological mapping.

- Geophysical methods (seismic, resistivity) for subsurface characterization.

- Geotechnical software for slope stability analysis and foundation design.

- Use of LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) in geological surveys.

This timeline showcases the evolution of engineering geology from its historical roots to its modern
applications, highlighting key figures, technological advances, and the field’s critical role in infrastructure
development, environmental protection, and disaster resilience

Geochemistry - is the study of the chemistry of rocks and of the waters and atmosphere.
Geodesy – Concerned with measuring the form and size of the earth.
Geomorphology – Is the study of land forms, their origin and development.

Geophysics - Is the application of the principles of physics to the study of the Earth.

Structural Geology – Deals with the position of rock bodies, and with tectonic geology interprets the
forces causing them to be deformed or broken.

Mineralogy - Is the study of minerals.

Oceanography – Is the study of the oceans and their basins.

Paleontology – Is the study of the life of past geologic periods and the evolution of plants and animals in
which remains or traces are found in the rocks.
Petrology – Is the systematic study of rocks especially their origin.
Physiography – Embraces the fields of geomorphology, meteorology, climatology, and oceanography.
Stratigraphy – Is the study of layered rocks, chiefly those of sedimentary origin.
Economic Geology - is a broad field, involving the commercial and industrial uses of the resources of the
earth.
Agricultural Geology – The resources of the earth. Is the study of soils, especially of their depletion and
erosion.

Engineering Geology – Is the application of the geology to engineering study for the Purpose of assuring
that the geological factors regarding the location, design, construction, operation and maintenance of
engineering works are recognized and accounted for
Hydrology –Is the study of surface and underground water.
Mining Geology – is geology applied to the finding and extraction of metallic deposits
(ores) and nonmetallic resources such as coal, building stones, clay, etc.
Petroleum Geology – is the study of the origin and occurrence of petroleum (oil) and natural gas.
Military Geology – is the application of geologic knowledge to warfare.