M15 Gas Turbine Engine: Aviation Training Hub

M15
GAS TURBINE ENGINE
AVIATION TRAINING HUB

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Contents
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 5
Fundamentals .................................................................................................................................. 6
Potential Energy .......................................................................................................................... 6
Kinetic Energy ............................................................................................................................ 8
Newton's Laws of Motion ......................................................................................................... 10
The Relationship between Force, Work, Power, Energy, Velocity, Acceleration.................... 12
Brayton Cycle ........................................................................................................................... 15
Constructional Arrangement and Operation of Turbojet Engines ............................................ 17
Constructional Arrangement and Operation of Turbofan Engines ........................................... 19
Constructional Arrangement and Operation of Turboshaft Engines ........................................ 22
Constructional Arrangement and Operation of Turboprop Engines ......................................... 22
Engine Performance ...................................................................................................................... 24
Gross Thrust .............................................................................................................................. 24
Net Thrust ................................................................................................................................. 25
Choked Nozzle Thrust .............................................................................................................. 25
Thrust Distribution .................................................................................................................... 26
Resultant Thrust ........................................................................................................................ 27
Thrust Horsepower.................................................................................................................... 27
Equivalent Shaft Horsepower ................................................................................................... 28
Specific Fuel Consumption ....................................................................................................... 28
Engine Efficiencies ................................................................................................................... 28
Bypass Ratio and Engine Pressure Ratio .................................................................................. 32
Pressure, Temperature and Velocity of the Gas Flow .............................................................. 33
Engine Ratings .......................................................................................................................... 38
Static Thrust .............................................................................................................................. 39
Influence of Speed, Altitude and Hot Climate .......................................................................... 39
Flat Rating ................................................................................................................................. 44
Limitations ................................................................................................................................ 45
Inlet ............................................................................................................................................... 46
Compressor Inlet Ducts............................................................................................................. 46
Effects of Various Inlet Configurations .................................................................................... 47
For Training Purpose Only Rev: 00

B1.1 Basic M15 - Gas Turbine Engine Dated: October 2019
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Ice Protection ............................................................................................................................ 51

Compressors .................................................................................................................................. 53
Axial and Centrifugal Types ..................................................................................................... 53
Compressor Ratio...................................................................................................................... 54
Constructional Features, Operating Principles and Applications ............................................. 54
Fan Balancing ........................................................................................................................... 57
Causes and Effects of Compressor Stall or Surge .................................................................... 60
Methods of Air Flow Control ................................................................................................... 61
Combustion Section ...................................................................................................................... 63
Constructional Features and Principles of Operation ............................................................... 63
Turbine Section ............................................................................................................................. 66
Operation and Characteristics of Different Turbine Blade Types ............................................ 66
Blade to Disk Attachment ......................................................................................................... 66
Nozzle Guide Vanes ................................................................................................................. 67
Causes and Effects of Turbine Blade Stress and Creep ............................................................ 68
Exhaust .......................................................................................................................................... 71
Convergent, Divergent and Variable Area Nozzles .................................................................. 71
Engine Noise Reduction ........................................................................................................... 73
Thrust Reversers ....................................................................................................................... 75
Bearings and Seals ........................................................................................................................ 79
Lubricants and Fuels ..................................................................................................................... 84
Properties and Specifications .................................................................................................... 84
Fuel Additives ........................................................................................................................... 85
Safety Precautions ..................................................................................................................... 86
Lubrication Systems...................................................................................................................... 87
System Operation/Layout and Components ............................................................................. 87
Fuel Systems ................................................................................................................................. 96
Operation of Engine Control and Fuel Metering Systems ........................................................ 96
Systems Layout and Components ........................................................................................... 104
Air Systems ................................................................................................................................. 109

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Operation of Engine Air Distribution and Anti-Ice Control Systems..................................... 109

Starting and Ignition Systems ..................................................................................................... 119
Operation of Engine Start Systems and Components ............................................................. 119
Ignition Systems and Components.......................................................................................... 126
Maintenance Safety Requirements ......................................................................................... 129
Engine Indication Systems .......................................................................................................... 129
Exhaust Gas Temperature/lnterstage Turbine Temperature ................................................... 130
Engine Thrust Indication: Engine Pressure Ratio, Engine Turbine ........................................ 132
Discharge Pressure or Jet Pipe Pressure Systems ................................................................... 132
Oil Pressure and Temperature ................................................................................................. 133
Fuel Pressure and Flow ........................................................................................................... 135
Engine Speed .......................................................................................................................... 137
Vibration Measurement and Indication .................................................................................. 139
Torque ..................................................................................................................................... 141
Power ...................................................................................................................................... 142
Power Augmentation Systems .................................................................................................... 143
Operation and Applications .................................................................................................... 143
Water Injection, Water-Methanol ........................................................................................... 144
Afterburner Systems ............................................................................................................... 144
Turbo-Prop Engines .................................................................................................................... 147
Gas Coupled I Free Turbines and Gear Coupled Turbines ..................................................... 147
Reduction Gears ...................................................................................................................... 149
Integrated Engine and Propeller Controls ............................................................................... 150
Overspeed Safety Devices ...................................................................................................... 151
Turboshaft Engines ..................................................................................................................... 153
Arrangement ........................................................................................................................... 153
Drive Systems ......................................................................................................................... 154
Reduction Gearing .................................................................................................................. 156
Couplings ................................................................................................................................ 156
Control Systems ...................................................................................................................... 158
Auxiliary Power Units (APUs) ................................................................................................... 159
Purpose.................................................................................................................................... 159

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Operation................................................................................................................................. 160
Protective Systems .................................................................................................................. 163
Powerplant Installation ............................................................................................................... 164
Configuration of Firewalls ...................................................................................................... 164
Configuration of Cowlings ..................................................................................................... 166
Configuration of Acoustic Panels ........................................................................................... 168
Configuration of Engine Mounts ............................................................................................ 170
Configuration of Anti-Vibration Mounts ................................................................................ 171
Configuration of Hoses ........................................................................................................... 172
Configuration of Pipes ............................................................................................................ 173
Configuration of Feeders ........................................................................................................ 174
Configuration of Connectors................................................................................................... 174
Configuration of Wiring Looms ............................................................................................. 175
Configuration of Control Cables and Rods ............................................................................. 176
Configuration of Lifting Points............................................................................................... 177
Configuration of Drains .......................................................................................................... 179
Fire Protection Systems .............................................................................................................. 180
Operation of Detection and Extinguishing Systems ............................................................... 180
Engine Monitoring and Ground Operation ................................................................................. 185
Procedures for Starting and Ground Run-Up.......................................................................... 185
Interpretation of Engine Power Output and Parameters ......................................................... 189
Trend (including Oil Analysis, Vibration and Borescope) Monitoring .................................. 190
Inspection of the Engine and Components to Criteria, Tolerances and Data Specified by the
Engine Manufacturer .............................................................................................................. 192
Compressor Washing/Cleaning .............................................................................................. 193
Foreign Object Damage .......................................................................................................... 194
Engine Storage and Preservation ................................................................................................ 196
Preservation and Depreservation for the Engine and Accessories/Systems ........................... 196

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Introduction
This chapter will discuss the operating benefits, construction, and components used in gas
turbine engines. Large aircraft commonly use gas turbine engines because they exhibit a good
power to weight ratio and allow for high airspeeds and flight altitudes. Initial sections of this
chapter discuss the basic terminology and physics required to ensure an understanding of gas
turbine engines, followed by operating principles and engine assemblies. All engine assemblies
and their associated components will be discussed as well as their effects within the engine
systems.
Following the basic introduction section, the text provides a description of engine operation
under a variety of conditions. The different types and applications of gas turbine engines are
explained, including differences in engine control, displays, and components that provide
information about the engine parameters during operation. The text also describes the engine
interface with other aircraft operating systems and includes a description of common engine
mounting configurations.
Fundamentals
Potential Energy
Potential energy Epot is one of the many different forms of energy. It describes a system's state
within a physical space. Potential energy results from three components: the system's mass m
(unit Lkg)), the gravitational constant g (unit Lm/s2J) and the distance or height h (unit Cm)) to a
reference point. The following formula describes potential energy:
Epot = m x g x h
Distance has an important role within the equation as the reference plane and height can be
chosen arbitrarily. Depending on the definition of the reference plane, the same system may
assume different levels of potential energy. A system's potential energy is equal to the work
consumed for making the system reach its current state. Potential energy can be seen as the
energy stored in the system after work has been applied.
The more work is put into a system, the higher its potential energy is.

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Example for the presence of potential energy
The definition of potential energy therefore represents an important value for describing the
energetic state of any system. Potential energy is usually measured in the SI unit Joule LJJ. The
relationship between force, work, power, energy, velocity and acceleration gives a deeper insight
into this unit as well as the term work in a physical context.
As an example, we will look at a 2 kg ball sitting on top of a table which is resting on the ground.
The table is 50 cm (0.5 m) high. We will calculate the ball's potential energy as follows:
First we choose the reference plane. This may be the table top (case 1) or the ground (case 2).
For case 1, h o m, the ball has a potential energy of o J. In case 2, the given values and the
gravitational constant g 9.81 m/S2 give a potential energy of:
Epot = 2kg x 9.81 m/s2 x 0.5m = 9.81J

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Sketch for the example on potential energy
If a ball drops from the table top to the ground with the effect of gravitational acceleration, a
calculated potential energy is emitted during the fall. Energy cannot disappear, be created or
consumed but only converted from one form to another (energy conversion). In this example, the
decrease in potential energy causes an increase in kinetic energy which will be explained in the
next section.
Kinetic Energy
The term kinetic energy Ekin also called motion energy, describes the energy resulting from the
1/2mv2
velocity of a body or system. A moving body's kinetic energy is equal to the amount of energy
required to accelerate that body to that speed. Similar to potential energy:
The higher a body's current velocity, the more work had to be put into it to accelerate it to that
velocity. Its kinetic energy is therefore also higher. Along with the potential energy described
above, kinetic energy is an important form of energy for describing the energetic state of a body.
As with potential energy, kinetic energy is measured in the SI unit Joule LJ).
C.P.F =(mv2)/r

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The principle of the conversion of energy tightly couples kinetic and potential energy. For a
simplified example, we can assume that the entire potential energy of a body is converted into
kinetic energy and vice versa.
In order to illustrate the dynamics of this energy relationship, let us look at a gravity pendulum
moving within the earth's gravitational field. When stationary, the pendulum has neither kinetic
nor potential energy as no work has been applied to it.
Energy conservation on the example of a pendulum
The work applied to the pendulum in order to move it to position 1 increases its potential energy
in proportion to the deflection. If the pendulum reaches position 1 and is released, the
gravitational force moves it back to the initial position (applying work), building up kinetic
energy while reducing the pendulum's potential energy (due to the decrease in height). When the
pendulum passes its initial position; it reaches its maximum kinetic energy while its potential
energy is naught - all height has been consumed.
After the pendulum has passed its initial position, the described procedure repeats in reverse
order. The kinetic energy stored in the pendulum allows it to move upwards into position 2
(linear work is done). When reaching position 2, the pendulum has converted its entire kinetic
energy, reaching maximum potential energy.
Calculating a body's kinetic energy requires certain known quantities, as given below:
Ekin = ½ x m x v2
in which:
• Ekin being the value of potential energy (J)
• m being the body's mass (kg)

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• v representing the body's velocity in [m/s]
A ball with a weight of 2 kg traveling at 5 m/s therefore has a kinetic energy of 25 J.
As the body's velocity has a quadratic influence, kinetic energy increases/decreases as a non-
linear function. Doubling the body's velocity gives it four times the kinetic energy. Potential
energy, in contrast, increases and decreases linearly. due to v square in formula
due to P.E= m x g x h----- having no square
Newton's Laws of Motion

Newton's second law of motion is the basis of many movement equations in mechanics. It states
that a constant force F acting on a body leads to a constant acceleration. The resulting
acceleration a is always proportional to the applied force and acts in its respective its vector's
direction.
F=∞
The force is usually given in the SI unit Newton [N], which in turn is based on the base units
meter, kilogram and second. 1 N is equal to I(kg*m)/s2.
This principle is illustrated well by an aircraft engine. The more thrust the engine delivers, the
more force it applies to the airframe. The aircraft is therefore accelerated in proportion to the
engine's thrust force. At the same time, the acceleration caused by the engine is directed in
parallel with the direction of engine thrust or thrust vector, usually in parallel with the aircraft's
longitudinal axis.
1st law ---change is not possible without changer

2nd law---constant F acting on a body leads to constant acceleration
3rd law-----any action has a re-action

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Newton's second law gives us this basic mechanical equation, which mathematically describes
physical force with:
F=mxa
• F being the force [N = kg*m/s2]

• m the body's mass [kg]
• a the body's acceleration [m/s2]
This formula makes it rather simple to calculate the thrust force required from every engine to
accelerate a modern aircraft with a mass of 300 t by 1.3 m/s2.
Newton's third law states that every force (action) is met by an equal but opposite force
(reaction). If body A exerts a force on body B, there is an equal but opposite force that body B
applies to body A. This law is also referred to as the action-reaction law. Example: the legs of a
table standing on the ground, due to the table's weight and the gravitational constant, exert a
force on the ground (Force mass * acceleration, Newton's first law). As the table does not move

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up or down, the ground exerts an equal force on the table. This force has the same magnitude but
acts in the opposite direction. In this case, action reaction, as neither the table nor the ground
move.
The Relationship between Force, Work, Power, Energy, Velocity,

Acceleration ability to do work is known as energy.
work done per unit time is called power.
The following section will introduce the physical relationships between force, work, power,
energy, velocity and acceleration. Force is the initial consideration in this context, being the
product of mass and acceleration (unit: Newton).
Acceleration, as part of the definition of force, captures the current rate of velocity change. The
SI unit system gives acceleration the unit [m/s2].
If the force F now acts on a body along the distance s, the force "performs work" on the body.
The physical definition of work is the product of force and the distance over which the force is
applied. This definition also gives us the unit in which work is measured: Newton meters [Nm].
The definition of physical work serves as the basis of the second relationship of basic physical
quantities - work and energy. A body's energy can be seen as the work that has been done to it
and is therefore stored in it. This relationship can also be found in the units for energy (Joule)
and work (Newton Meter). According to the SI system, 1 J equals 1 Nm. As the two units are
identical in dimension, they are interchangeable, although it has to be noted that, for historical
reasons, it is an accepted practice to give energy values in joules and work quantities in newton
meters. Bolt torque values, for example, are usually specified in Nm.
1 joule = 1 Nm

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Having understood the relationship between force, work and energy, it is easy to make the
connection to power. In physics, the term power describes the ratio of the work done and the
time taken to do said work. Power (P) work divided by time which equals force multiplied by
distance divided by time. it says W=Nm
power= work / time
Power is usually specified in the SI unit watt, with one watt being identical to one newton meter/
second or joule/ second.
Speed is defined as the ratio of distance traveled and the time taken to travel that distance.
In the SI system, speed is usually specified in meters per second [m/s]. Given this textbook's
aeronautical context, it has to be noted that horizontal velocities are often specified in the non-SI
unit knots [kt]. One knot is equal to one nautical mile per hour - 1.852 km/h or 0.514 m/s.
1Knot=0.514m/s=1.852km/h
Looking at the above formula for power and velocity in more detail, we can see that speed is part
of the mathematical definition of power. Power can be defined as the product of speed and force.
Further consideration of the relationships between the physical basic quantities force, work and
energy give the "golden rule of mechanics" which describes the principle of the conservation of
power for simple mechanical systems. According to this rule, the same work can be done by
changing one factor and reciprocally and proportionally adjusting another factor. In simple
terms, this means:

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The practical relevance of this relationship can be illustrated by a simple power transmission
system in the form of a basic pulley. From practical experience, we know that the tensile force
required for lifting an object is proportional to the system's number of rollers and the pulling
distance. If the pulley has to lift an object to a given height, the pulling distance has to be
increased proportionally to the decrease in pulling force compared to lifting the object without
the pulley. Example: A body with a weight of 100 N has to be lifted by 10 cm. The system's
motor is limited to a force of 25 N. Using a four-pulley system, the pulling force can be reduced
to 25 N. At the same time, due to the rule introduced above, the pulling distance has to increase
fourfold in order to deliver the same amount of work.
The pulley's lifting height is equal to the body's potential energy, which is in turn equal to the
lifting work done to reach that height stored in the body. This relationship is demonstrated as
follows:
We assume the body in question to be situated within the earth's gravitational field and have a
weight of 2 kg. The body's potential energy is therefore:

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Calculating the work required to lift the body by 10 cm results in a tensile force value of F
4-905 N (equal to 1/4 of the body's weight force). The work to be done in order to reach a lifting
height of 0.1 m is:
The example of this lifting process can also serve as the basis for further considerations on the
term power. The initial consideration in this respect is that the machine is intended to complete
as many lifting operations (work) per unit of time as possible. Machine A manages 120
operations per minute. Machine B on the other hand completes 480 operations per minute.
According to the formula defined earlier, the following power data results for the two machines:
As a closing thought, we will look at the relationship between speed and acceleration.
Acceleration cannot only be defined as the rate of speed change per unit of time but also as the
first derivation of speed with respect to time.
The acceleration a can be calculated using the following relationship:
The following exemplary calculation illustrates the acceleration and its relationship with speed:
At the time to o s, an airplane moves at a speed of V0 =10 m/s. Ten seconds later (t1=10 s), it
moves at v1 30 m/s. According to the formula given above, the airplane has accelerated at 2 m/s2.
The calculated acceleration value expresses that the airplane gains 2 m/s of velocity for every
second of the period. In case of a braking event, the calculation would yield a negative value
(negative acceleration), describing the speed decrease per second.
Brayton Cycle

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The constant pressure cycle is a thermodynamic cycle that describes the principles of constant
pressure heat engines, in which the heat input (heat resulting from the combustion of fuel)
happens under constant pressure (isobaric). The Brayton cycle is a type of constant pressure
cycle that describes the basic thermodynamic processes within a gas turbine or jet engine.
The Brayton cycle can be split into four process steps:
adiabatic
Steps 1-2 Isentropic Compression isentropic=adiabatic=isotherm

A compressor causes an adiabatic (adiabatic no heat exchange) pressure increase from P1 to p2
This results in a temperature increase from T1 to T2, while the volume decreases from V1 toV2.
Steps 2-3 Isobaric Heat Addition Pressure increase => volume decrease
boyle's law
P1V1=P2V2

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T2-T3
By injecting and combusting fuel in the combustion chamber, the temperature rises from T1 to T2
Pressure remains constant p2= p3. At the same time, the volume increases from V1 to V2 due to
the combustion process.
Steps 3-4 Isentropic Expansion

bernoullis=pressure x velocity
boyle's = pressure volume
The turbine extracts work while the expansion causes a pressure decrease from P3 to P4, which
also causes the temperature to decrease from T3 to T4. Volume increases from V3 to V4.
Gas turbine or jet engine powered aircraft use an open cycle, in which cold gas (in this case: air)
is inducted continuously. This is why there is no need for the cooling stage (step 4-1) in closed
cycle engines.
Constructional Arrangement and Operation of Turbojet Engine s
Jet engines convert thermal energy generated by a combustion process to mechanical or kinetic
energy. The most common type of turbojet engine uses an axial engine design:
1. Air Inlet/ Diffusor: guides and decelerates the air entering the compressor
2. Compressor: pressurizes the inducted air.
3. Combustion chamber: fuel is injected into the compressed air where it is then ignited.
4. Turbine: The expansion of hot gasses (exhaust gas and air) exiting the combustion chamber
drives the turbine that powers the compressor. A rigid shaft connects turbine and compressor.
5. Propelling nozzle: The hot gasses leaving the turbine pass through the propelling nozzle
which creates a high velocity jet with resultant thrust.

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Turbojet engine layout

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The engine' s inlet is designed as a diffuser. This means that the inlet's cross-section grows
beyond the air entry point, which causes the inlet airflow to decelerate and increase in pressure
before entering the compression stage. This process does not require any energy, utilizing the
flow characteristics of gases. An airflow velocity decrease always causes an increase in static
pressure (Venturi's and Bernoulli's findings).
The compressor pressurizes inlet air using multiple compression stages. Each stage consists of a
rotating fan wheel with many blades and a static fan wheel called stator. The stationary blades
are called guide vanes. The rotating blades are known as rotor blades. While the rotor's circular
movement increases the inlet airflow's kinetic energy, the stators cause the actual pressure
increase, with the guide vane layout making it act as a diffuser. As with the inlet, the increasing
cross-section causes the kinetic energy contained in the airflow to convert to pressure energy.
The rotor-stator pairs are arranged in direct succession within the compressor. The number of
rotor- stator pairs is also used to denominate the compressor. A compressor featuring eight rotor-
stator pairs is called an eight-stage compressor.
After its pressure has been increased, the airflow enters the combustion chamber, where it is
injected with fuel (e.g. kerosene) and ignited. Injecting and igniting the fossil fuel adds thermal
energy, which in this case is used to increase the airflow's velocity. The high velocity gas jet
drives the turbine and creates thrust. The turbine is situated behind the combustion chamber
within the hot gas flow, which drives it. An axial shaft connects the turbine and compressor,
powering the compressor.
The turbine also comprises rotor and stator elements. In the turbine, as oppose to the compressor,
the stator sits in front of the rotor element in order to increase the airflow velocity using the
guide vanes (converting pressure energy into kinetic energy). This high velocity airflow provides
sufficient kinetic energy for driving the turbine. The energy extracted from the exhaust gas jet is
equal to the energy consumed by the compressor (not accounting for frictional and other losses).
Like in the compressor, a stator-rotor pair in the turbine is called turbine stage.
After the hot gas has exited the turbine, it passes through the nozzle, creating thrust. The
convergent shape of the nozzle further accelerates the exhaust gas mass flow, generating the
thrust force. The jet's geometry has a substantial influence on a turbojet engine's performance.
Constructional Arrangement and Operation of Turbofan Engines
Turbofan engines are an evolution of the turbojet configuration and the basic operation and
construction are quite similar. The compressor section of a turbofan engine is split into a High
Pressure Compressor (HPC) and Low Pressure Compressor (LPC). Similarly, the turbine section
is split into a High Pressure Turbine (HPT) and Low Pressure Turbine (LPT). The Low Pressure

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Turbine and Low Pressure Compressor are connected by an axial shaft ensuring that both
sections turn at the same speed. The High Pressure Turbine and High Pressure Compressor are
also connected by an axial shaft and so like the Low Pressure system, their shafts turn at the
same speed. The high speed compressor and turbine typically turn at a much higher speed than
the low pressure system. The low pressure shaft is routed through the center of the high pressure
shaft.
Some engine configurations include a third spool of compressor and turbine. In this case, the
Low Pressure Compressor is comprised of the fan (driven by the LP Turbine), the Intermediate
Stage Compressor (driven by the Intermediate Turbine), and the High Pressure Compressor
(driven by the High Stage Turbine).
Unlike the airflow on a turbojet engine, some of the air on a turbofan engine bypasses the core
engine and is not a part of the combustion cycle. After passing through the forward part of the
Low Pressure Compressor (sometimes referred to as the Fan), and being accelerated, this bypass
air flows around the outside of the core engine. Depending on the engine layout, the bypass air
exits through a separate fan nozzle or meets the core engine airflow behind the low pressure
turbine. Because the bypass air has a much higher mass airflow, it creates the majority of thrust
while reducing fuel consumption and engine noise.
A turbofan engine features the following assemblies:

1. Air Inlet/Diffuser - Directs and decelerates the air to the engine compressor.
2. Low Pressure Compressor - Compresses and accelerates the air to an intermediate pressure.
3. High Pressure Compressor - Further compresses a portion of the air and directs it towards the
combustor area. Some of the air will have been directed into the bypass by the low pressure
compressor.
4. Combustion Chamber - Fuel is injected into the air exiting the high pressure compressor and
is then ignited.
5. High Pressure Turbine - The expansion of hot gasses exiting the combustion chamber drives
the high pressure turbine that is connected by a solid shaft to drive the high pressure compressor.
6. Low Pressure Turbine - Energy from the hot exhaust gas exiting the high pressure turbine is
extracted to drive the low pressure turbine which is connected by a solid shaft to drive the low
pressure compressor.
7. Propelling Nozzle (Exhaust Nozzle) - After exiting the low pressure turbine, the gasses pass
through the exhaust nozzle which creates high velocity air with resultant thrust. Depending on
the engine configuration, the bypass and exhaust gasses may combine in the exhaust nozzle area.

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A turbofan's core engine consists of the same components as a turbojet, with the exception of the
split high and low pressure components. The high pressure components share one shaft (N 2)
while the low pressure components sit on a common shaft (N1) separate from the high pressure
assemblies. The longer low pressure component shaft usually runs within the hollow, shorter
high pressure shaft. There are also "three-spool" turbofan engines, which are split into high,
intermediate and low pressure. In this type of engine, the fan or low pressure compressor is
connected to the low pressure turbine, the intermediate pressure turbine to the intermediate
pressure compressor and the high pressure turbine to the high pressure compressor. This split is
justified by the substantially different diameters of the components and especially the fan. This
difference in diameter would cause a large difference in blade tip circumferential velocity were
they to rotate on a single shaft. The split allows all components to operate within a suitable speed
range. Disadvantages of this approach include higher constructional complexity and number of
components, resulting in higher maintenance cost.
The basic idea behind the turbofan engine is that the majority of the airflow passes through the
bypass section, which has positive effects on fuel efficiency and thrust efficiency. The main
share of thrust is created by the bypass flow, which also decreases the engine's noise emissions.
These reasons are why modern jet aircraft are nearly exclusively equipped with turbofan engines.
The characteristic value of a turbofan engine is the bypass ratio, which captures the ratio of
bypass mass airflow to core mass airflow.

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Constructional Arrangement and Operation of Turboshaft E ngines
The basic layout of a turboshaft engine is similar to that of a turbojet but includes additional
components. In a turboshaft engine, energy is transferred to a shaft (rotational energy) that
powers a propeller or rotor through a gearbox. The shaft also powers the compressors which
consumes some of the engine's power. In addition, the shaft may be used to drive auxiliary
devices such as pumps and generators. A turboshaft engine is generally comprised of the
following assemblies:
1. Compressor: Compresses and accelerates the inducted airflow.

2. Combustion chamber: The compressed air is injected with atomized fuel and then ignited.
3. Turbine: Energy is extracted from the hot exhaust gas flow and drives the shaft.
4. Gearbox: Reduces the high shaft speed to a more appropriate speed for the different loads
such as propellers or rotors.
There are different turboshaft engine layouts that mainly differ regarding the number of shafts. In
addition to single shaft engines, there are engines that feature multiple shafts (multiple spool
engines). In these layouts, one shaft is shared by the high pressure compressor and turbine while
in turboshaft and prop all accessories are attached to N1
another shaft connects low pressure compressor, low pressure turbine and the loads, e.g.
propellers (two-spool engine).
Furthermore, there are different turboshaft engine layouts that cater to the space restrictions
present in many applications. These compact designs, used, for example, in helicopters, may 7
feature radial compressors and reverse flow combustion chambers. Turboshaft engines are
generally used in turboprop aircraft, helicopters and as auxiliary power units. As oppose to
turbojet engines, turboshaft engine power is not measured in thrust but shaft power. Shaft power
is the product of engine speed n and torque M.
Constructional Arrangement and Operation of Turboprop Engines
Turboprop engines are a type of turboshaft engine. Their basic layout is identical to that of a
turboshaft engine except that the low pressure turbine drives a shaft connected to a reduction
gearbox that powers the propeller. The propelling nozzle (exhaust nozzle) contributes
significantly less thrust than is seen on the turbofan nozzle.

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The low pressure turbine is often referred to as the Power Turbine as it drives the propeller. A
reduction gearbox reduces the Power Turbine shaft speed (typically between 15,000-20,000
RPM) to a more moderate 1,000 to 3,500 RPM in order to keep the propeller blade tip speed in
its optimum operating range and to prevent propeller damage.
1. Compressor: Compresses and accelerates the inducted airflow.

2. Combustion chamber: The inducted and compressed air is injected with atomized fuel and
ignited.
3. Turbine: Energy is extracted from the hot exhaust gas flow and drives the shaft.
4. Propelling nozzle: Accelerates the exhaust gasses to create a small portion of the total thrust.
5. Gearbox: Reduces the high shaft speeds to more appropriate speed for the propeller.
6. Propeller: Creates the majority of the thrust.
The basic layout of a turboprop engine can also be seen as a turbofan engine without the
shrouded assembly. A turboprop engine's propeller has the same functionality as a turbofan's fan
It accelerates the airflow, contributing to the aircraft's thrust. The bypass ratio is very high. The
turboprop's gearbox has to fulfill high requirements, having to reduce very high shaft speeds and
withstand high forces and moments. This is why it has to be designed to be very robust.
Turboprop gearboxes are usually planetary gearboxes.

M15 P a g e | 24
Turboprop engines are mainly used in aircraft where top speed is not considered the main
operation over shorter distances, for example regional passenger aircraft. This is due to the fact
that the propeller's efficiency decreases with increasing velocities. On the other hand, turboprop
engines have the advantage of lower specific fuel consumption when compared to turbojet or
turbofan engines.
Engine Performance
Gross Thrust
An engine's thrust can be calculated generally (not considering pressure and frictional losses)
using the following formula:
The thrust (also called momentum change) comprises the difference between the product of
exiting mass airflow mo and exit velocity uo and the product of entering mass airflow mI and
entry velocity uI.
The exiting mass airflow comprises the entry mass airflow, the injected fuel and the extracted
bleed air. Gross thrust is the share of thrust produced by the thrust nozzle - the exit thrust. This
component thrust is equal to gross thrust when the aircraft is stationary. As soon as it assumes a
horizontal velocity when taxiing or flying, not the entire thrust is used for propulsion. The
following example illustrates this relationship:

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Gross thrust is 4990 N. The aircraft has a small horizontal velocity - not the entire gross thrust
can be used for propulsion. It can be seen that the share of propelling thrust decreases as the
aircraft's speed grows.
Net Thrust
Net thrust is the share of thrust effectively propelling the aircraft. It is defined by the formula
0
introduced above. Net thrust is equal to gross thrust if the mass airflow entry velocity is naught,
for example while the airplane is stationary on the ground. In the above example, net thrust is
4890 N. When generally talking about thrust, we mean net thrust. This rule has prevailed and
will be used within this text.
Choked Nozzle Thrust

are equal
Choked nozzle thrust occurs when the ratio of airflow velocity and local speed of sound assumes
the value 1(u/a=Ma=1). This relationship is quantified by the Mach number Ma. In general, the
static pressure within a jet decreases as the airflow velocity grows (pressure energy is converted
to kinetic energy). In the subsonic range (Ma<1), this effect is created by a nozzle that decreases
in diameter (converges). Convergent nozzles can accelerate air up to the speed of sound
(assuming a constant air pressure and no friction). The speed of sound is always reached first at
the point of the smallest diameter. The airflow cannot be accelerated above this velocity - the
nozzle "chokes". The following formula (continuity equation) helps understand the problem:
If the quantities density (constant), velocity (speed of sound) and cross section (smallest cross-
section) cannot be increased, as they reached their maximum/minimum value, the equation
shows that the mass flow cannot grow any more. As velocity and mass flow are the determinants
of thrust, it is capped by these limits. The maximum amount of thrust the engine can produce is
called choked nozzle thrust.

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Thrust Distribution
Thrust is produced in different sections of the engine. In modern turbofan engines, the majority
of the airflow bypasses the core engine, is accelerated and produces thrust.
At the same time, the core engine generates thrust. The core mass flow participates in the
combustion process. As oppose to the bypass flow, the mass flow of the core airflow varies, as
bleed air is extracted from the compressor stage and fuel is injected in the combustion chamber.
Bleed air is used for different purposes, such as de-icing, turbine blade cooling or the air
conditioning system. With cooling air, it has to be noted that it is returned to the core mass
airflow and participates in the working cycle. Depending on the engine and operational state, the
exiting mass airflow is smaller or larger than the entering airflow.

M15 P a g e | 27
Resultant Thrust
The resultant thrust is equal to net thrust and comprises the different component thrusts. It is
determined by the mass flows of core and bypass airflow. In the more modern civil turbofan
engines, the bypass airflow is significantly larger than the core airflow, which is why it is often a
sufficient approximation to only consider the bypass airflow for thrust creation. The resultant
thrust is the decisive factor in propelling the aircraft. As it is the most significant component
thrust, we talk about resultant thrust when using the word thrust.
Thrust Horsepower
The term thrust horsepower is used in the specifications of turbofan and turbojet engines. The
thrust power of a jet engine is determined by the amount of thrust F the engine produces and the
speed u1 at which it is produced.
It has to be noted that "velocity" in this context is the entry speed of the airflow going into the
engine (the aircraft's airspeed) as we are looking at the entire system. This relationship becomes
more obvious when studying an example: If an airplane is stationary on the ground with the
engines running, the engines produce some power. This power is entirely consumed by internal
engine processes and does not propel the aircraft. The engines produce thrust when the aircraft
moves under their power. Put differently: The engines' thrust output depends on the airplane's
current airspeed. Power is usually specified in the SI unit watt [W], even though it is still
common to find power specifications that use the non-SI unit horsepower (HP).
1HP = 735.49875 W respectively 1 W = 0.001359622HP

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In some cases, thrust values are given in the non-SI unit pound (1b).
1lb= 4.44822 N
Equivalent Shaft Horsepower
Equivalent shaft horsepower (EHSP) is a measure of power used to define the power output of
turboprop engines. This is due to the fact that the total power output of a turboprop engine
comprises shaft power PW and a small share of thrust power PT. The majority of the engine's
power is transmitted into the power turbine shaft, which drives the reduction gearbox. The
reduction gearbox reduces the input speed and increases the torque power transmitted to the
propeller shaft. The hot exhaust gas jet is still accelerated through a nozzle after exiting the
turbine, which produces a minor component thrust. As turboprop engines are more compact than
turbojet or turbofan engines, the nozzle only produces a very small amount of thrust.
P = PW + PT [W]
Equivalent shaft horsepower and other power values for turboshaft engines are usually defined in
kilowatts [KW].
Specific Fuel Consumption
Specific Fuel Consumption is a quality parameter for engines. It is defined as follows:
It specifies the ratio of fuel mass flow mF consumed and thrust F produced by the engine. The
specific fuel consumption is mainly used for comparing engines in terms of economic efficiency.
Engine Efficiencies
Efficiency values capture how efficient a process is in converting energy from one form to
another. They represent an output/input ratio, which, due to frictional and other losses, is always
smaller than 1.
Different efficiencies can be captured for a turbine engine. Firstly, there is the thermal efficiency
value nth. Thermal efficiency relates to the combustion process within the core engine /
combustion chamber and is therefore also called internal efficiency. The following statement is
generally valid for thermal efficiency:

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For an aviation engine context, thermal efficiency can be defined more specifically as the
following statement:
The usable energy delivered by the engine is equal to the change of the kinetic energy between
entry and exit mass airflow. The power consumed by the engine is calculated from the fuel mass
flow mF - the amount of fuel burned and its calorific value h. The calorific value of a fuel defines
the maximum amount of heat energy (not considering condensation) that can be released by
burning a defined amount of it. The common turbine fuel kerosene has a calorific value of
around 42,500,000 J/kg. Thermal efficiency can be calculated as follows:
This formula assumes that the entry and exit mass airflow are identical as the fuel volume is very
small compared to the volume of air inducted by the engine. This relationship becomes obvious
when looking at the size of the engine inlets compared to the rather small fuel injectors. The ratio
of inducted air and injected fuel is very small. When calculating the thermal efficiency of a
turbofan engine, the bypass airflow has to be considered. It is included in the calculation through
the bypass ratio.

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The thermal efficiency of a turbofan engine is thus calculated as follow:
The first summand in the numerator describes the hot core engine airflow, while the second
summand captures the cold bypass airflow.
Propulsive efficiency is another important efficiency value for turbine engines. It is defined as
follows:
Propulsive efficiency describes how well the effective power produced by the engine is
converted into thrust power. It is also called external efficiency. As mentioned earlier, thrust
depends on the airplane's airspeed. If entry and exit mass airflow are seen to be identical and the
ratio of fuel mass flow and air mass flow to be very low, the following formula results for
calculating an engine's propulsive efficiency:
This formula stands for all types of engine. When used for a turbojet engine, the formula
simplifies quit drastically, as the bypass ratio azo, deleting the second term from numerator and
denominator. Propulsive efficiency increases as the difference between entry and exit velocities
is lowered. This means that, theoretically, the engine exhibits maximum propulsion efficiency
when the airflow's exit velocity is equal to its entry velocity. At the same time, its thrust power
decreases, being the product of mass airflow x velocity difference (between entry and exit).
Therefore, the engine would produce no thrust at all when operating at the point of maximum
propulsive efficiency. The following two examples illustrate this relationship:

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Example 1: High Velocity Difference, Landing
Example 2: Small Velocity Difference, Cruise
If the propulsive efficiency is to be maximized, the mass airflow therefore has to increase. In
turbofan engines, this is achieved by leading more air through the bypass section, increasing the
bypass ratio. This measure has the effect of making the fan diameter and engine frontal area
rather large, causing an increase in aerodynamic drag when exceeding certain values. Another
limiting factor for fan diameters is the ground clearance between engine and the ground, which

M15 P a g e | 32
cannot go below certain limits. Knowing the thermal and propulsive efficiency values, one can
calculate the engine's total efficiency.
This makes it rather obvious that an improvement of one of the efficiencies increases the engine's
total efficiency. Thermal efficiency can be improved by increasing the airflow velocity in the
propelling nozzle, which has a negative effect on propulsive efficiency, which decreases if the
difference between airflow entry and exit velocity increases. Therefore, the engine layout has to
be a compromise between these two quantities. Today's engines exhibit ever increasing bypass
ratios, which has positive effects on both efficiency and noise emissions due to the lower exhaust
jet velocity. At the same time, a higher total efficiency decreases the engine's specific fuel
consumption. Turboprop engines feature another type of efficiency: Propeller efficiency.
It represents the ratio of thrust created by the propeller and power delivered by the turbine
engine. Not the entire power generated by the engine is available to the propeller as gearbox
losses do occur. Generally, a propeller efficiency of 0.85 is assumed.
Bypass Ratio and Engine Pressure Ratio
The ratio of the cold airflow bypassing the core engine to the core airflow participating in the
combustion process is called bypass ratio (BPR).
Engines with a positive bypass ratio are called turbofan engines. These engines were developed
as an answer to the ever increasing need for more fuel-efficient and less noisy propulsion
systems. The major share of thrust is created by the bypass mass airflow. As the bypass airflow,
compared to the core airflow, has a significantly lower exhaust jet velocity, it surrounds the core
airflow, reducing noise emissions. The lower fuel consumption results from the fact that the core
engine basically only serves for powering the large fan, which acts as a type of propeller
accelerating the large bypass airflow that is not part of the combustion process. Bypass ratios
below 1 today are only found in military aircraft engines, where small and compact designs are
key for facilitating highly agile airplanes. The following section will focus on civil aviation
engines, where modern engines exhibit high bypass ratios of between 4 and 12. This means that

M15 P a g e | 33
between 4 and 12 times the core airflow bypasses the core engine. Future engine designs strive to
further increase the bypass ratio in order to improve the engines' propulsive efficiency. The
current crop of engines for civil standard fuselage airplanes have bypass ratios of around µ=12.5.
The engine pressure ratio (EPR) usually represents a comparison between the air pressure aft of
the turbine to the pressure in front of the compressor however some engine manufacturer's
measure engine pressure ratio by simply comparing the fan inlet to fan outlet pressure. EPR is
displayed in the cockpit and is directly proportional to the amount of thrust produced by the
engine. The EPR is a measure of engine performance. It is suitable for measuring performance as
pressures are easy to measure and thrust depends on many factors, making it difficult to capture
directly. Some engine manufacturers use EPR as an equivalent thrust indicator on the cockpit
display. Total pressure means the pressure that occurs if a fluid in stationary flow (not
accelerated) is decelerated to a stop adiabatically (no heat exchange) and without frictional
losses. Put more simply: Total pressure represents the share of kinetic energy in a fluid. If the imp
fluid has high kinetic energy (high velocity), it exhibits a higher total pressure than if it is
stationary.
Pressure, Temperature and Velocity of the Gas Flow
Temperatures, pressures and velocities of the gas flows within the different engine sections are
key factors for characterizing an engine. Different characteristic sections or layers are
introduced, through which the gas flows when passing through the engine. These sections are
typically referred to as engine stations and an example of typical engine station measurement is
shown below:

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The physical quantities pressure and temperature can be split into static and total quantities.
Total quantities represent the share of kinetic energy contained in the airflow. The static
temperature and pressure are identical to the pressure and temperature values used in everyday
life. They relate to static fluids. Total quantities, on the other hand, relate to fluids in flow. On
one hand, there is the total pressure pt, which is defined as the pressure produced by a fluid in
stationary flow when that flow is stopped adiabatically and without losses. In practice, total
pressure is measured by placing a probe within the airflow. Air particles flow into the probe and
are decelerated to a velocity of o when meeting a membrane. The pressure measured on the
membrane is total pressure. On the other hand, there is the total temperature Tt, which captures
the temperature of a fluid in stationary flow being stopped adiabatically and without losses. It
can also be measured using a probe that generates temperature data. In many cases, the probes
for total temperature and pressure are combined.

M15 P a g e | 35
The velocity of a fluid is usually measured in Mach numbers (Ma), which is calculated by
dividing the flow velocity V by the speed of sound a. Measuring flow velocities in Mach
numbers can be helpful as it puts emphasis on the sound barrier, exceeding which has a
significant influence on many flow mechanical principles.
The speed of sound in turn depends on the static temperature T, the isentropic exponent K (ratio
of specific heat capacities at constant pressure cp and constant volume cv, k= cp cv) and the
universal gas constant R= 8.3144598 J(mol*K). The isentropic exponent can be assumed to be
1.4 for air as an ideal gas. Apart from being constant, these thermodynamic quantities are not
relevant for further considerations and will not be discussed in more detail here.
The relationship between total pressure and temperature is defined by the following equation:

M15 P a g e | 36
Using these quantities, the pressure conditions and temperature conditions can be defined for
the different engine stages:
These relationships are often used for cycle process calculations involved in defining the engine's
characteristics.

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Progression of total pressure temperature and velocity along the gas path

M15 P a g e | 38
Engine Ratings
Engine performance depends on different parameters both internal and external to the engine.
The following engine-related parameters are of significance for the engine's performance:
• Turbine Inlet Temperature (TIT) or Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT):
The temperature of the gas flow exiting the combustion chamber before the high pressure
turbine is the highest temperature in the engine. TIT/EGT is a performance parameter for
turbine engines and is therefore a stress indicator.
• High and low pressure shaft speeds:
The current shaft speeds are displayed as a percentage of the maximum shaft speeds
(percentage of RPM, i.e. 72% NI).
• Engine pressure ratio (EPR)
Engine performance also depends on external influences, including:
• Ambient temperature (T12)

• Air density (PO)
Engines have different operational setting which can be manually set using the thrust/power
levers or engine mode control panel in the cockpit.
• Idle
The engine operates at its lowest thrust level, mainly for upkeep of internal engine
processes such as the combustion process within the combustion chamber. Connected
auxiliary devices such as pumps and generators are provided with power. The shaft
speeds are rather low.
• Maximum Continuous Thrust (MCT)
MCT is the highest power setting available during cruise flight. It depends on the
aircraft's flight altitude, ambient temperature and airspeed. When operating at MCT, the
RPM
engine parameters EGT, shaft speeds and EPR assume rather high levels but remain
within a range that does not cause engine damage even for prolonged periods of time.
• Reverse Thrust
EGT- indicates that the engines is started accurately

M15 P a g e | 39
When the engine is in reverse thrust mode, the engine exhaust or the cold air flow on high
bypass engines is redirected forward in the direction of travel of the aircraft.
• Maximum Climb Thrust (MCLT)
The engine power is high due to high rotational speeds, high EPR and high EGT. This
mode is used only for normal climbing and initial acceleration of the aircraft during
climb. On some engines, an operating time limit is set for this mode.
• Takeoff/Go-Around Thrust (TOGA):
This mode provides maximum thrust within the engine's operating range and is only used
for a short period during takeoff or when going around after an aborted landing. The
engine parameters are close to their operational limits and the engine is subject to high
stress (high turbine inlet temperature, large centrifugal forces due to the high rotational
velocity of the turbine blades). This is why TOGA power can only be used for short
periods (5-10 minutes).
Static Thrust
Static thrust is the amount of thrust delivered by the engines when the aircraft is in its lowest
power setting, idle. Due to the physical processes required for keeping the combustion from
extinguishing, the engines do produce some thrust when operating at idle. This thrust can be
large enough to overcome the airplane's rolling resistance depending on the size of the engine,
the weight of the aircraft and the twist angle of the propeller blades. Static thrust is often used for
characterizing propellers, as these contribute the main share of thrust and propulsion in turboprop
aircraft and start producing substantial thrust at low engine speeds.
Influence of Speed, Altitude and Hot Climate
Engine power also depends, as mentioned above, on factors external to the engine or aircraft.
Firstly, the airplane's airspeed impacts how thrust is created. The thrust equation introduced
earlier gives:
assuming the inlet and exhaust mass airflow are identical and constant.
For a simplified explanation, this assumption is acceptable since modern turbofan engines
generate the majority of thrust from the bypass airflow, which is not subjected to mass flow

M15 P a g e | 40
losses. The mass flow in the core engine varies as bleed air is extracted from the compressor
stage and fuel is injected in the combustion chamber. For efficiency reasons, the exit velocity of
the core airflow uo from the exhaust nozzle should be as close as possible to the speed of sound
(Ma=1) and can therefore be assumed to be constant. All that remains of the thrust equation now
is the entry airflow velocity, which is always equal to the aircraft's forward velocity. Thrust
depends on the airspeed. The higher the airspeed, the less thrust is produced (this statement is
only valid at low airspeeds below Ma 0.4). The speed-thrust relationship is caused by the
airspeed effect. The following two examples illustrate the relationship.
In the next step, we will drop the assumption of constant mass airflow through the engine at all
velocities. This is especially relevant at high airspeeds (above Ma 0.5). As the airspeed increases,
the mass flow increases, which leads to an increase in thrust. The following equation (continuity
equation) describes this situation:

M15 P a g e | 41
With increasing airspeed, the stream tube capture area (the ambient air inducted by the engine)
decreases. This means that the capture area is a function of airspeed. This speed-induced change
in the magnitude of the mass flow is called ram effect. At Mach numbers above 0.5, the ram
effect balances out the airspeed effect. In supersonic aircraft flying faster than Ma 1.0, the ram
effect dominates. In summary, the following statements describe the relationship between the
two effects:
• Ma <O.5: Airspeed effect dominates so Thrust decreases

• 0.5 Ma < 1: Airspeed effect and ram effect neutralize so Thrust is constant
• Ma > 1: Ram effect dominates so Thrust increases
Apart from the airspeed and ram effects, engine performance depends on the ambient
meteorological conditions, for example altitude and climate. Climatic conditions include the
atmospheric quantities density, pressure and temperature, which have a significant influence on
the engine's characteristics. Up to an altitude of 11 km, density, pressure and temperature
decrease continuously (assuming a standard atmosphere). The Mach number or speed of sound
(which is a function of temperature) decrease in proportion to these factors as the aircraft climbs.
The speed of sound is an important quantity for describing the airflow characteristics around an
aircraft (e.g. supersonic effects). In addition to these effects, the decreasing density affects the
mass airflow inducted by the engine (continuity equation) and has a direct influence on thrust
creation (thrust equation). The latter effect leads to decreasing thrust with increasing altitude at a

M15 P a g e | 42
constant power setting. For an ideal gas (such as air in the atmosphere), the physical quantities
density, pressure and temperature are coupled, as expressed by the following equation (ideal gas
equation).`
• p: Pressure
• p: Density
• R: Universal gas constant
• T: Temperature
IN CASE OF IDEAL GAS
Transposing this equation to density makes it rather obvious that low temperatures lead to higher
densities. A low denominator gives higher values. As high density increases the mass airflow and
thus produced thrust, we can state a relationship between thrust and temperature: Lower
temperatures increase thrust. Vice versa, a high ambient temperature causes a decrease in thrust.

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Standard Atmosphere
Accounting for all effects, thrust decreases with increasing altitude, as the positive effect of the
temperature drop cannot balance out the negative consequences of density and pressure. An
important and dangerous situation often occurs in everyday operations: the combination of high
altitude (mountainous terrain) and high temperatures (summer). Both factors lead to decreased
thrust or limit the amount of thrust the engine can produce, which has adverse effects on the
aircraft's performance during the critical takeoff phase. This situation is known as "hot and high
conditions". The aircraft taking off accelerates more slowly as its engines produce less thrust
(acceleration force/mass). This means that it takes more time and distance for the airplane to
reach its takeoff speed. Airports situated at high elevations therefore, if possible, have very long
runways. Temperature and altitude are combined in the quantity density altitude. Density altitude
is a theoretical quantity that represents the altitude within the standard atmosphere at which the
density would be identical to the current actual density. In the standard atmosphere, every air

M15 P a g e | 44
density value can be assigned an individual altitude value. Atmospheric conditions involving
high altitudes and temperatures are known a 'high density altitude". In conclusion, we can
summarize the findings discussed above. The thrust produced by the engines decreases with:
• Decreasing density
• Decreasing air pressure
• Decreasing ambient temperature
• Increasing temperature
• Increasing altitude (the positive effect of decreasing temperature cannot balance out the
negative effects of air density and pressure)
Flat Rating
Engines are subject to high stress when producing high thrust or power over prolonged periods.
In order to reduce the resulting wear effects and corresponding maintenance or refurbishment
costs to an economically sensible level, the engines should always produce only the amount of
thrust or power actually required. If, for example, the aircraft is lighter than its maximum takeoff
weight or the runway is longer than required, pilots do not have to use maximum takeoff thrust.
In order to achieve this wear-minimizing reduction of thrust, the engines' performance is limited
artificially. This process is called "rating". The different ratings specify maximum values for
engine pressure, temperature, speed and time or duration, limiting the amount of thrust they
produce. The following ratings are commonly found in modern engine control systems:
• Full Rated
• Flat Rated
• De-Rated
A full rated engine always produces the maximum amount of thrust for the current atmospheric
conditions. It can reach the limits of exhaust gas temperature or turbine inlet temperature at all
ambient temperatures.
If an engine is flat rated, it is artificially limited or certified to a certain thrust value. This value
is fixed and is controlled by the Engine Control Unit (ECU), Thrust Management Computer
(TMC), or Flight Management Computer (FMC). As thrust depends on temperature, it increases
if the ambient temperature is low. In very cold conditions (winter, polar regions), the engine
could theoretically produce significantly more thrust than specified, causing higher turbine inlet
temperatures that the turbine is designed to handle. This is why the thrust reaches its maximum
permitted value above a certain temperature (usually "hot day" or 300C). At temperatures below
this threshold, it is kept constant. Today's civil aviation engines are often flat rated.
"De-rating" is another approach used in certified engines. De-rated engines shift the
performance- critical limits for exhaust gas temperature, engine pressure ratio and shaft speed to

M15 P a g e | 45
lower permissible values. The maximum amount of thrust the engine produces is that at the de-
rating limit (even in emergency situations).
On Full Authority Digital Engine Control (FADEC) engines, the Electronic Engine Control
(EEC or ECU) controls the parameters to meet the de-rating limits. The EEC can be identified by
a number of different acronyms but in all cases, it is an electronic engine control that looks after
all phases of engine operation. On non-FADEC engines, de-rating can be accomplished by the
Flight Management or Thrust Management Computers which redefine the thrust parameters
according to the pilot selection and display a "bug" on the EPR or N1 indicator. The more
pronounced the de- rating setting is, the less wear and stress is placed on the engine which can
significantly extend the time between overhauls (TBO). Using the de-rated thrust will limit the
total available thrust in both forward and reverse thrust settings.
The flex-thrust approach represents a different rating method. It allows the crew to further reduce
the available thrust for takeoffs in favorable conditions (low takeoff weight, long runway,
suitable meteorological conditions), especially at low temperatures. The cockpit crew provides
the Engine Control Unit, FMC, or TMC with a temperature that is higher than the current
ambient temperature, further decreasing the maximum available thrust. The engine will operate
as if the ambient temperature is higher than it actually is and the ECU, FMC, or TMC commands
a reduced thrust to further lower engine operating parameters.
Limitations MCT-max continues thrust

MCLT- max climb thrust
The limitations an engine is subject to regarding its power or thrust mainly depend on engine-
inherent factors. The following chapter will introduce some of these technical constraints.
Temperature is a decisive parameter for the thermal stress acting on the engine. The highest
temperature in the engine occurs at the turbine inlet (Tt4, TIT), as the air has just exited the
combustion chamber. The materials used in the turbine limit the TIT to a maximum of around
1,100 K (8300 C), as they would melt above that temperature. Generally, high turbine inlet
temperatures are advantageous for reaching high thermal efficiency. For making statements
about the engine's state, the EGT is used instead of the turbine inlet temperature. As the turbine's
characteristics are known (known temperature progression during the course of the expansion
process), the TIT can be derived from EGT. Every engine rating as an upper EGT limit (also
EGT redline). The difference between the current EGT and the EGT limit is called EGT margin.
With increasing operating lifetime, the EGT margin decreases due to wear. Wear may occur in
the form of changed turbine blade geometries due to oxidation, which causes an increase in
temperature due to the increased amount of fuel required to compensate for the decreased turbine
power. The engine's efficiency decreases while its power output remains constant as the
mechanical losses are compensated for by adding more fuel, resulting in higher temperatures.
Maintenance and service measures such as replacing or repairing turbine blades and cleaning the
engine can increase or restore the EGT margin to its original value.
The engine pressure ratio is the next limiting factor. It represents the operational limit. As

M15 P a g e | 46
mentioned above, the EPR is proportional to the thrust or power the engine produces. If the
engine reaches its maximum EPR, it delivers maximum thrust. The engine pressure ratio is
influenced largely by the compressor pressure ratio, as that is where the highest pressures are
generated. The EPR comprises the pressure ratios of the different core engine elements
(compressor, combustor, and turbine).
The shaft speeds (N1, N2) are the third limiting mechanical parameter. The turbine and
compressor blades' circumferential velocity is directly proportional to the shaft speeds. The N1
shaft, which the large diameter fan is connected to, is subject to lower speeds than the high
pressure shaft, as the large fan diameter causes high blade tip velocities (supersonic).
Furthermore, the centrifugal forces acting on the blades grow with the square of the shaft speed,
which leads to high mechanical stress:
High forces put significant stress on the blade attachments. The blade roots are subject to
material tension, which, over prolonged periods, causes fatigue. At the same time, higher blade
speeds facilitate higher mass flow rates through the engine. As the blade velocities are
proportional to the shaft speeds, N and N limit the engine's mass flow rate and thrust.
In general, it can be concluded that the engine limitations are a combination of stress level and
duration that always depends on the current load state. Engine limitations may be exceeded for
short periods in emergency situations (e.g. shaft speeds above 100%). If limitations have been
exceeded, the engine has to be made subject to thorough inspection.
Inlet
Compressor Inlet Ducts
The compressor inlet duct directs and diffuses the inlet air flow to the engine. The air is diffused
or decelerated as a result of the increase in the cross-section of the body through which it flows.
As the area increases, the air velocity has to slow down in order to cover a larger area at the same
time, as proven by Bernoulli's principle. Some static flow losses occur due to vortices created
along the inlet edges and walls and these result in a decrease in total pressure. There is no change
in temperature as air enters the diffuser because the effects of friction are considered to be

M15 P a g e | 47
negligible. The design of the inlet duct transforms the dynamic pressure into static pressure
which contributes to the overall compression.
Effects of Various Inlet Configurations
Air inlet configurations vary with the type and purpose of an engine. This text will describe the
typical inlet configuration used in a turbofan engine operating in the subsonic speed range (less
than Mach 1.0).
The basic geometry of an engine inlet is divergent, meaning that the inlet has its smallest cross-
section at the forward point and increases towards the compressor. This shape slows the airflow

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and results in an increase in static pressure. Rounded inlet lips ensure that the airflow enters the
compressor at the correct direction and velocity.
The inlet plane is tilted slightly forward because airflow hits the aircraft with a slight upwards
angle during cruise flight. The tilt of the inlet plane ensures that the airflow meets the engine in a
horizontal alignment. The airflow area entering the inlet is called the "stream tube area" and it
varies in diameter with changing airspeed. When the airplane accelerates, the stream tube area
diameter decreases. If the airspeed (or ground speed) is low, the stream tube has a larger
diameter and the engine may induct air from a larger surrounding area. This raises the danger of
foreign object ingestion such as stones, dirt, or other debris and is one of the reasons why inlet
lips are fabricated from highly rigid materials such as titanium which have good resistance to
such damage.
The engine inlet is also comprised of the spinner (nose cone) which is designed in a conical,
elliptical, or a combination of conical and elliptical shape. The design of elliptical spinners
increases the efficiency of the fan or low pressure compressor but they are more prone to icing
during operation. Conical spinners do not provide significant efficiency to the fan or low
pressure compressor but are less prone to icing.
All spinners must be designed to withstand the effects of impact by foreign objects and their
geometry, materials, and construction are carefully designed to provide maximum impact
resistance.

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Engine inlet designs that are suitable for sub-sonic aircraft are not effective for aircraft that
typically operate within the supersonic speed range (greater than Mach 1.0). The inlets of these
types of airplanes generate shock waves which causes a decrease in airflow velocity while air
pressure, temperature, and density increase abruptly. Airflow entering the compressor must be
subsonic so must be decelerated within the engine inlet area. The easiest method of decelerating
the supersonic airflow is to generate multiple oblique compression shocks that lead to a final
vertical compression shock, slowing the airflow to subsonic speeds.
Ramp-shaped inlets with sharp inlet lips are designed to create this type of flow condition. Some
aircraft feature adjustable inlets that can change shape to generate ideal oblique shock waves at
any airspeed. This type of inlet is found mainly on high performance military aircraft.

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Turboprop engine inlets must consider the placement of the reduction gearbox in their design.
The reduction gearbox is situated in front of the engine which means that the inlets are designed
to channel air around it. Turboprop inlets are designed in three basic configurations:
Ducted Spinner Inlet
The inlet sits ahead of the propeller hub in an undisturbed free airflow area. The forward section
of the inlet spins with the propeller and in terms of aerodynamics is the most advantageous
approach.
Conical Spinner Inlet
The inlet is situated behind the propeller and the airflow is turbulent because it passes through
the propeller blades before entry. This layout has an advantage in that it is easier to maintain and
de-ice
Under-Scoop Inlet
The inlet is placed under the propeller/gearbox assembly. While the airflow to the inlet is
disturbed, this is a common layout when the propeller and core engine shafts aren't coaxial.

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Ice Protection
In order to facilitate all-weather operations, engines must be equipped with an anti-icing system.
Icing can occur in any phase of flight when the atmospheric conditions are favorable. For the
most art, it is the engine spinners and inlet lips that are prone to icing. Ice build-up in these areas
impacts the airflow characteristics and causes reduced mass airflow to the engine compressor. If
ice has already formed on the inlets, spinner, or fan area, there is a danger that the ice will come
loose causing damage to the fan or compressor.

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Ice protection systems help to prevent engine icing by routing hot bleed air from the compressor
to the areas most susceptible to ice. The inlet lip is heated by compressor bleed air routed
through a series of ducts and is controlled for temperature and pressure by a pressure regulating
and shut-off valve. A perforated circular tube runs around the inside of the engine inlet lip and
directs the regulated bleed air onto the lip's internal surface to heat it. The air exits through a hole
or venturi in the engine inlet cowl.
Spinner design has a significant influence on their susceptibility to icing. Conical spinners are
resistant to ice build-up because of their shape. Airflow around a conical spinner does not result
in a significant pressure or temperature decrease which could result in an increased risk of icing.
Spinner surfaces may be heated from a small amount of uncontrolled bleed air directed through
the N1 shaft to the spinner and forward disc area. The bleed air exhausts from the spinner through
a small gap between it and the fan blades. The tips of many conical spinners have a rubber tip
that oscillates when ice builds up unevenly on their surface. The oscillation sheds ice before it
has a chance to build significantly.

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Compressors
Axial and Centrifugal Types
There are two main types of compressors:

• Axial Compressors - air flows through the compressor in parallel with its axis
• Radial Compressors - air is guided outwards from the compressor's center by centrifugal
force
Both types of compressors compress inducted air to a pressure that enables subsequent
compressor stages to operate efficiently.
Axial compressors have multiple stages of compression and the number of stages of compressor
define the assembly. For example, a compressor with 14 stages of compression is referred to as a
"14 stage compressor". A "stage" is defined as one rotating blade assembly (rotor) and a static
guide vane assembly (stator). The compressor rotor segments are attached to a shaft which
connects them to the associated turbine rotor. The work extracted by the turbine is transmitted to
the compressor through the drive shaft.
Each stage of compression increases the air pressure and decreases the air volume. The amount
of pressure increase is expressed as a compression ratio which states the amount of air pressure
example
increase at each stage. For example, if the stage pressure ratio is 1.3, that means that a given air
volume's pressure has increased by a factor of 1.3 after passing through the stage.
Centrifugal (Radial) compressors are usually comprised of a single stage. The stage consists of
an impeller and a diffuser with an exhaust housing. The airflow enters the compressor axially
and is guided outwards toward the impeller wheel's edges. In the outer compressor areas, the
high kinetic energy generated by the impeller's high rotational velocity and the centrifugal force
leads to high air pressures. The airflow's kinetic energy is converted into pressure by deceleration
in the compressor area behind the impeller.
In an axial compressor, the air is compressed by the guide vanes, which are arranged to act as a
diffuser. Axial compressors are used where there is a requirement for moving large mass
airflows compared to a radial compressor, the stage pressure ratio of around Pstage =1.5 is rather
low. Radial compressors deliver stage pressure ratios of up to 10. This is why axial compressors
have to combine multiple compressor stages for a high total compressor pressure ratio, which
leads to an increase in engine weight and size. Multi-shaft axial compressors are equipped with
more than one shaft. In a two-shaft compressor, the forward compressor stages are attached to a
different shaft than the aft stages. The forward section is called low pressure compressor and is
connected to the low pressure turbine by a shaft, while the aft high pressure compressor stages
are driven by the high pressure compressor through a separate shaft. There are also three-shaft
compressors that feature an additional intermediate pressure compressor, which is powered by an
intermediate pressure turbine.

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Radial compressors are limited in terms of mass flow rate and are therefore used in engines that
do not have to deliver high thrust or power. Due to its good pressure ratio and compact size,
radial compressors are used in small turboshaft engines (as auxiliary power units or in
helicopters). It is possible to arrange multiple radial compressor stages in succession. This does
introduce the problem of the airflow exiting one compressor stage at quite some distance from
the engine's axis, which means that it has to be led back to the center before entering the next
stage, which causes frictional losses. It is further possible to combine both types of compressor
in one engine. The common variant of this layout comprises a multi-stage axial compressor
followed by a radial compressor that compresses the air pressurized by the axial compressor in a
final step before it enters the combustion chamber.
Compressor Ratio
The compressor ratio is a measurement of the amount of pressure increase as air moves through
the compressor. It compares the pressure at the compressor inlet to the pressure at the outlet
(behind the last stage of compression). For example, if a compressor has a compressor ratio of
10:1, it means that the pressure at the outlet of the compressor is ten times as high as the pressure
entering the compressor. Modern commercial turbofan engines can achieve ratios of up to 50:1.
A high compressor ratio results in high pressure and high compressor outlet temperatures. The
amount of energy that has to be added to the gas in the form of fuel in the combustor is therefore
smaller and the engine consumes less fuel. Because engines with high compressor ratios use less
fuel, they exhibit better thermal efficiency. New generation engines strive to find a means to
increase compressor ratios in an effort to reduce fuel consumption and improve thermal
efficiency. Higher compressor ratios can be achieved by adding stages to the high pressure
compressor (HPC) or by increasing the effectiveness of the existing compressor stages. New
types of compressor blade airfoil designs using wide chord blades or 3D types of blades are used
to assist in compressor efficiency.
Constructional Features, Operating Principles and Applications
High thrust engines are usually equipped with axial compressors as their design can produce high
compressor ratios without large losses in mass airflow. Airflow is compressed at every stage and
the compressor has a convergent shape to compensate for the decrease in volume as air moves
through the compressor.
In turbofan engines, the inner blade section of the fan blades also form the first stage of
compression. The shapes of the rotor and stator blades have a significant impact on the efficiency
of the compressor. Compressor blade geometry varies for each stage of compression to match the
local airflow velocity. Some of the airfoil variants include interconnect blades or swept angle
blade leading edges. Wide chord fan blades provide an example of a forward and back swept
blade leading edges.

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Compressor blade surfaces are identified as the suction side (upper surface) and pressure side
(lower side). Guide vanes are attached to the housing's inner surface while the rotors are affixed
to discs to facilitate the rotational movement.
High rotational speeds require a special blade-to-shaft attachment and the blade roots of the
forward rotors (the fan) are attached in axial grooves. This allows for replacement of individual
blades. Further back in the compressor, the shaft speeds and centrifugal forces are substantially
higher and so a radial circumferential groove is used to attach the compressor blades. The blades
are constructed of a high strength metal, such as titanium, that can withstand high temperatures
and pressures.
Rotational and heat stresses can cause the blades to expand radially causing the blade tips to
contact the compressor housing. The blades and case are designed to leave as small a gap as
possible to ensure compressor efficiency and so there is a rub strip on the inner surface of the
compressor case that is designed to abrade as the compressor blade tips contact them. The rub
strips are relatively soft and are meant to abrade as they are contacted. These abradable strips are
designed to be replaced at routine intervals.
The compressor housing is constructed of very strong materials to prevent debris from exiting
the engine radially. The high kinetic energy of a rotating compressor blade could cause
substantial damage to the aircraft if it was not contained by the housing. You will occasionally
see the compressor case referred to as "compressor containment". If a compressor blade breaks
through the containment, it is referred to as an "uncontained failure". If the debris exits axially
through the exhaust nozzle, the failure is considered to be a "contained failure" and shouldn't
pose an immediate threat to the aircraft.

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The pressure increase in the compressor mainly takes place around the guide vanes, which are
placed to allow the space between them to act as a diffuser. In a diffuser, the airflow's velocity
decreases and, as a consequence, the static pressure increases. The rotor only contributes a small
share to increasing pressure, as the rotor blades do not facilitate as much of an increase in the
flow channel's cross section as the guide vanes. In the last compressor stage, the airflow has a
temperature of hundreds of degrees Kelvin which provides an advantage during the combustion
process. Efficiencies are gained because the required amount of gas temperature increase is
reduced, thus saving fuel and increasing the engines thermal efficiency. In other words, the
amount of heat energy that has to be generated using fuel decreases. This is why it is important
for fuel-efficient engines to maximize the compressor ratio.
At the same time, the joule processes work ratio decreases, which reduces the amount of work
available for powering the compressor. When designing an engine, a compromise between high
thermal efficiency (high compressor ratio) and high work ratio (low compressor ratio) has to be
made. Modern designs tend towards higher compressor ratios, as the combustion chamber
temperature can be increased due to the use of new, more heat resistant materials. The rotor
blades deflect the airflow, giving it an angular momentum. This momentum should ideally be
reduced to 0 before the airflow enters the next compressor stage for an optimum flow around the
blades. This is why the airflow passes through guide vanes after exiting the rotor disc. The guide
vane, as its name would suggest, guides the airflow into the next compressor stage with
minimum angular momentum. The final component of the compressor is a guide vane assembly,
which makes the airflow axial and free of angular movement before it enters a diffuser. The
diffuser transitions the airflow into the combustion chamber, converting kinetic energy into
pressure energy and slowing it down. The lower velocity is important for ideal fuel/ air mixture
characteristics. The rotor blades are sometimes operated at supersonic speeds.
Supersonic operation requires different airfoils due to the characteristics of supersonic airflow.
Supersonic airfoils are slimmer and feature less curvature (depth/width ratio). These airfoils are
mainly used in the high pressure compressor, as the high pressure shaft rotates at high speeds,
causing the rotor blades to go supersonic. In addition to the conventional blade and disk layout,
modern engines use the innovative "blisk" approach. Blisk is a portmanteau of the words blade
and disk. "Integrally Bladed Rotor" is another term for the same component, which is in fact one
component that combines the disk and blades. The advantages of blisks include the elimination
of leakage flow in the blade root area (no slots), better tensile force distribution, lower blade
aspect ratio (ratio of chord length and depth) and a higher stage pressure ratio. These advantages
facilitate weight savings, as a lower number of stages can generate the same pressure increase.
The disadvantages of blisks include the lack of mechanical oscillation damping, as there is only
one component. Furthermore, the available manufacturing processes are complex, expensive and
introduce blade design restrictions. Repairs on blisks are a technological challenge, since it is not
possible to just replace an individual blade as in a normal disk-blade assembly. Currently, the
respective blade has to be separated from the blisk and re-welded to it after repair or
replacement. Blisks are currently used in the most modern generations of European military
engines and advanced commercial passenger aircraft turbofans.

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Fan Balancing
Although rotor blades are manufactured to very tight tolerances, no two rotor blades are identical
and very small mass differences can occur at different points on the blade. These small
differences are negligible for a static blade but can become significant when the blade is rotating
at a high speed. The effects of an imbalance become stronger as the point of imbalance moves
away from the center of rotation. The imbalance can cause the entire fan assembly to start
oscillating and over time, that can lead to localized or structural damage. It is important that all
rotating components are balanced to reduce the amount of vibration to an acceptable degree.
Typically, small amounts of weight are added to the aft inner surface of the spinner, just ahead of
the blade that has been identified as being "light". There are two methods of balancing; static and
dynamic with the dynamic balancing procedure being much more effective in reducing overall
vibration.

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just like align

In case of a static imbalance, the rotational axis is not congruent with the rotor's center of
gravity. A static imbalance can be found by observing whether the rotor returns to the same
stationary position no matter how far it is deflected. The imbalanced rotor section always turns
down. Static imbalances can be corrected either by removing weight or by adding weight on the
opposite side. Dynamic imbalances can only be recognized if the rotor turns at a certain speed.
Dynamic imbalances are caused by equal masses rotating in different radial layers. They cause

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the rotational axis to tilt relative to the center of gravity's axis. During dynamic balancing, two
masses have to be shifted relative to another.
Before attempting to correct an imbalance condition, a proper and effective vibration analysis
must be accomplished. Modern aircraft and engines have the components and systems onboard
which continuously measure vibrations and plot solutions to bring the imbalance back to
acceptable parameters. This continuous monitoring and analysis is also a critical part of the
Engine Condition and Trend Monitoring program.
As it is not possible to directly measure imbalances, it is the effect of the imbalance that is
measured. This involves balancing equipment such as velocity transducers and piezo electric
accelerometers which are placed on the engine case flanges and also imbedded into the engine
during assembly.
The transducers and sensors translate the vibrations sensed on the engine into electrical signals
proportional to the vibrations. These signals are then sent to an analyzer which combines them
with other engine signals such as rotor rpm which are then fed into the cockpit for indication and
to a display on the vibration analyzer box for maintenance use. Older aircraft which do not have
the advanced vibration analyzing systems will have provisions to install temporary sensors and
transducers on the engine which are then connected to a portable analyzer which performs the
same functions as the installed onboard analyzer.
incase of static imbalance
incase of dynamic imbalance
Static and dynamic imbalances

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Velocity Transducer
This device operates on the principle of a permanent magnet to move within a coil which causes
a voltage to be induced or created. The higher the vibration frequency, the greater the voltage
signal produced. Velocity transducers tend to have a lower than desired reliability rate due to
wear on the internal moving parts and have been replaced by piezo electric accelerometers.
Piezo Electric Accelerometer
Vibration forces are transmitted to a piezo electric disc which results in an electrical charge
signal being generated. Accelerometers have a greater frequency range capacity than velocity
transducers and the lack of moving parts gives them a high reliability and stability rate. Various
specifications for accelerometers and transducers are available for aviation purposes and some of
the considerations which dictate the choices are as follows:
1. Dynamic Range: The amplitude range over which the device is intended to operate.
2. Sensitivity: The intensity of the vibration expected to be encountered.
3. Frequency Response: The entire operating frequency range.
4. Temperature Range: The lowest and highest temperature extremes to which the
component will be expected to operate under. This includes transient temperatures and
heat or cold soaking conditions.
Causes and Effects of Compressor Stall or Surge
Airflow disturbances through the compressor can cause airflow separation from the blades,
resulting in a compressor surge or stall. Similar to an aircraft wing, the blades are designed to
have a smooth and regular flow around them so when the airflow is interrupted, the resultant
pressure differentials create rapid changes in the ratio between the compressor inlet and exit. At
that point, it is possible to have a reverse flow through the entire compressor from the outlet to
the inlet and this is referred to as a compressor surge. Compressor surges occur very quickly and
may be noticeable by rapidly fluctuating engine parameters and in severe cases, loud bangs and
flames exiting from the front and aft of the engine. Compressor surges almost always result in
significant damage to the engine and so operators must be very aware of the ambient conditions
during engine operation.
When all compressor stages have stalled, the compressor is in an unstable state and does not
generate pressure. The air now flows from the high pressure engine sections (rear compressor
stages) towards the low pressure areas (front compressor stages). As the compressor is still
operated at the given operating point, it starts to induct air after pumping out the entire pressure.
The compressor starts to recompress the airflow and, once again, becomes unstable, stalls, and
surges. The pumping action happens rather quickly, making the airflow velocity supersonic. The
booms that accompany the surge are in fact sonic booms. During the stall, EPR drops rapidly
while EGT increases significantly.

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The shock waves possess high energy and can damage compressor blades when exiting the
compressor. The sudden pressure drop may damage other engine components as the shock waves
spread into both axial directions. The flame in the combustion chamber can be extinguished by
the lack of oxygen or spread into the turbine where its temperature can severely damage turbine
components. Flames spreading into the turbine or a lack of turbine cooling cause the sudden
increase in EGT.
Methods of Air Flow Control
In order to obtain the highest engine efficiency and to prevent surging, mass airflow through the
compressor is controlled in a variety of ways. This is done to help ensure the most efficient thrust
conditions are produced and also to help ensure the highest energy extraction from the fuel being
supplied to the combustion chambers.
Some engine manufacturers use adjustable inlet guide vanes on the first few stages of high
pressure compression to vary the amount of airflow in relation to the compressor speed. In
addition to the adjustable guide vanes, there may be a number of stages of stator vanes (VSV)
that can also be adjusted and these operate in concert with the guide vanes to ensure smooth
airflow through the compressor. The variable guide vanes/ stator vanes are positioned
mechanically after receiving a signal from the Main Engine Control (MEC). The MEC calculates
the optimum vane position after receiving inputs from the compressor rotational speed (N2),

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ambient temperature (T2), temperature entering the High Pressure Compressor (T25), and from a
mechanical feedback signal sent from the VSV actuating beam.
Another common method for controlling the mass airflow through the compressor involves the
actuation of compressor bleed valves. When commanded to open, the compressor bleed valves
offload certain stages of compression to ensure that the airflow moves smoothly and evenly
through the engine. In typical operation, the bleed valves are open or partially open at low power
settings and then close as the throttle is advanced. Closing the bleed valves provides maximum
compressor efficiency under normal operating conditions. a surge is sensed, the MEC or Bleed
Valve Control Unit (BVCU) will command the bleed valves to open. Typically, bleed valves are
spring loaded to open and are forced closed by sending a pneumatic signal to a piston that
overcomes spring pressure to close the valves.

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Combustion Section
Constructional Features and Principles of Operation
The main component of the combustion section is the combustion chamber, where the mixture of
air and fuel are introduced and ignited. During the combustion process, the temperature can rise
as high as 20000C. There are a number of different styles for the combustion chamber:
• Can Combustor - Can combustors are comprised of a number of individual combustion

chambers distributed axially around the engine. The combustion chambers are tubular
and are especially suitable for radial compressor engines because the airflow can be
guided into the combustion chambers through individual diffusers. This design was used
on early jet engines and is not found in today's modern engines.
• Cannular Combustor - Can-Annular or Cannular combustors are similar to can
combustors but their design allows more of them to be installed in the same
circumferential area. The combustion chambers are smaller and shorter than those found
on a can combustor configuration. While this layout is also an old design, it may still be
found on engines in operation today.

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• Annular Combustor - Annular combustors are an evolution of the can combustor and
cannular combustor and feature only one short and compact combustion chamber that
surrounds the shaft. They provide higher efficiency than the previous two combustors but
require more maintenance because individual cans or sections cannot be replaced.
• Reverse flow Annular Combustor - In the reverse flow annular combustor, the airflow
traverses the combustor against the mass airflow's direction through the engine and is
redirected by 180 degrees at both the combustor entry and exit. This design results in a
loss of some efficiency but its advantage is that it is very compact in size. It is usually
found in radial compressor turboshaft engines.
Before the compressed air enters the combustion chamber, it passes through a diffuser with
converts the high velocity of the mass airflow into pressure energy. Behind the diffuser, the
airflow is split into primary and secondary airflow. Primary airflow directly mixes with the
injected fuel and is ignited because of the very high chamber temperatures. Igniter plugs are
installed to provide initial ignition of the fuel-air mixture however they usually cease operation
when the starter cuts out.
Fuel is atomized by the fuel injectors and they include a swirler to increase the quality of the
fuel- air mixture. By adding a swirler to the fuel injector, complete combustion is more likely
(stoichiometric combustion) and this is evident in a reduction in the amount of smoke and
emissions through the engine tailpipe. Secondary airflow passes between the liner and combustor
housing and provides some cooling. A portion of the secondary air enters the combustion
chamber through small holes aft of the combustion area and this is referred to as the secondary
combustion zone. The remaining portion of the secondary airflow enters the high pressure
turbine to help cool the first stage of turbine.
During engine start, the engine must receive a source of ignition because the combustor has not
reached the minimum temperature to sustain combustion. Combustors normally include one or
two igniter plugs that initiate a spark when they receive power from an engine ignition unit (also
referred to as an engine exciter unit). The engine ignition circuit is energized during start and
when selected in the flight deck, usually during the takeoff and landing phases and when the
airplane is passing through weather requiring application of engine anti-ice. Application of
ignition during these phases helps to ensure that the engine will not flame out.
The most common type of fuel injectors in modern jet engines are air blast injectors. The fuel is
led through a spray jet at the end of the fuel line at high pressure. It sprays into the primary
combustion zone as a conical accumulation of heterogeneous fuel droplets. The size of this cone,
which should ideally be rather large for good mixture characteristics, varies with the volume
flow. At low volume flows, which are advantageous for high fuel efficiency, the cone narrows.
This effect is counteracted by a jet of pressurized air led into the fuel cone at the nozzle,
increasing the cone's size. Furthermore, it is possible to split the fuel flow between a primary and
secondary fuel line ending on separate injector ports. The secondary fuel line is activated and
deactivated according to the current volume flow, increasing the spray cone's size.

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An evolution of the annular combustor found in modern engines features two annular
combustors (double annular combustor). These combustors feature two annular combustion
zones around the ring. The combustion zones are equipped with separate injectors, facilitating
higher combustor temperatures at high power settings. At the same time, the engine's emission at
the design point (e.g. a certain shaft speed) have to be minimized. If the engine's power setting is
significantly different from its design point, the amount of emissions produced increases. At
takeoff, for example, only about 95% of fuel is burned efficiently (stoichiometric combustion),
while this value rises to 99% during cruise flight. It is advantageous to create multiple high
efficiency operating states, which necessitates using different volume flows. This approach is
illustrated by the separate fuel injector of a double annular combustor. During cruise flight, only
the outer injector is active, with the inner injector only being activated at high power settings.
The types of materials used in the combustion chamber have to be able to withstand the high
temperatures of combustion. Special, heat-resistant materials such as nickel- or cobalt-based
alloys are used for the flame tube walls consisting of individual sections. Modern engines mainly
feature cobalt-based alloys for combustor components.

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Turbine Section
Operation and Characteristics of Different Turbine Blade Types
Due to its divergent shape, the turbine expands the hot and pressurized gasses leaving the high
stage compressor, extracting energy in the process. This energy is converted into power by the
turbine and drives the axial shafts to the high and low speed compressors. The turbine, like the
compressor, is comprised of stators and rotors but in the turbine, the stator is ahead of the rotors.
The stators are responsible to swirling the airflow, driving the rotors and accelerating the hot gas
flow.
Turbine blade airfoils vary with the blade position. The redirection of air through the stators
provides a rotational force to the rotors to generate torque, thereby turning the axial drive shaft.
Turbine blade tips include cover bands or "shrouds" with one or more seals that reduce the
amount of turbulence occurring between the blades' upper and lower surface. This helps to
improve turbine efficiency as the sealing shrouds seal the blade tips to prevent the loss of hot
gasses. Modern turbine blades are coated and include complex cooling designs to withstand high
operating temperatures.
Blade to Disk Attachment
Turbine blades are subject to extreme thermal and mechanical stresses. The mechanical stresses
caused by the high centrifugal forces necessitate a stable connection between the rotor blades and
disks. In addition to the centrifugal forces, rotor blades are subject to oscillations which should
be damped by the attachment. The typical connection between blade and disk is called "fir tree
root", which is shaped similarly to a fir tree. It is an evolution of the dovetail joint used in the
compressor. The fir tree root has multiple horizontal branches that have a very small amount of
play when being slotted into the disk. These branches distribute the centrifugal forces onto
multiple contact patches (larger total contact area) and damp the turbine blade circumferentially.
The grooves into which the fir tree roots are slotted are directed axially, allowing for every
turbine to be removed or inserted individually.

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Nozzle Guide Vanes
Nozzle guide vanes give the airflow a swirl, enabling the rotors to work more efficiently. Guide
vanes usually consist of two elements and are straight (no twist). Each stage consists of about
twenty segments.
The most forward guide vanes in the high pressure turbine area are subject to the highest degree
of thermal stress and must be protected from the very high temperatures (>14000C) of the gas
flow. A thermal barrier ceramic coating forms the first layer of heat protection and is augmented
by an oxidation protective layer. Guide vanes are usually hollow and cooling air is directed
through them from various stages of compression.
Guiude vanes = 1400 degree

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Causes and Effects of Turbine Blade Stress and Creep
Turbine blades must withstand extreme stresses during operation. The high shaft speeds result in
very high centrifugal forces and these forces act on the entire blade, trying to elongate it through
tensile stress.
turbine blades 1700
In addition, the turbine blades must withstand extreme temperatures, in some areas these
temperatures can reach as high as 17000C. Temperature differentials cause thermal stress
because of elongation at high temperatures, followed by contraction as the blade cools after
shutdown. The increase and decrease in length caused by material tension at high temperatures is
referred to as "creep". Creep is also a factor in thermal fatigue which depends on the number of
cycles an engine has experienced (start, takeoff, acceleration, deceleration, and shut down). On
average, a Turbine Inlet Temperature (T IT) increase of 100C causes the blade life to halve due to
accelerated creep.
Turbine operating temperatures are above the melting point of the materials used in those areas
and so a complex turbine blade cooling system must be used. If any blade area does not receive
sufficient cooling, there is a potential for the turbine section to literally "burn out".
Cooling air is extracted form a compressor stage that operates at a similar pressure level to
ensure positive airflow through the vane. While the compressor bleed air is extremely hot, it is
significantly lower in temperature than the temperatures sensed in the turbine guide vane area.

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types of internal cooling convection --through radial channel
impigement-- through intrnal walls
Turbine blades use both internal and external cooling. Internal cooling is with reference to
cooling air that flows inside the blade and it can occur in two forms - convection and
impingement. Convection cooling involves guiding the air through radial channels in the blade
before it enters the hot gas flow at the blade tips. The cooling effect is rather low as the blade
material is thick.
Impingement cooling involves directing pressurized cooling air against the blade's internal walls.
The airflow then enters the hot gas flow after cooling the turbine blades.
External cooling uses a number of small boreholes along the turbine blade through which cooling
air flows out of the blade. Air exiting the blade leading edge boreholes forms a thin layer of cool
are along the blade surface - an effect called "film cooling". Film cooling is mainly used on the
blade's pressure side as it would disturb the aerodynamic effects on the suction side. Some
modern blades also use a process effusion in which cooling air exits through a porous surface
with a number of very small orifices to ensure a constant cooling film.
Modern turbine blades use a combination of internal and external cooling.
Turbine Blade cooling

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In addition to cooling turbine guide vanes and blades, the turbine housing is provided with
cooling air to reduce the clearance between the housing and the turbine blade tip. The clearances
vary with the engine operating condition and so there are controls to ensure that sufficient
cooling occurs without the potential of blade tip rub. The objective of turbine case cooling is to
keep the gap between the housing and blade tips as small as possible without causing excessive
tip rub. Typically, engines send a controlled amount of compressor bleed air to a housing that
surrounds the high pressure turbine case. Depending on the operating condition, the case receives
a variable amount of cooling air. This system is referred to as "active clearance control" or ACC.
The low pressure turbine (LPT) case area also receives cooling air although it is not as closely
controlled as the air for the high pressure turbine case. Temperatures in the low pressure turbine
area are significantly lower than in the high pressure case area and so an external "piccolo tube'
arrangement is often used to direct air onto the external surface of the LPT case.

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Exhaust
The engine exhaust (also called the exhaust nozzle or propelling nozzle), is connected to the
turbine section of the engine and is of a convergent design. The exhaust nozzle's shape
accelerates the hot gasses, thus reducing its pressure and creating a high speed exhaust jet. Struts
support the turbine aft frame while at the same time, help to stratify the airflow exiting the
turbine allowing the hot gasses to enter the nozzle more efficiently.
Turbofan engines are usually designed with a split exhaust flow. One of the exhaust flows is
from the hot core engine while the other is from the cooler bypass airflow. Core and bypass
airflows may be exhausted separately or they can be merged, depending on the engine design.
Exhaust nozzles are usually constructed of titanium or nickel alloys capable of withstanding high
temperatures.
A propelling nozzle converts pressure energy into kinetic energy by accelerating gas particles.
According to Newton's second law of Force = Mass * Acceleration, this acceleration generates a
force. This force is directed backwards, towards the nozzle outlet.
Technically, the propelling nozzle does not have the purpose of creating the thrust that propels
the aircraft forward, but serves to maintain the pressure level within the engine. Engine pressure
is maintained by limiting the mass airflow that exits the engine. The nozzle is an essential
component for creating thrust because accelerating the mass airflow in the nozzle or nozzles
generates a velocity difference between entry and exit mass flow. The difference in velocity is
equal to an impulse change over time (Impulse = Mass * Velocity). The impulse change, over
time, equals the thrust produced by the engine.
Convergent, Divergent and Variable Area Nozzles
The exhaust nozzles used in modern turbofan engines are of a convergent shape, which means
that the nozzle cross-section decreases in size between the nozzle inlet and outlet. In order to
generate optimum thrust, the hot gas flow must be accelerated as much as possible. The
maximum flow speed through a convergent style nozzle is always the speed of sound, which is
reached at the point of smallest flow area.
In addition to the convergent type of nozzle, there are convergent-divergent nozzles where the
flow area increases behind its minimum cross-section point. The forward section of this type of
nozzle has a convergent shape while the aft section is divergent. In this case, the flow becomes
supersonic at the point of minimum flow area. At supersonic speeds, the effect of changes in the
flow area are reversed and the airflow is accelerated in both the convergent and divergent
sections to increase the overall engine thrust. This type of nozzle is used in high speed fighter

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aircraft and may also feature an adjustable aft nozzle section to adjust the nozzle shape to the
power requirements.
The nozzle is adjusted either hydraulically or pneumatically using pressurized bleed air from the
compressor. Both variants are controlled by the FADEC. The individual adjustment elements are
petals arranged around the circumference of the nozzle at the point of smallest flow area. The
area of the aft nozzle section is varied according to the current thrust requirement and gas flow
exit velocity. Variable area nozzles are usually only found in combination with afterburners,
which generate large thrust differences. Adjustable nozzles are called "closed" when they assume
the smallest flow area (tube) and "open" when they are set to maximum flow area (divergent).
thrust vectoring nozzle-- adjustable asymmetrically-- re direct the airflow for maneuvering
Thrust vectoring nozzles are an evolution of the pure opening /closing type variable nozzle.
Their elements can be adjusted asymmetrically to deflect the exhaust gas jet into a certain
direction. The jet is not directed axially in parallel with the airplane's longitudinal axis any more,
but can assume other directions. This mechanism is used to support the aerodynamic flight
controls (elevator/rudder/aileron), making the airplane very maneuverable. SIVOL aircraft (Short
Takeoff and Vertical Landing) use this technology, swiveling the nozzles downwards by 900 in
order to hover for vertical landings (e.g. on an aircraft carrier).

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Engine Noise Reduction
Noise reduction technology is used to minimize the amount of sound emitted by the engine.
Because colder and slower bypass gas flows generate less noise than the high speed core exhaust,
many engine designs route the bypass airflow around the hot core exhaust flow. The bypass
airflow mixes with the core exhaust to reduce the overall temperature, speed, and noise profile.
Large engine bypass ratios will result in more airflow mixing to create a lower sound profile.
The difference in sound between a turbojet engine, with no bypass mixing, and a modern
turbofan engine is very significant and helps aircraft to meet stringent noise abatement
requirements around the world.
Another design used to reduce the amount of engine noise involves extending the bypass airflow
nozzle to the back of the engine, encasing the core exhaust jet nozzle. A mixer device is used to
mix the airflows before they exit through a common exhaust nozzle.
In addition to reducing the noise through the exhaust, some individual engine components can be
equipped with noise-absorbing mats. Sound waves enter these mats through small orifices where
they strike the walls and are converted to heat energy.
Chevron type nozzles are a relatively new design of noise reduction device used on modern
turbofan engines. The chevrons improve the mixing characteristics of the exhaust jet which
results in a lower exhaust noise profile.

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A large share of the noise emitted by a jet engine originates from the fan. The fan blade tips
normally exceed the speed of sound at high engine power settings. This, in combination with the
minimal blade tip to fan case clearance, can generate a turbulent, non-laminar airflow. Even at
lower power settings with blade tip speeds in the transonic range, the turbulent airflow and
associated noise can be significant. In order to reduce the magnitude of these vortices, the blade
geometry is optimized. These optimizations may come in the form of redesigned fan blade
leading edges, which have positive or negative sweep in the different blade areas and improve
the airflow's direction.
Another technology that has the side-effect of reducing noise is the geared turbofan. This type of
engine is used in some modern airplane engines in order to operate the ever larger fan (higher
bypass ratio) and low pressure turbine at their optimum design points. The high speed of the low
pressure shaft is decreased to a more suitable level for the fan by a reduction gearbox (planetary
reduction gearbox). The blade tips rotate at lower speeds, which causes less noise. Furthermore,
it is possible to fight sound with sound. This technology, called active noise reduction, uses
microphones in the engine to record the sound (oscillations of the air) and transmit the data to a
control unit. The control unit generates sound at a frequency that cancels out the initial sound.
This counter-frequency is emitted by speakers or by air nozzles that use compressor bleed air.
The microphone and speaker (or nozzle) have to be placed at a close distance, as sound varies
locally.

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Thrust Reversers
Engine thrust reversers are used to deflect a portion of the engine's mass airflow in a forward
direction to help decelerate the aircraft. In most civilian aircraft, thrust reversers can only be
activated on the ground. Their main purpose is to provide assistance after landing which results
in reduced brake wear and decreased stopping distances.
Thrust reversers redirect a portion of the bypass airflow (cold stream) through a number of
different designs. Typically, controllable doors in the bypass section are opened or closed to
control the direction of airflow. When the doors are open, airflow is directed forwards (at an
angle) to create a force that is in opposition to the direction of aircraft travel. Another design uses
"buckets" or target type reversers that are installed in the aft cowling section and redirect the mix
of hot and cold bypass air. Since more than 70% of large engine thrust is produced by the cold
bypass stream, redirecting the cold bypass is an effective means of slowing down an aircraft.

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Cascade Thrust Reverser
In order to deploy the reverse thrust system, the thrust levers must be in the idle position on the
pedestal. A mechanical interlock device is used to prevent activation of the thrust reversers when
the aircraft is in flight or when the throttles are not in the idle position.
Selecting reverse thrust through a separate lever or by pulling the main thrust levers beyond a
detent position, commands the thrust reversers to move to a "reverse idle" position. Additional
reverse thrust power can be applied by pulling back on the reverse thrust levers but is typically
restricted to less than full forward thrust power. As the aircraft slows down to about 80 knots, the
redirected bypass airflow can result in the ingestion of foreign materials or runway debris. Most

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aircraft or engine manufacturers identify minimum speeds for deployment of the thrust reversers
to prevent ingestion of debris and to prevent ingestion of hot exhaust gases.
Throttle quadrant with reverse thrust levers
Thrust reverser components may be actuated and controlled hydraulically, electrically, or

through the use of compressor bleed air.
In turboprop engines redirecting the core engine exhaust isn't an effective means of providing
reverse thrust and so turboprop engines vary propeller pitch to a negative blade angle (referred to
as the beta angle) to create reversing action.
Reverse thrust systems are especially important when runway conditions are less than ideal.
Snow covered runways will have compromised braking and so the reverse thrust generated by
the engine is very important.
In most conditions, the use of maximum thrust reverse power is not required and is discouraged
because of the noise abatement policies in place at many airports.
In modern civilian engines, two types of thrust reversers prevail: Cascade systems and pivoting
door systems. In a cascade-type system, a section of the nacelle moves aft, exposing the cascade
vanes, while blocker doors close the normal outlet. The air flowing through the bypass section is
redirected and creates reverse thrust.

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Pivoting door thrust reversers employ doors that move into the bypass flow, blocking its normal
flow path. As the pivoting doors are part of the nacelle, they open a duct through which the
redirected airflow can exit the engine. Furthermore, the doors increase the engine's frontal area,
creating additional drag that slows the aircraft (similarly to wing-mounted airbrakes). Engines
equipped with this type of thrust reverses usually feature four of these doors.
When the reverse thrust levers are actuated, the engine is always at idle speed. After activating
reverse thrust, the blocker doors block the flow channel and the engine is in "idle reverse". The
amount of reverse thrust is increased by pulling the thrust or reverse thrust levers further back.
Doing so increases the amount of fuel that is injected and shaft speed as well as ultimately the
mass of air that flows through the engine and hits the blocker doors to generate reverse thrust.
Depending on the type of engine, the NI shaft speed can be increased to between 70% and 90%
for maximum reverse thrust.
Bearings and Seals
The bearings found in jet engines are subject to large forces due to the high shaft speeds. Shafts
are mounted in anti-friction bearings (ball bearings and roller bearings), as these are more
suitable for absorbing the high stresses. These bearings consist of rolling elements in the shape of
balls or rollers, which are arranged evenly in a cage (or retainer) that sits between two rings. The
inner ring (or inner race) is connected to the rotating part (shaft), while the outer ring (outer race)
contacts the non-rotating part (e.g. housing). Depending on the layout, these bearings absorb
axial or radial forces and are distinguished into fixed and floating bearings. Fixed bearings
absorb axial force and are rigidly connected to both the housing and shaft. Floating bearings, on
the other hand, are installed with a little play (a few millimeters) in order to compensate for the
shaft expanding or contracting with temperature fluctuations. In order to minimize rolling
friction and for cooling, the bearings are lubricated with oil. The ball bearings in jet engines
absorb large axial forces, which are dissipated through the balls.
The other type of bearing found in aero engines are cylindrical roller bearings, which use
cylindrical rollers as a rolling element instead of balls. The large surface area of these rollers
allows roller bearings to absorb large radial forces but only very limited axial force. The
materials used for bearings are mainly steel alloys, particularly M50 steel with a silver corrosion
protection coating. The bearings are contained in a housing within another housing, as the oil
lubricating the bearings may under no circumstances exit the housing since it could easily ignite
when coming into contact with hot components.

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The bearing chambers have to be equipped with seals to prevent oil leaks. In general, the bearing
chamber seals separate the inner chamber from the outer chamber and the outer chamber from
the rest of the engine. The bearing chamber contains an air-oil mixture and the surrounding

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chamber is filled with air. The seals prevent oil from exiting the chamber. The oil seals are
further contained in a sealing air environment, with compressor bleed air preventing the air/oil
mixture in the bearing chambers from leaking out. Air seals between the engine and the bearing
chamber create an air-tight space for the sealing air to pressurize the bearing chamber.
Engines feature numerous different seals.
Bearing chamber with sealing air
Labyrinth seals are one of the many types of seals found in a modern jet engine. On this type of
seal, multiple sealing grooves are arranged at regular distances. The sealing grooves sit on the
shaft and rotate, leaving only a minimal gap to the static housing. The space between the sealing

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grooves forms a cavity, which acts as a "labyrinth" for the lubricant. If a fluid flows through the
gap between the groove and the housing, it is accelerated. After entering the cavity, the flow is cavity
gap
decelerated drastically and the fluid pressure decreases. After passing through multiple
groove/cavity stages, the fluid theoretically becomes stationary. In reality, there is always some
leakage, meaning that some fluid does exit the bearing chamber. Labyrinth seals have the
advantage of being contactless seals, which means that there is no wear.
1 2
Disadvantages include the mentioned slight leakage, the comparatively large space requirement,
3
and the potential for contamination on the seal face that can dramatically reduce the effectiveness
of the sealing surfaces.
Carbon seals (also called end face seals) are another type of seal commonly used in jet engines.
The sealing surface, which consists of carbon (graphite) is pushed against a contact surface by a
spring. The friction between the sealing surface and contact surface generates heat, which has to
be compensated for by seal cooling measures. This problem can be circumvented by adding
small grooves to the sealing surface, making the seal glide on an air cushion. Carbon seals are
mainly used for sealing bearing chambers.

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Brush seals have gained popularity in modern designs, as they are compact and provide better
sealing characteristics than labyrinth seals. Brush seals are comprised of a housing that carries a
sealing element. The sealing element consists of the wire pack with many thin fibers, comparable
to a miniaturized broom, which is fastened in a clamping tube by a core wire. The connection is
dimensionally stable, giving the wire pack rigid support. The wires are the only part of the seal to
contact the shaft and are able to absorb elastic deformation. Fluid meets the wire pack,
compressing it. Compressing the wire pack closes the gaps between the individual wires and
slightly deflects the wire pack, which is held in place by a supporting ring. Advantages of brush
seals include low weight, ease of installation and their very compact dimensions.

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Lubricants and Fuels reduce friction

remove contamination
cool the component
Properties and Specifications corrosuion protection
Oil is used to reduce engine friction, cool components, remove contamination, and protect
bearings and gearboxes from corrosion. When used in bearing sump areas, oil reduces friction
between components and cools by transferring heat to the oil which is then cooled by an oil
cooler. There are a few different styles of oil coolers but all use the principle of heat transfer
between mediums (oil to fuel, oil to air). In addition, any metal shavings generated by friction or
wear are washed away by the oil and are collected in a filter. Jet engines use a synthetic type of
oil that provides a more even viscosity through a range of operating temperatures. Synthetic oils
are also less prone to becoming acidic which can create internal engine corrosion.
Most jet fuels are a derivative of kerosene and are identified as either Jet A or Jet A-I. Jet A-I
fuel has a freezing point of -470C and is suitable for almost all environments. It has a flash point
of 380C making it somewhat safer to handle than aviation gasoline.
Kerosene-based fuels are lighter than water and so water accumulation is on the bottom of the
fuel tank. Fuel sump drains in most aircraft allow this water to be removed at regular intervals, as
prescribed by the manufacturer.
In addition to being used as a source of combustion, fuel is used as a lubricant for components
within the fuel system. It may also be used as a cooling medium for hydraulic case drain fluid
and engine oil.
Lubricants have to exhibit certain characteristics including a fairly consistent viscosity in order
to be suitable for jet engines. The (kinematic) viscosity describes the flow characteristics of a
fluid and is measured in the SI unit m2/s. Viscosity is a function of the physical properties of a
fluid and is affected by temperature, which means that if temperature decreases, viscosity
increases. At low temperatures, the fluid flows more slowly and becomes "gooey”. At higher
temperatures, the viscosity of a fluid decreases. Engine oil should be thin enough to flow through
oil lines with little resistance, but viscose enough to form a layer of oil between two contact
surfaces.
The second factor corresponds with the lubricant's compressive strength. If the force between the
two surfaces exceed the lubricant's compressive strength, it cannot provide the required
clearance. The components contact directly, which causes increased wear. Lubricants also have
to remain functional for long periods (long oil service intervals). The oil's service interval
identifies how long it can be effectively used for lubrication and heat transfer. Oil mainly ages by
reacting with the oxygen in the ambient air, a process called oxidization. Oxidization increases

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the oil's viscosity and impairs its lubrication characteristics. An oil's resistance to aging is
specified in relation to its temperature, and the product details provide a maximum temperature
for resistance to ageing. For jet engine oils, this temperature should be rather high (200-250 0C).
If the oil temperature reaches excessively high values, the molecule chains that form the oil start
to disintegrate, changing their chemical properties. The term used to describe the resistance to
molecule disintegration due to high temperatures is "thermal stability". Generally, the limit of
thermal stability is significantly higher than the operating temperature.
The flash point is another temperature-related reference. It represents the temperature at which a
mixture of the oil and air or oxygen is ignitable. A high flash point is desirable, with common
lubricants exhibiting values of around 2500 C. All of these requirement are best met by synthetic
oils (produced using chemical compounds instead of mineral oils), which is why these are used
in jet engines. Jet engine oils are classified into Type 1 through Type 4, with Type 4 being the
most modern.
Fuels exhibit some viscosity, making them suitable for use as a lubricant in the fuel system,
particularly in pumps or valves. Due to its viscosity, the fuel absorbs slow-settling particles,
which necessitates filtration prior to entry into the fuel system. Fuel filters also have to remove
larger contaminants from the tanks. In addition to dirt particles, fuel always contains small
-56---0
amounts of water. Water freezes at higher temperatures than pure jet fuel so in addition to
routine draining of fuel sump areas, fuel tanks often include hydraulic system heat exchangers
that can provide a small amount of heat transfer to the fuel.
In very cold conditions, kerosene is mixed with petrol. This mixture, (called Jet B) has a freezing
point of -600C but is more flammable than Jet A-I with a flash point of +200C. In addition to Jet
A-1 fuel, Jet A is available in the USA and has a freezing point of -400C. JP-5 fuel is used in
military applications and has a high flash point of 650C which greatly increases operational
safety and is often used on aircraft carriers. Compared to the other types of Kerosene, JP-5 fuel is
very expensive and is not broadly available. jet A1--- 38 to -47
jet A ---- -40
jet B-- 20 to -60
JP 5---- 65
Fuel Additives
Fuels are mixed with different additives in order to improve their characteristics (e.g. reduce
their reactiveness with oxygen) and maintain those in varying conditions. Additives include:
• Antioxidants
• Antistatic additives
• Corrosion inhibitors (lubrication additives)
• Leakage detection additives
• Metal deactivators

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• Thermal stability additives

• Freezing protection
Additives are mixed with the fuel in very low quantities and are usually specified in mg/l. The
total share of additives in the total fuel mass is about 0.25%, which means that one kilogram of
fuel contains no more than 2.5 grams of additives. The individual additives have the following
purposes:
• Antioxidants: Serve to prevent the fuel from oxidizing with the ambient oxygen. The
more the fuel oxidizes, the higher its viscosity becomes.
• Antistatic additives: Prevent the fuel from developing a static charge during refueling.
• Corrosion inhibitors: Protect the surfaces that come into contact with the fuel against
corrosion.
• Leakage detection additives: Make it easier to detect leakages in fuel lines or tanks.
Leakage detection additives are usually colored to facilitate easy to see leakage.
• Metal deactivators: React with soluble metals (e.g. copper) and prevent the fuel from
oxidizing with it.
• Thermal stability additive: Increase the fuel's thermal stability by preventing the molecule
chains from disintegrating at high temperatures.
• Anti-freeze additive: Prevents water from freezing in the fuel by decreasing its freezing
Safety Precautions
Lubricants and fuels are hazardous substances that are flammable in both fluid and gaseous
states. They have dangerous chemical properties that can be harmful to personnel and to the
environment. The individual hazards are identified through Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS)
or similar documents specific to each health and safety regulatory jurisdiction.
Contact with oils and/or kerosene can cause skin rashes, sickness, and dizziness. Ingesting these
substances can be fatal and it is important to apply the safety precautions found in MSDS or
similar cautionary documents. Safety precautions include the use of protective equipment
(respirators, gloves, safety glasses, face masks) and may also include specific instructions for
protecting the immediate environment. Disposal of these hazardous materials must follow the
instructions in the MSDS or regulatory body with jurisdiction in the area.
Use extreme cautions when transporting and handling these materials and the precautions for
flammability must be observed. The requirements for the transportation of Dangerous Goods
must be observed if you are responsible for moving or dispensing fuel or lubricant products.

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In addition to the general safety precautions for working with lubricants and fuels, there are
further measures that ensure the safety of these substances within the airplane and especially the
engine oil. Lubricants should not contact any surfaces other than those it should lubricate. The
bearing chamber introduced in the preceding chapter is a good example for the complex
constructional measures taken to ensure lubricants remain where they belong. Places where
rotating and stationary parts meet (e.g. shaft exit from the bearing chamber) are equipped with
complex seals and sealing air solutions. Significant effort is made to counteract potential risks
and dangers (such as oil igniting on hot engine components). Lubricants heat up during
operations and change their characteristics accordingly (e.g. decreasing viscosity). In order to
keep oil temperatures within acceptable limits, the oil circuit is equipped with cooling devices.
Oil from the bearings is led through heat exchangers (e.g. oil to fuel heat exchanger), where the
significantly colder fuel absorbs some of the heat, which is used to prevent the water share in the
fuel from freezing.
Lubrication Systems
System Operation/Layout and Components
The engine oil system is comprised of a number of components:

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Oil Reservoir (Oil Tank)
The oil reservoir contains a supply of oil for operating the engine. The oil flows from the
reservoir to a pressure pump where it is circulated through the engine to provide cooling and
lubrication. After cooling and lubricating the engine, the oil is returned to the reservoir where it
is once again recirculated.
Oil reservoirs are of various capacity but typically hold up to 40 liters of oil. Depending on the
engine manufacturer, oil reservoir capacity may be measured in liters, quarts, or gallons. The oil
reservoir includes a port for adding oil, optional pressure fill/overflow ports, and in some cases, a
sight glass for determining quantity without removing the filler cap or dipstick.
Oil reservoirs typically have three ports, one leading to the pressure pump, one connected to the
return line, and one to a ventilation line that ensures pressure equalization as oil is drawn from
the reservoir.
The reservoir is usually mounted to the core engine, accessory gearbox, or fan nacelle where it is
easily accessible.
Oil reservoir position on the engine

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Oil Pressure Pump (Lube Pump)
The oil pressure pump is sometimes referred to as the "Lube Pump" and pressurizes the oil
drawn from the reservoir. A strainer installed in the pump can remove large particles before they
are circulated through the lubrication system. Most pressure pumps are constructed using gear-
wheel assemblies and are comprised of two intermeshing gear wheels to provide a positive
pressure. The driveshaft for the pressure pump is usually driven by the accessory gearbox so a
higher engine speed results in a higher output pressure from the pressure pump.
Oil Filters
The oil filters are responsible to remove as much particulate matter out of the oil as possible. Its
mesh size specifies the fineness of the filter element. The smaller the mesh size, the more
filtration can occur. Filter mesh size is usually specified in SI Units (micrometers) with one
micrometer equaling 0.001 mm (one thousandth of a millimeter).
The high pressure filter installed in the pressure pump outlet separates particles and residue that
may have passed through the pre-pump strainer. Even small particles can clog small oil lines or
distribution ports, creating hot spots and wear in those areas.
The low pressure or Scavenge Filter is installed in the line that returns oil to the oil tank. It has a
very small mesh size and ensures that oil returning to the reservoir is free of contaminants.
Inspection of the scavenge oil filter is a routine maintenance item that helps the technician
determine the state of internal engine components.

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Fuel-Oil Heat Exchanger (FOHE)
After passing through the pressure oil filter, oils flows through a fuel-oil heat exchanger. The
fuel- oil heat exchanger cools the engine oil as it passes through the assembly while at the same
time, transferring some of its heat to the fuel. The heat transfer helps to ensure that the fuel
temperature is above the point where icing can occur. Oil leaving the fuel-oil heat exchanger is
distributed to the various internal engine components, including main bearings and seals.
Fuel-Oil Heat Exchanger

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Internal Engine Components
Oil is injected or sprayed on to internal engine components through oil lines and spray jets. The
oil injected onto these components combines with the air in the bearing housings and forms an
oil mist. A port located on the lowest point of the sump collects the oil and routes it to the return
line.
Scavenge Pumps
The scavenge pumps are usually gear-wheel type pumps and extract the oil from the sump areas.
A filter and magnetic chip detector are installed on the inlet to the pump to remove particulate
matter and metal shavings. The shavings are created as a result of wear in the bearings and
gearbox areas. Each area lubricated and cooled by the oil has an individual oil return line and
scavenge pump element. Typically, all scavenge pump elements are arranged in a common
housing with their outputs combined into one main return line that feeds back to the reservoir
through the scavenge filter and de-oiler (air-oil separator).
Magnetic Shaving Detector
De-Oiler/Venting
Before the oil returns to the reservoir, it passes through an air-oil separator. The oil is mixed with

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air after being sprayed on bearings and seals in each sump area and must be separated to ensure a
steady return of oil to the reservoir. The de-oiler contains a housing that rotates on a shaft and its
operation is based on centrifugal force which flings the oil outwards where it hits the housing.
Air is bled off through the hollow rotor shaft and exhausted through the tailpipe or through an
external breather. While the de-oiler is very efficient, there will usually be some oil entrapped in
the air and exhausted overboard. Over time, this is reflected as oil consumption and requires that
the technician regularly check and top up the oil reservoir.
Turbofan engine lubricating system

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GE-90 Lubricating system
Lubrication systems feature a number of different designs and may differ from the descriptions
shown in this training manual. The fuel/oil heat exchanger may be situated in the oil return
section, where the oil passes through it before returning to the reservoir. In this case, the oil
system is referred to as a "cold tank system", as the oil is cooled before entering the reservoir.
With fuel-cooled heat exchangers, there may be low-fuel situations where the heat exchanger
cannot ensure effective oil cooling as the remaining fuel may not cover the heat exchanger coils.
In these cases, additional air/oil heat exchangers (AOHE) may be activated. The oil then passes
through both heat exchangers to provide engine oil cooling. The AOHE extracts air from the fan
section (bypass airflow) and bleeds it off into the surrounding air. Scheduling for activation of
the AOHE is determined by an elaborate heat management system controlled by the electronic
engine control unit. When engine oil does not require additional cooling, a bypass valve may be
installed that will allow engine oil to bypass the heat exchangers.
A number of valves are installed in the engine lubrication system, including Pressure Relief
Valves and Bypass Valves as described below:
• Pressure Relief Valves - The oil pressure pump outlet is equipped with a pressure relief
valve, which prevents excessive oil pressure by returning a portion of the oil back to the
reservoir. Excessively high oil pressures may be caused by blockages or high oil viscosity

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(e.g. during engine start-up in cold conditions).

• Bypass Valves - Most oil filters are equipped with a bypass valve in order to ensure the
flow of oil through the system in case of a clogged filter. The bypass valves may also
facilitate filter changes without major oil loss.
Oil filter bypass valve
Areas to be lubricated are provided with pressurized oil through a number of jets (nozzles).
Before being sprayed through the fine nozzle, the oil usually passes through a strainer to prevent
clogging of the nozzle by particles in case one of the filter bypass valves is open. Some areas are
provided with multiple jets in order to provide ideal lubrication characteristics. To ensure even
oil distribution, some shaft bearings are also lubricated with supplies running through the shaft.
In this case, the oil passes through the hollow shaft, where centrifugal force directs it through
boreholes in the shaft wall and into the bearing chambers.

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N2
The oil scavenge pumps are powered by the high pressure shaft. The high pressure shaft drives a
gearbox that provides power for additional loads such as oil lubrication and scavenge pumps.
Adjusting engine power and shaft speed therefore varies the rate of oil flow. The oil scavenge
pumps are designed to extract the majority of oil in each sump area. They also extract air from
the chambers and housings which is separated through an air-oil separator.
The flow of oil around bearings and gearboxes washes any small particles that are generated by
the contact of moving components. With increasing engine oil life, the amount of abrasion
accelerates and components are subject to more wear. Metal shaving detectors, also called "chip
detectors', can collect these particles in the oil. One of these detectors is installed upstream of
every oil scavenge pump. The detectors are magnetic and are installed in a manner that exposes
them to ferrous materials within the engine oil. The main scavenge line is equipped with a
central metal detector in front of the oil scavenge filter. It fulfills the same task as the other
detectors but is easily accessible and provides a central location to determine if ferrous materials
are being generated in the engine oil system. Removing the detector allows technical personnel
to determine whether the amount of metal in the oil is excessive which can be an indication of a
gearbox or bearing failure.
If metal is found on the central (or main) chip detector, individual chip detectors for each
scavenge pump can be examined to isolate the origin of the metal. Some engines include an
electronic sensor in lieu of a typical magnetic chip detector. The electronic sensor uses two
magnets to continuously measure electrical resistance which is fed back to the electronic engine
control unit. The Electronic Engine Control Unit sends a warning message to the flight deck
when a set value for resistance has been exceeded.
breather
The design of engine lubrication and venting systems allow for a slight amount of leakage during
operation. In order to prevent this oil from reaching areas where it could ignite, engines are like drain mast
provided with a number of drain lines. Engine oil collects at the respective component's lowest
point (due to gravity), where it is normally drained overboard through the drain lines and
sometimes, through a drain mast. The drain mast may also be used to drain other fluids such as
fuel, hydraulic fluid, or water.

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Fuel Systems
Operation of Engine Control and Fuel Metering Systems
Engines may be controlled through a conventional mechanical fuel scheduling system or through
a more modern Full Authority Digital Electronic Control (FADEC). The mechanical fuel control
units (MEC) rely on a number of pneumatic, fuel pressure, or mechanical inputs to determine
fuel scheduling. Typical mechanical systems require inputs for commanded thrust (mechanical
through cables), engine inlet temperature (pneumatic or fuel pressure signals), engine speed
(high pressure compressor speed direct drive input), compressor inlet temperature (fuel pressure
signal), compressor discharge pressure (pneumatic signal), and in some cases, position feedback
from variable stator vanes or variable bleed valves.
Systems Layout and Components - MEC Systems
Fuel flows from the airframe fuel system into the engine fuel system. The engine fuel system is
comprised of the following main components, listed in the order in which fuel flows through
them:

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Low Pressure (LP) Fuel Pump
The LP Pump is usually a centrifugal style pump that increases fuel pressure to ensure that a
positive delivery pressure is provided to the High Pressure (HP Pump). The LP Pump is typically
contained within a single housing for both the LP and HP elements of the engine fuel pump
assembly. The LP Pump is driven by the auxiliary gearbox operating from an input of the High
Pressure Compressor.
Fuel-Oil Heat Exchangers
The fuel passes through one or two heat exchangers to warm the fuel and cool the engine oil. If
the system includes a system for using high pressure fuel as a medium for moving engine
actuators, there will be a separate cooler called the "Servo Fuel Heater" which is typically
attached to the main fuel-oil heat exchanger.
Low Pressure Fuel Filter
This filter is located downstream of the fuel-oil heat exchanger to ensure that it does not get
clogged with ice particles. The filter is equipped with a bypass valve that will open to enable fuel
to bypass the filter if it gets heavily clogged.
High Pressure (HP) Fuel Pump
The high pressure (HP) fuel pump increases the pressure of fuel exiting the LP pump to ensure
that there is sufficient pressure for the atomization of fuel in the combustion chamber and to
ensure that pressure is available to move fuel-driven engine actuators when they are installed.
The HP pump is usually a gear-wheel pump located in a common housing with the LP pump and
is driven by the accessory gearbox.
Main Engine Control Unit (MEC)
The Main Engine Control Unit (MEC) is attached to the fuel pump and regulates the amount of
fuel flow to the injector nozzles and fuel pressure operated actuators on the engine. The MEC is
controlled by pilot input through a cable run for the fuel shut-off valve and for the throttle. The
MEC includes a number of small "finger-filters" that can be checked for contamination at
various points. It also has a number of adjustments that can be made for idle speeds, part power
settings, specific gravity, and feedback cable input.

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Fuel Flow Meter
The fuel flowmeter measures the mass of fuel flowing through the injector nozzles and sends that
information to the flight deck for pilot information. Fuel flow is typically measured in
Kilograms/ Hour or in Pounds/Hour.
Fuel Distribution Valve and High Pressure (HP) Fuel Filter
Fuel is routed from the Main Engine Control Unit to a distribution manifold through a splitter or
"fuel distribution valve". Before entering the distribution valve, it is filtered through the HP fuel
filter which is a very fine mesh filter to trap small particulate matter. The HP Fuel filter usually
includes a bypass valve to enable fuel flow if the filter is significantly clogged. The distribution
valve guides the fuel to the two halves of the fuel manifold which contains the fuel injectors.
Fuel Injectors (Fuel Nozzles)
The fuel injectors (also referred to as fuel nozzles) are responsible for spraying fuel into the
combustion chamber with a carefully determined fuel spray pattern. The fuel injector is designed
to ensure that airflow assists with the atomization of the fuel. Many fuel injectors include check
valves that remain closed until a minimum fuel pressure has been obtained. This ensures a steady
flow of high pressure fuel for ignition and prevents fuel from forming droplets at each shutdown
(which could contribute to contamination of the fuel nozzle spray tips, also referred to as
"coking").
Electronic Engine Control (EEC) or Power Management Control (PMC)
Some engines have an Electronic Engine Control installed (EEC) or Power Management Control
(PMC) which is responsible for reducing the crew workload during various phases of flight. The
Electronic Engine Control/ Power Management Control (EEC/PMC) receives
electronic/electrical inputs to command a modified thrust setting during times of high crew
workload (takeoff/landing). The EEC/PMC installed on these engines has limited authority over
the amount of engine speed control and the crew must monitor thrust settings and engine
parameters to prevent engine over speed or over temperature conditions. These types of engines
are not considered to be "Full Authority" or FADEC engines as they do not allow control
through all phases of operation. The EEC/PMC can be disconnected from the engine systems
without significant impact on operation.

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Power Management Control (Non FADEC) Fuel System Of Turbofan Engine
Operation of Engine Control and Fuel Metering Systems - FADEC
In an effort to increase fuel efficiency, modern jet aircraft engines are controlled either partially
or completely by electronic control units. Many engines use a Full Authority Digital Electronic
Control (FADEC) system to control engine operation. The FADEC unit, normally installed on
the engine, receives electronic inputs and uses them to command various engine systems and
components. There is no mechanical connection between the cockpit and engine for FADEC
engines.
The FADEC itself is a system comprised of the electronic engine control (EEC or engine control
unit ECU), a fuel metering unit (FMU), sensors and transmitters, and the respective engine
components. The EEC is a digital computer that receives and processes large amounts of data
from sensors and then translates the information into signals for different actuators and
components (e.g. adjustable guide vanes). The FADEC fulfills two basic tasks:
1. It controls the engine during operation, ensuring no limits (e.g. EGT, shaft speeds) are
exceeded.
2. It monitors all relevant parameters and stores significant events so they can be analyzed and
addressed during engine maintenance. This function is sometimes referred to as Engine

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Condition Trend Monitoring (ECTM).

Functions included in a FADEC system include:
• Controlling the ignition and start systems
• Controlling engine ratings (de-rated, full-rated)
• Controlling the fuel flow through fuel pumps and the fuel metering unit (FMU)
• Controlling the adjustable guide vanes
• Controlling engine bleed valves
• Controlling drain valves
• Controlling the cooling systems for fuel, oil and the nacelle (ACC)
• Controlling reverse thrust
• Controlling the engine shut down process
• Providing data for cockpit displays
• Conducting automatic system self-checks
• Providing data for engine condition monitoring (ECM)
Every type of engine has a custom FADEC, which is why FADEC systems vary greatly in terms
of system layout and functionality. FADECs are usually dual channel systems that are identified
as channel A and B. The channels are usually identical and provide redundancy. Should one of
the two channels fail or be rendered unable to collect all required data, the other can take over all
functionalities. Each channel is equipped with a separate set of sensors, making them truly
independent of each other. If both channels of the FADEC fail, the engine will shut down
automatically.
During operation, the EEC continuously transmits the optimum engine setting given the current
ambient conditions (flight phase, altitude, temperature, etc.). It further communicates with the
different interface computers and the air data computer (ADC), which provides the EEC with
required parameters such as ambient temperature and pressure (altitude). Using this data, the
EEC calculates engine performance limits to ensure that the engine operates within its design
parameters and doesn't overheat or stall. The EEC calculates the required fuel flow for the
commanded power setting and sends a signal to the fuel metering unit to schedule the desired
amount of fuel. A fuel flow meter measures the fuel mass flow downstream of the fuel metering
unit and provides feedback to the EEC. The EEC compares the commanded amount of fuel to
that measured by the fuel flowmeter and makes adjustments as required.
The EEC is usually placed on the fan case, where it is easily accessible for maintenance. It can
be provided with electrical power from two independent power sources (airplane and engine).
The engine drives an alternator that powers the EEC and is backed up by an aircraft electrical
source as well.
The EEC is protected against vibration at the installation mounting points and electric

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interferences such as lightning strikes. The FADECs individual sub-system components are
usually easily accessible so they may be replaced quickly during maintenance. These
components are called line replaceable units (LRUs) and can usually be replaced in under one
hour which is usually the amount of time available for maintenance activities between scheduled
flights. It is possible to perform some minor maintenance activities while the aircraft is parked at
the boarding gate. The individual data and power cables are shielded to prevent interference that
could lead to false signals. Cooling is performed by means of an air scoop in the adjacent engine
air inlet cowl.
The FADEC's EEC is equipped with a separate digital computer for each channel. These
computers contain complex programs in two different software components, the control software

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for flight operations and the maintenance software used by technicians. The flight operations
control software is split into the following components:
• Power management: This component controls the engine's power output in relation to the
current thrust lever position and other values entered in the cockpit (Input) by calculating
target values for engine speed and pressure ratio (Output).
• Engine speed and pressure ratio control: Depending on the approach chosen by the
manufacturer, the engine's power output is controlled either through the shaft speed (N1 or
N2) or engine pressure ratio (EPR). The EEC compares target value and current value and
makes the required inputs using actuators (valves, motors).
• Actuator and valve control: The EEC controls actuators and valves using a closed loop
control system. This means that there is a predefined "target value", which differs from the
actual value. The valves and actuators, for example the fuel regulator valve are controlled
(opened or closed) to minimize the difference between target and actual value. Checking
when a state of equality between target and actual has been reached and the valves and
actuators can be returned to their initial position requires a continuous comparison of the
two values.
• Subsystem control: Engines are operated at different ratings that limit the maximum
available thrust. These ratings are pre-set by the engine manufacturer. Technically identical
engines may operate as different versions, with the only difference being the software. The
rating chip (normally a plug containing pin programming) is connected to the EEC and
secured using a lanyard. It is called data entry plug (or rating plug) and may contain the
following information:
• Engine serial number
• Fuel system information
• Combustion chamber configuration
• Modification of shaft speed (NI) or engine pressure ratio (EPR)
• Engine condition management data
• Customer-specific options and factors for the rating
For reasons of redundancy, the interaction with other aircraft systems occurs via two digital data
buses. Information is exchanged using standardized communication protocols, such as ARINC
429, ARINC 629 (evolution of ARINC 429) and ARINC 664 (AFDX).
• As an example for the degree of detail to which the FADEC measures engine data, the

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following paragraph lists some of the pressures measured along the gas path:
• Ambient pressure (static pressure): Maybe measured either on the front of the fan housing
or within the EEC itself.
• Total pressure Pt2 in front of the fan inlet
• Total pressure behind the fan
• Total pressure between low and high pressure compressor
• Total pressure Pt3 behind the high pressure compressor
• Total pressure Pt4 upstream of the turbine inlet
• Total pressure Pt5 downstream of the turbine outlet
In a FADEC, only one channel is active at a time (in command), controlling the engine. The
other channel, while serviceable and healthy, is provided for immediate redundancy should the
channel in control experience a failure. The FADEC automatically chooses the channel with the
better error status. The active channel is called "channel in command", while the other channel is
in a standby mode.
In case of a sensor failure, the EEC tries to compensate for, or replace, the missing value using
the following sequence of measures:
1. First, the EEC attempts to use the value of the standby channel without making that channel
the channel in command. The active channel only requests the individual missing value.
2. If this attempt is unsuccessful, the EEC calculates the value from other sensor data using
physical or mathematical relationships. The turbine inlet temperature, for example, can be
calculated from turbine speed and turbine outlet temperature.
3. If all other methods fail, a default value stored in the EEC is used as a last resort. If less
critical values/sensors fail, the EEC uses the default value straight away. In case of a system
component failure (e.g. valve actuation), the respective component goes into fail safe mode,
which means that it assumes a defined state (e.g. valve closed) which cannot be varied during
operation (even if the component were to regain operability). The engine can continue to
operate although some performance losses do occur.
BITE
The maintenance software continuously monitors the engine parameters and stores possible
defects for analysis during flight and during maintenance. The EEC has the ability to
automatically determine the root cause of errors. When the engine is shut down, different system
checks are available, such as an electric EEC check, reverse thrust check and ignition system
check. These checks are used to confirm indicated errors and to check newly installed
components.

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Individual channels must be shielded to prevent interference that could cause incorrect signals to
components or to the EEC. In addition, each channel is equipped with a separate air-cooling
system in the EEC. The EEC has the ability to receive signals, transmit signals, or for some
functions, both transmit and receive signals. Individual sensor measurements are converted into
electric signals either directly in the sensor or they are transmitted to the EEC in raw form where
they are processed and digitized.
The EEC is protected against vibration and electric influences (lightning strikes). Individual
components for the FADEC are usually easily accessible so they can be replaced quickly during
maintenance. These components are called line replaceable units (LRUs) and can usually be
replaced in under one hour. It is possible to conduct minor maintenance measures while the
airplane is being turned around on the gate.
FADEC controlled system on large turbofan engine
Systems Layout and Components
Fuel flows from the airframe fuel system into the engine fuel system. The engine fuel system is

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comprised of the following main components, listed in the order in which fuel flows through
them:
Low Pressure (LP) Fuel Pump
Usually, a centrifugal pump that boosts fuel pressure to ensure a positive flow through the heat
exchanger and filters before moving onwards towards the High Pressure (HP) pump. It is
powered by the auxiliary gearbox which is driven by the high pressure shaft.
Fuel-Oil Heat Exchangers (FOHE)
The fuel passes through one or two oil coolers to heat the fuel and, at the same time, cool the
engine oil. This component was previously described earlier in the chapter on lubrication
systems.
Heat exchanger (FOHE)

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Low Pressure Fuel Filter
This filter is placed downstream of the FOHE so that the fuel has been warmed to prevent filter
clogging due to ice particles. The filter includes a bypass valve that opens if high differential
pressures occur in the filter. Differential pressures are usually due to ice formation or
contamination from the LP pump. Some configurations include the heat exchanger and low
pressure fuel filter as a single component.
High Pressure (HP) Fuel Pump
Increases the pressure in order to facilitate the atomization of fuel by the injector nozzles and in
some cases, to provide high pressure for moving fuel-powered actuators. For fuel atomization to
take place, the fuel pressure has to be higher than combustor pressure. The high pressure pump is
usually a gear wheel pump arranged in a housing that it shares with the low pressure pump. This
combination is called dual fuel pump unit. It is driven by the auxiliary gearbox on the high
pressure shaft.
Fuel Metering Unit (FMU) or Hydro-Mechanical Unit (HMU)

The Fuel Metering Unit is assigned different names depending on the engine manufacturer. It
may be called the Fuel Metering Unit (FMU), Fuel Flow Governor (FFG), or Hydro-Mechanical
Unit (HMU). It is attached to the fuel pump unit and is controlled by the Electronic Engine
Control (EEC). The EEC provides the FMU with signals that determine the position of the fuel
metering valve within the fuel control. The FMU also includes the main on/offvalve that is
commanded during engine start and shutdown. The main on/off shutoff valve is actuated by the
engine run/cutoff switch in the flight deck.
Fuel Flow Meter FMU---FUEL METERING UNIT

FFM---FUEL FLOW METER
The fuel flowmeter measures the mass flow of fuel between the fuel metering unit and fuel
nozzles. The fuel flow is sent as an electronic signal to the EEC.
Fuel Distribution Valve and High Pressure Fuel Filter
Fuel passes through a very fine mesh filter before reaching the fuel distribution valve. The high
pressure fuel filter features a bypass valve to enable fuel bypass if the filter is clogged. The fuel
distribution valve splits the fuel flow and directs it towards the individual fuel nozzles in the
combustor.

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Fuel Injectors (Fuel Nozzles)
The fuel injectors (also referred to as fuel nozzles) are responsible for spraying fuel into the
combustion chamber with a carefully determined fuel spray pattern. The fuel injector is designed
to ensure that airflow assists with the atomization of the fuel. Many fuel injectors include check
valves that remain closed until a minimum fuel pressure has been obtained. This ensures a steady
flow of high pressure fuel for ignition and prevents fuel from forming droplets at each shutdown
(which could contribute to contamination of the fuel nozzle spray tips, also referred to as
"coking").
Fuel nozzles with internal flows

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Fuel nozzles installed on a CFM56-7B
The low pressure (LP) fuel pump ensures that the high pressure pump is provided with a positive
fuel pressure. Bends and couplings in the fuel lines cause pressure losses which are compensated
for by the LP pump. The low pressure fuel pump can provide enough suction to draw fuel
directly from the fuel tank in the event of a fuel tank boost pump failure. In the event of multiple
fuel tank boost pump failures, fuel can flow to the engine through gravity feed and will supply
the LP pump with enough fuel to sustain operation.
FUEL TANK BOOST PUMP-->LP PUMP--->HP PUMP
The high pressure fuel pump produces more fuel pressure than is actually required for
combustion and so some of it is returned to the inlet of the LP pump. Fuel leaves the HP Pump
and is directed to the Fuel Metering Unit (FMU).
HP PUMP-->FMU---f.distribiuter---> F...NOZZLE
The fuel metering unit is equipped with at least two, and sometimes three valves. These valves
are vital for the fuel system's operation:
• Fuel metering valve:

Regulates the amount of fuel entering the injectors in response to the EEC commands. The
metering valve and FMU Bypass Valve work in direct opposition - if the engine requires
more fuel, the EEC opens the metering valve and closes the drain valve.

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• Cut-off valve:
The cut-off valve is actuated by selecting the engine master switch (ENG MASTER). It is
open during engine start and when the engine is running (ON /RUN) and is closed when the
engine is shut down (OFF / CUTOFF).
• Overspeed valve:
This valve, which is not featured in all engines, prevents excessive shaft speeds. In case of
sudden power changes in the compressor or fan due to foreign object damage or blade
rupture, there is potential for the rotor to overspeed. The compressor/fan and turbine are
connected to a rigid shaft, and so the excess turbine power may cause a rapid increase in the
shaft speeds. In order to prevent further damage, the over speed valve closes above a certain
limit, only letting a small amount of fuel flow through a bypass to maintain the combustion
process. Closing the over speed valve limits the engine to idle power. Once the valve is
closed, it can only be opened by shutting the engine down and restarting it.
The FMU also distributes or diverts the fuel required to act as a hydraulic force. The variable
guide vane/stator vane adjustment system and some drain valves use hydraulic actuators that use
fuel as hydraulic fluid.
Air Systems
Operation of Engine Air Distribution and Anti-Ice Control Systems
Engines include air systems that can be classified as either internal or external. Internal air
systems include cooling for the core engine components (turbine), sealing air for bearing
chambers, and anti-icing. Turbine components are particularly susceptible to damage caused by
high operating temperatures and they are cooled by routing high stage compressor air to the
turbine disks and blade roots. Small boreholes in the turbine blade provide a path for the cooling
air to exit. The combustion chamber secondary airflow is used for cooling the guide vanes and
the first stage of high pressure turbine.

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The bearing chambers are sealed externally using air extracted from the area between the LP and
HP compressors. A portion of the sealing air enters the bearing chamber where it mixes with
engine oil. The air-oil mix is routed through an oil separator which returns the oil to the sump
area for return to the oil tank and the air is routed overboard through the breather or center vent
tube.
The engine anti-ice system uses hot compressor air to heat the lip of the inlet cowling with a
small amount bled off internally to anti-ice the spinner area. The air used for anti-ice is typically
extracted from one of the aft stages of the HP compressor and is directed to the inlet cowl
through external ducting. An anti-ice valve is installed to control the pressure and temperature of
the hot bleed air before it is routed to a bleed ring that sprays hot air on the internal surfaces of
the inlet cowl lip. Anti-ice air is exhausted through a number of exhaust holes or through a
venturi style scoop on the inlet cowl.

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nacelle cooling
external air system- active clearance control vsv=IGV=
compreesor control-(vsv-vbv)
The external air system includes nacelle ventilation and cooling, active clearance control, and
compressor control systems (such as variable bypass valves and variable stator vanes).
The nacelle ventilation system provides ventilation for the area between the cowling and engine
core and is installed to remove potentially flammable vapors generated by fuel, oil, or gasses. It
further cools externally mounted components (such as the EEC). Air enters the area through a
scoop in the upper cowling section and flows through the nacelle area before exhausting through
a separate scoop on the cowling. In the event of a fire in the nacelle area, the velocity of the air
entering the nacelle area assists in extinguishing the fire.
Typically, ventilating and cooling air is routed to the area between the fan cowling and engine
and between the core cowling and core engine. Cooling air for the external core engine area is
typically extracted from the last stage of the Low Pressure (LP) compressor to prevent thermal
shock.

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Active Clearance Control (ACC) systems are used to control the gap between the turbine blades
and turbine housing. The turbine blades expand and contract at a different rate than the turbine
case and so the gap must be carefully controlled. The gap between the turbine blades and turbine
case must be as small as possible to increase the engine efficiency while at the same time,
providing enough clearance to account for the expansion and contraction properties of the
turbine blades/case.
High turbine speeds result in some elongation of the turbine blades. The turbine case is
significantly lighter than the rotor and so it expands at a faster rate than the rotor. In order to
maintain a consistent gap, the amount of cooling air on the turbine case is varied as a function of
turbine speed.
The turbine cooling air system uses air extracted from the High Pressure Compressor (HP
System) or Low Pressure Compressor (LP) for the low pressure turbine area.
The low pressure turbine cooling system uses LP compressor air routed through an annular tube
system with small boreholes to direct the cooling air onto the low pressure turbine case. In most
cases, the LP Turbine cooling air is a function of LP Compressor speed. The faster the LP
Compressor is turning, the more cooling air is provided to cool the LP Turbine case. In some

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modern engines, the Low Pressure Turbine case cooling system is controlled by the EEC and has
a separate control valve.
The High Pressure Turbine Case Cooling system is controlled either through the Main Engine
Control (Non-FADEC) or through the EEC (FADEC) and is also a function of compressor
speed. There are fail-safe systems built into both cooling systems to ensure that in the event of a
failure, the turbine cases are not excessively cooled which could create turbine interference and
damage.
ACC tube lines

The compressor control system is used to match the airflow exiting the Low Pressure
Compressor to the inlet of the High Pressure Compressor. This can be accomplished through a
number of ways, with the most common being through the control of variable bleed valves
(VBV), variable stator vanes (VSV) or through the use of compressor bleed valves. If the LP
Compressor provides more air than the High Pressure Compressor requires for efficient
operation, some of that air will be bypassed into the fan bypass stream. At the same time, the
variable stator vanes will move towards a closed position to further restrict the amount of air
through the High Pressure Compressor. As the engine accelerates, the 1--1P Compressor requires
more airflow and so the VBV system will close to allow all of the exhausted LP air to go through
the HP compressor and the Variable Stator Vanes move towards an open position to allow the air
to enter the HP stages of compressor.

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Variable Stator Vanes (VSV)
The variable stator vanes are used on the forward stages of the High Pressure Compressor. They
are continuously variable and typically move with each adjustment to engine speed. The Main
Engine Control (MEC) or Electronic Engine Control (EEC) generate control signals to
mechanical or electronic servos which position two fuel-driven actuators attached to unison
rings. Small levers connect the unison ring to each stator vane and reposition them in response to
actuator movement. A feedback cable provides position information to the Main Engine Control
(MEC) for mechanical fuel control units while a position transducer sends position information
to the Electronic Engine Control (EEC) on FADEC engines.
Variable stator vanes
Variable Bleed Valves/Variable Bypass Valves (VBV)

The variable bleed valves (sometimes referred to as Variable Bypass Valves) are located at the
outlet of the low pressure compressor. There are two types of variable bleed valves. One type
uses an array of flaps arranged around the compressor that are programmed through a rotary
actuator driving flexible shafts. The other style uses a ring that shifts axially to open or close a
series of openings in the LP Compressor exit. Both types are continuously variable and route air
into the bypass airflow. The VBV's are controlled by mechanical or electrical servos in the MEC

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or EEC (FADEC). The servos command a fuel-driven actuator to reposition the VBVs. A
feedback cable provides position information to the Main Engine Control (MEC) for mechanical
fuel control units while an electrical position sensor sends position information to the Electronic
Engine Control (EEC) on FADEC engines.
Variable bleed valve on the low pressure compressor

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High Pressure Compressor Bleed Valves
On some engine types, bleed valves are incorporated into one or more stages of the high pressure
compressor. These bleed valves open or close in response to signals from the MEC or EEC
(FADEC) and are actuated through fuel pressure driven actuators or in some cases, through
pneumatically driven actuators. The HP Compressor bleed valves are commanded to close with
increasing pressure in the HP compressor.
Other Compressor Bleed Valves
On some engine types, bleed valves are incorporated into the mid stages of the HP Compressor
to offload the starter during initial engine rotation. These are often referred to as Start Bleed
Valves and are only open during engine start. They are closed after the starter cuts out.

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Some engines use the internal air system to cool the aft section of the high pressure compressor.
Air is directed to the rotor drum at the HPC inlet, cooling the aft stages of the HPC before it
enters the turbine. Unlike the turbine cooling system, the air does not flow through the individual
turbine blades, but passes through small guide vanes (swirl generator) to make the transition
between axial and radial flow more efficient. The second stage of stator vanes are cooled using
air extracted from the corresponding pressure compressor stage.
The internal air system is also used to compensate for axial bearing loads. The individual engine
components produce varying axial forces that act either in or against the airplane's direction of
travel. The compressor generates a force directed into the direction of travel, while the turbine
creates an opposed force. The sum of these forces acts against the direction of travel (the
resulting thrust is directed in the direction of flight). The bearings that absorb these axial forces
are subject to substantial loads. In order to reduce these loads, the internal air system is used to
create a pressure difference, mainly on the turbine disks. Pressurized air from the compressor is
guided onto the front surface (in the direction of travel) of the respective disk, generating a force
on it. This generates a pressure difference between the disk's pressurized forward surface and its
aft surface. In total, the blade is being pushed against the direction of travel, reducing the
resulting axial force acting in the direction of travel. This allows designers to use smaller fixed
bearings (ball bearings) as the total loads are smaller.

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The nacelle cooling system also serves to distribute the extinguishing agent in case of an engine
fire. Furthermore, the nacelle is equipped with pressure relief panels that open in case the
pressure between the nacelle and the core engine becomes excessively high, releasing pressure
into the ambient air. Some engines are equipped with additional cooling air valves that improve
the cooling performance of the general nacelle cooling system.
The active clearance control system uses a fuel-driven actuator to control the flow of cooling air.
It receives commands from the EEC, which calculates the required amount of cooling from the
current high pressure shaft speed, flight altitude and other parameters (depending on the ACC).
A mechanical assembly (rods and camshafts) translates the actuator's movement into an opening
or closing of the valve. Both valves may be combined in a single unit (double regulator valve). If
the ACC, or part of it (actuator) fails, the valves return to a fail-safe position that facilitates some
cooling, but prohibits any setting changes. The annular tube system attached to the turbine
housing consists of two half shells bolted together and sealed. Some systems also cool the aft or
all stages of the high pressure compressor to control the clearance. The effects of acceleration
and deceleration on the individual engine components are opposite to the steady state processes
and effects described above. During transient operation (acceleration, deceleration), the rotors
react first, as the centrifugal force acting on them increases or decreases. As the housing is only
subject to thermal effects, it reacts with a certain delay. When the engine speeds up, the
clearance decreases due to the growing centrifugal force on the rotors and the housing cooling
has to be reduced in order to prevent the blades from contacting the housing. When the engine
slows down, the centrifugal forces decrease, causing the rotors to contract. The clearance grows,
requiring additional housing cooling to increase the rate of housing contraction to a suitable
level.
The air release systems used for controlling the compressor mainly ensure a safe surge margin
that prevents the compressor from stalling. Should the EEC recognize a compressor surge, all
blow-off valves, also called bypass valves, are opened and all stator vanes are set to allow for
maximum mass flow. The blow-off valves in the high pressure compressor are opened during
engine start-up and acceleration, which can be recognized by analyzing the rate of HP shaft
speed change. In all other operational states, the blow-off valves are closed. In order to prevent
the valves from constantly opening or closing if the shaft speed fluctuates around the
opening/closing value, there is a speed range in which the valve holds it's current position. The
variable stator vanes can also be used to decelerate the engine by turning the vanes to a closed
position, decreasing the maximum mass airflow. This method is used if the engine begins to
overspeed.
The ignition cooling system is another part of the external cooling system found on engines with
engine housing mounted ignition devices. These devices are cooled using bypass airflow bleed
air that passes through their housings (similar to the ECE cooling system). The cooling air enters
through the ignition wire area to cool it before exhausting into the nacelle.

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The bleed air systems for cabin air conditioning and cabin air management are not part of the
engine air system but of the airframe air system. Some airplane types are equipped with air
conditioning systems that work without bleed air.
Starting and Ignition Systems
Operation of Engine Start Systems and Components
The engine start and ignition systems are installed to provide compressor rotation and ignition
during the start procedure. Engines may be equipped with electrical or pneumatic start systems
When an engine is equipped with a pneumatic starting system, it will include ducting to route
pneumatic air to a start control valve and starter assembly. The pneumatic air can be supplied
through a ground source, through an auxiliary power unit, or from another operating engine.
Most engines are equipped with pneumatic starter systems (air starter) comprised of the
following components:
Pneumatic Ducts
These ducts direct the pressurized air to the starter. The compressed air is provided by the
auxiliary power unit, an external pressure source, or another engine that is running and producing
pneumatic supply air.

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Air starter pneumatic lines

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Pneumatic Start Valve
A start control valve is installed in the duct leading to the starter and is usually solenoid
controlled but pneumatically operated. Energizing the start valve solenoid routes internal air
pressure to a diaphragm that pushes open a butterfly-style valve. De-energizing the solenoid
removes the muscle air from the diaphragm and the butterfly valve closes. In most cases, there is
a manual override on the start valve to enable engine start when full electrical power is not
available (battery start). during jugar
Pneumatic Starter
The pneumatic starter consists of a single stage turbine motor connected to an internal reduction
gearbox and clutch assembly. The turbine drives a shaft that connects to the reduction gearbox
which drives gearing inside the accessory gearbox to turn the High Stage Compressor.
Some smaller jet engines use electrical starters to turn the high stage compressor. Typically,
these are limited duty starters and are powered from a Hot Battery Bus or Battery Bus to ensure
start capability when external power is not available.
Engine parameters are displayed on digital or analog gauges in the flight deck. During the start
procedure, all indicators are important but the two most closely monitored during the start
sequence are the indication for HP compressor speed (N2 or N3) and the exhaust gas temperature

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(EGT). Start switches, ignition selectors, and fuel cutoff switches are used to start the engine.
Specifics about engine starting procedures are included in the applicable aircraft maintenance
manual.
To start the engine, a pressurized air source must be available. Typically, air is provided through
the Auxiliary Power Unit (APU) which is a small gas generator installed in the aircraft. The APU
can provide enough air to run air conditioning systems, electrical power requirements, and air for
pneumatic engine starters. Some aircraft use an electrical starter and they require a source of
electrical power.
The pneumatic starter is a single turbine motor attached to an internal reduction gearbox. The
reduction gearbox converts high starter turbine speeds into a lower speed but higher torque
output shaft to turn gearing inside the accessory gearbox. A clutch at the inlet to the reduction
gearbox helps to increase the torque and is responsible for decoupling the starter drive from the
accessory gearbox at a certain speed. The inner clutch basket is equipped with ratchet teeth while
the outer cage has pawls with leaf springs. The leaf springs push the pawls into the ratchet teeth
to connect the starter motor to the accessory gearbox. As the engine speeds up, increasing
centrifugal force pushes the leaf springs outwards and releases the drive pawls. Because the

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pawls are no longer connected to the ratchet teeth, the connection between the starter motor and
accessory gearbox is disconnected.
Starter clutch
The accessory gearbox is connected to the High Pressure shaft through bevel gear wheels.
During start, the starter motor drives the input to the accessory gearbox which in turn, drives the
HP shaft. At about 20% shaft speed (N2 or N3), fuel is introduced to the combustion chamber
and the atomized mixture is ignited by igniter plugs. The mass airflow through the combustor
must be at a speed that enables initial fuel atomization so most engines introduce fuel at a
minimum of 20% of compressor speed.

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After the fuel/air mixture has been ignited (which is evident by an increase in the Exhaust Gas
Temperature), the HP shaft has to be further accelerated in order to reach a stable idle speed. The
starter continues to assist turning the HP shaft until the engine has reached a self-sustaining
speed, typically around 45-50% N2 or N3.
The individual starting components are controlled and monitored by the EEC (on FADEC
engines) but may be somewhat manually controlled in non-FADEC aircraft. Starter
disengagement is usually an automatic function where the start control switch is released at a
certain HP shaft speed. This disengagement signal can be sent from the N2/N3 speed indicator or
from a centrifugal switch on the starter.
The compressed air required for starting the first engine is provided by the APU or an external
air starter unit (ASU). On some airplanes, there is a defined order in which the engines are
started. Individual engines can drive different aircraft systems and it may therefore be important
to first start the engine that drives the hydraulic system as it provides the wheel brakes with the
hydraulic pressure required for keeping the aircraft from moving.
The oil in the starter warms up very quickly as the starter has a very small oil reservoir (usually
less than one liter). Starters are not designed for continuous operation and there is typically a
cool- down period of around 2 minutes after using the starter before it can be used again (e.g.
after an unsuccessful starting attempt). After multiple starting attempts, the oil must be allowed
to cool for about 30 minutes before a new attempt.

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The starter's main task is to accelerate the high pressure compressor to a speed where it can
induct enough air for a stable combustion process in the combustor as well as support the high
pressure turbine acceleration to a self-sustaining speed. Starter and ignition system are typically
deactivated between 40% and 50% high pressure shaft speed. It will normally take around 30
seconds until the engine reaches idle speed.
The EGT gauge in the cockpit should be monitored closely during start-up. EGT rises slowly
before abruptly increasing after ignition, reaching a peak value (without exceeding the limit)
before settling down to idle EGT. If the EGT does not follow this normal pattern, the start
attempt may be unsuccessful. FADEC-controlled engines recognize the problem and
automatically compensate for high/low fuel flow, hot start, or hung start conditions. Failed starts
can be classified into four categories:
• Hot Start:starter shoots RPM / high fuel flow

During a hot start, the EGT reaches or exceeds its starting limit. The attempt must be
aborted and the engine, depending on the degree of the EGT exceedance, may require
further inspection. EEC units recognize this scenario and automatically cut the fuel flow.
Hot starts can be caused by fuel metering failures (excessive amounts of fuel injected),
failed fuel draining after a prior starting attempt, premature ignition (insufficient air
supply), a damaged compressor (foreign object damage, decreased airflow) or a stuck air
starter pneumatic valve (insufficient starter power).
• Hung Start:Starter under RPM/ low fuel flow

If the engine does not reach idle speed and the high pressure shaft does not accelerate at a
sufficient rate, it is experiencing a hung start. Hung starts can be caused by an insufficient
fuel flow, high pressure compressor damage or faulty stator vane positioning reducing the
mass airflow, insufficient air pressure/volume in the air starter decreasing the amount of
torque it delivers, or the high pressure turbine not delivering enough power to accelerate
the high pressure shaft. The EEC recognizes hung starts by comparing the actual engine
acceleration at predefined times with a base map stored in its software. The EEC can also
detect a hung start by monitoring the rate of rise in EGT, as it would rise at a different
rate than an engine exhibiting a normal start. After a hung start, the engine must be
inspected and the problem corrected prior to any further start attempts.
• Wet Start:
A wet start (also called No Start) is characterized by the fuel/air mixture failing to ignite.
The engine start is aborted either manually or, in FADEC-controlled engines,
automatically. Wet starts are often the consequence of ignition system failures or igniter
plugs that fail to energize. Some fuel remains in the combustion chamber, which is why
this failure is called "wet start". Before making another attempt, the excess fuel must be

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drained from the engine, otherwise there is a risk of a hot start or tailpipe fire. The
FADEC recognizes a wet start by the lack of increasing EGT when the fuel control
switch is selected to ON or RUN. Technicians experiencing a wet start must keep the
starter motor running to blow the excess fuel out of the engine and dry the combustor.
• Start Stall:
When individual compressor stages stall during start-up, it is referred to as a "start-stall".
The low engine speeds involved in a start attempt lead to a very narrow surge margin,
which is why it is easy to stall the compressor. Unfavorable conditions such as
crosswinds or tailwinds can trigger a compressor stall. Closed compressor blow-off
valves (Bypass Valves) or damaged compressor components are other causes of start
stalls.
In addition to pneumatic starting systems, there are electric starters, which are quite common in
small jet engines such as those used for corporate aircraft. Some modern airplanes are equipped
with engine generators that double as starters (starter-generator).
Ignition Systems and Components
The engine ignition system is used to ignite the fuel-air mixture in the combustion chamber and
is primarily active during engine start and during critical flight phases to prevent engine flame-
out (takeoff, landing, engine anti-ice operation). The ignition system also provides a means of
restarting the engines in the event of an in-flight flameout. Under normal conditions, engine
ignition is deactivated unless commanded on (manually or automatically) and the high pressures
and temperatures in the combustor provide the means of ignition for the fuel-air mixture.
Ignition Exciter Unit
The ignition exciter unit(s) consist of capacitors which store a high amount of electrical energy
for starting. Typical ignition units store between 2 and 20 Joules and route it to the igniter plugs
via a high tension lead. In some cases, the current flowing from the ignition unit to the igniters
can reach up to 2000 Amps. The ignition unit is usually mounted under a fan or core cowling and
is cooled by nacelle cooling air.
Ignition Wire (Ignition Lead)
The ignition wire, also referred to as the ignition lead, consists of a central copper conductor
encased by an isolating material, usually silicone. An external metal mesh layer protects the lead
from external damage and electrical interference. In areas where the lead passes near the hot core
engine, the lead is cooled by a tap from the nacelle cooling air.

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Igniter Plug
Igniter plugs are comprised of two electrodes isolated by a ceramic body. The isolator has a layer
of semi-conducting material between the two electrodes. The igniter plug housing is made of
steel.
Depending on the type of igniter plug, current from the igniter unit provides up to 2000 amps to
the tip of the electrode resulting in 20-250 sparks per minute. The igniter plug is installed to
prevent direct contact with the air-fuel mixture which helps to prevent heat damage and erosion.
Shims are usually installed or removed to ensure that the igniter plug depth is within tolerances
identified by the engine manufacturer. The igniter plug is cooled by secondary combustor
airflow.
Igniter plug
The ignition unit is usually attached to the fan or core engine housing. Placing it on the fan
housing has the advantage of eradicating the need for additional cooling, as the airflow in the
area sufficiently cools the module. If the unit is further away from the igniter plugs, multiple
meters of distance have to be bridged by ignition wires. The longer the wire, the higher its
internal resistance and therefore the lower the available energy for generating a spark. If the
ignition device is mounted close to the igniter plugs (on the core engine housing), the ignition
wire is short, but the device has to be cooled using fan or low pressure compressor air. The

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ignition wire is also air- cooled, with the airflow cooling it between the metal mesh and the
isolator along its length to shortly before the igniter plug. The igniter plugs are placed on
opposite sides of the annular combustor to facilitate an even flame distribution and are easily
accessible for replacement.
Placement of igniter plugs

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Maintenance Safety Requirements
The high voltages occurring within the ignition system require that extreme caution be used
when working on or around engine ignition system components. The high voltages used in this
system can lead to fatal injury.
• Never work on an active (energized) ignition system

• The system must have been de-energized for a minimum of five minutes before starting
work on components.
• Ignition Unit (Ignition Exciter Box) must be grounded to remove any charge remaining in
the capacitors.
• When grounding the ignition system components, use an insulated or grounded tool
• When testing the ignition system, ensure that there are no gasses or raw fuel in the direct
area. All personnel working around the area must be aware that there is work being
performed on the ignition system to prevent inadvertent actuation.
It is further important to wear suitable protective clothing, including safety goggles, rubber
safety gloves and rubber mats or earthed mats to stand on. Technical staff working on electrical
systems have to be concentrated and aware of the risks. Ignorance and hubris can lead to critical
or fatal Injuries.
Engine Indication Systems
In order for pilots and maintenance technicians to determine if the engine is operating within its
design limits, and to ensure that there is an immediate reference for engine power, aircraft
include an engine indicating system. The type, number, and range of these indicators vary with
the type of aircraft on which they're installed. Some aircraft use Low Pressure Compressor speed
(N1) as their reference for thrust while others use a parameter called Engine Pressure Ratio
(EPR) to determine thrust. In all cases, sensors are installed at strategic points on the engine and
relay this information to the flight deck for pilot or maintenance technician information.
to determine thrust we refers EPR or LP shaft rpm
Some of the engine indications are referred to as PRIMARY engine indications as they are used
to determine engine performance. Other indications are referred to as SECONDARY engine
indications and typically include such things as engine vibration, oil quantity, and oil pressure.
important, the pilots do not typically use them as indication of engine performance.

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Exhaust Gas Temperature/lnterstage Turbine Temperature
The Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT) or Interstage Turbine Temperature (ITT) are measures of
engine performance and efficiency. EGT may be measured at a number of locations depending
on engine manufacturer. In some cases, it is measured at the outlet of the Low Pressure Turbine
while other engine manufacturers measure it between the first and second stage of Low Pressure
Turbine. As the name suggests, Interstage Turbine Temperature is measured between the high
and low stages of turbine.
Typically, there are a number of EGT sensors arranged axially around the turbine with their
outputs being averaged and in most cases, adjusted for ambient temperature. EGT Probes are
connected by wires and their length/gauge is critical. The majority or EGT recording systems use
a resistance circuit so any adjustments or repairs to wring will have an effect on the display. The
adjustment for ambient temperature may occur in a junction box or in the cockpit indicator.
Temperature sensors in turbine
Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT) displays may be digital or traditional analog indicators. Digital
displays will often include a simulated sweep needle and a digital display of the temperature.
They can incorporate features that warn pilots or technicians of impending over temperature
conditions (flashing indicators, red lights, or a combination of these effects).
Analog indicators usually feature a sweep needle and a rolling display of the temperature. This
type of gauge does not normally include features for warning of an over temperature condition

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although some incorporate a red warning light integral to the indicator. Both the digital and
analog indicators include color bands around the numerical display to identify normal, caution,
and warning areas for EGT.
Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT) can be displayed in 0C or OF and is considered to be one of the
primary indications and will normally appear in the same general area as rotor speeds.

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When the engine is operated at high power settings, the EGT and ITT displays must be closely
monitored to ensure that engine temperatures do not exceed design limitations. Measurements
for ITT/EGT vary with engine types and the location of the EGT probes depends on the number
of turbine stages in the engine and on the manufacturer's design. Generally speaking, the EGT
values of different types of engines cannot be compared because of the differences in locations
of the probes.
As the engine time increases, the erosive effects of materials such as sand, salt, and dirt cause
inefficiency in the compressors. The decrease in engine performance is compensated by adding
more fuel to achieve the same amount of power and so the amount of wear and erosion on the
engine will further increase. Most engine manufacturers provide instructions for compressor
cleaning (compressor wash) that can help to reduce the effects of compressor contamination. In
many cases, the EGT on an engine that has undergone a compressor wash is significantly lower
and can extend engine life.
Engine Thrust Indication: Engine Pressure Ratio, Engine Turbine

Discharge Pressure or Jet Pipe Pressure Systems
Engine thrust is usually determined in a test cell environment where additional sensors are
installed to measure the total thrust. Engines installed on an aircraft are somewhat limited in
what can be measured and so many of them use Rotor Speed as an indication of thrust. Some
engine types use a system called Engine Pressure Ratio (EPR) which determines the ratio of
input to output air pressures generated by the engine. The measurements may be simple fan
pressure increases (as used on many Rolls Royce engines) or they may measure the ratio
between the fan inlet and turbine exhaust. At idle, most EPR indicators display a value close to
1.0 as there is only marginal increase in air pressures at low power settings. As the throttle is
moved forward, the ratio rises and is displayed as EPR in the flight deck. Some aircraft/engine
combinations use EPR as their primary thrust setting and takeoff targets are identified as an EPR
setting. Because EPR is a comparison between inlet and exhaust pressures, there are no units
attached to the display, it is simply a ratio.

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As an alternative to EPR, engine shaft speeds (NI, N2, or N3) can be used to identifr thrust.
Generally speaking, a 1% increase in EPR results in a 1% increase in engine thrust however the
ratio is not linear when using shaft speeds to determine thrust. In some cases, a 1% rise in NI
speed can result in up to 4% rise in thrust. Engines using EPR as their primary indication for
thrust will usually use the NI speed as a cross-reference for accuracy.
Oil Pressure and Temperature
Oil pressure and oil temperature gauges are installed in the cockpit to advise the flight crew and
technicians of the lubrication system status. Aircraft can normally display oil pressure, oil
temperature, and oil quantity. In addition to these displays, there are usually warning lights to
advise the crew of low oil pressure and oil filter bypass conditions.
Oil temperature can be measured in OF or oC. Oil pressure is measured in Pounds per Square Inch
(PSI) or in Bars.
Aircraft also provide warnings for impending oil filter bypass and use a differential pressure logic
to trigger the warning. If the ratio of input pressure and output pressure exceeds a certain value, a
light or cockpit message will display.
Some engines regulate oil pressure while other engines allow oil pressure to increase and decrease
according to the speed of the gearbox (which is driven by the high pressure rotor shaft). In both
cases, the engine manufacturer will provide safe limits for oil pressure and temperature.

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Low oil pressure may occur when the engine oil temperature is very high, when the filter is
clogged, or when the oil quantity is very low.
High oil pressure can occur when engine oil temperature is very cold (high viscosity oil).
EASA MCQ
High oil temperatures can be a sign of bearing damage or of a failure in the fuel-oil heat exchanger
system.

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Fuel Pressure and Flow the spar valve prevent from leakage due to broken line
Fuel pressure indicators or digital displays (on EIS type aircraft) are an indication of the fuel
pressure entering the high pressure stage of the LP/HP pump assembly. In some cases, fuel
pressure on an engine that is not running will display boost pump pressure that is being fed from
the fuel tank pumps. However, a much more common configuration places a spar shut off valve
in the circuit so fuel pressure will indicate "o" until the spar valve is open. Once the spar valve is
open, fuel entering the High Pressure pump in the combined LP/HP pump assembly is measured.
This is sometimes referred to as "inter-stage fuel pressure" as it is measured between the LP and
HP sections of the pump assembly. As the engine rotates, output from the LP section of the
pump assembly increases and displays on the fuel pressure indicator.
Fuel flow is displayed in the flight deck in either Kilograms per Hr (Kg/Hr) or in Pounds per
Hour (PPH). The display measure the volume of fuel consumed over a specific measure of time
and is converted to KG/ H or PPH. Fuel flow is measured at the outlet of the Fuel Control Unit
(either the FCU, MEC, or HMU) just before it enters the fuel nozzles. Specific maintenance
handling instructions are to be followed when replacing a Fuel Flowmeter unit. They can be
susceptible to air entrapment which is seen as an erratic or inaccurate fuel flow display in the
flight deck.

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Fuel flow is measured in the FMU. In addition to the fuel flow display, the pilots are provided
with information about the amount of fuel currently on board on the FOB (fuel on board)
display.

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Engine Speed
Engine rotor speed is a common means of determining engine thrust. Aircraft indication systems
do not generally measure the RPM of the engine but rather, they measure the percentage of speed
in reference to a design value determined by the engine manufacturer. For example, if a shaft
speed displays 60%, it means that the shaft is turning at 60% of its designed operating speed.
Some engines use two rotors, identified as NI (Low Pressure Rotor speed) and N2 (High
Pressure Rotor speed). The relationship between the two rotor speeds is not linear and is affected
by temperature, barometric pressure, VSV position, and VBV position. The aircraft maintenance

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manual identifies maximum rotor speeds for NI and N2. Some engines are designed with three
rotors, referred to as Low Pressure (LP), Intermediate Pressure (IP), and High Pressure (HP).
This type of engine will include rotor speed displays for NI, N2, and N3 and each rotor has its
own compressor, turbine, and drive shaft. Test equipment or engine manufacturer's data can
sometimes be used to convert the percentage of rotor speed indication to actual RPM values
(within a certain temperature and barometric pressure value) when required for engine testing.
actual RPM x %
Under certain circumstances, the displays may read values above 100%. This is due to the fact
that the reference value is set during engine development. When performance enhancement
measures are carried out, the shaft speeds increase but the reference value remains constant. In

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most engines, shaft speeds above 100% are only used in emergency situations and for a limited
amount of time. Some engines can operate at shaft speeds of up to 120% for short periods.
During engine start, the high pressure shaft speed (N2 or N3 on three spool engines) is monitored
by the crew as an indication of when to introduce fuel to the combustor. Generally speaking, fuel
is introduced at the maximum motoring speed of the N2 or N3 shaft.
On turboshaft engines, the engine speed is displayed in RPM rather than as a percentage of the
design limit and is an indication of propeller speed.
Vibration Measurement and Indication
Engine vibration is displayed in the flight deck and usually incorporates two or more vibration
sensors installed on the engine. A typical installation uses a vibration sensor in the "A" sump
area of the engine and measures total displacement of the fan shaft during operation. A second
sensor is mounted externally on the turbine rear frame area to measure vibration in the high or
low speed turbine area. By its nature, the turbine sensor is prone to pick up extraneous vibrations
where the fan sensor being mounted internally, is much less susceptible.

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The signals from the vibration sensors are sent to either an Airborne Vibration Module (AVM)
or to the EEC (on FADEC aircraft). In both cases, signals from the sensors are filtered and
averaged over a period of time before being sent to the flight deck for indication. On some
aircraft, the AVM can be used to perform a trim balance procedure.
Engine vibration can create significant damage over a period of time and most aircraft
maintenance manuals include maximum limits for safe operation.
these accelerometers convert acceleration=> velocity=>distance

Vibration sensors are usually accelerometers, which capture the magnitude of the acceleration in
a defined direction. Using integration operations, this acceleration can be converted into a
velocity, which, again by integration, gives the distance by which the component is deflected.
The sensors used are mainly piezoelectric sensors or micro-electro-mechanical systems

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MEMS micro-electro-mechanical senser = accelerometer senser
(MEMS). Piezoelectric sensors capture pressure differences which they convert into electric
energy using the Piezo effect. This voltage is translated into an electronic signal which is
processed by an Airborne Vibration Monitoring Unit (AVM) or by the EEC on some FADEC
engines. MEMS are inertia-based sensor systems. The acceleration displaces a body (comparable
to how the driver of a car is pushed into the seat when accelerating) and this deflection can be
measured and transmitted to the AVN'I or EEC as an electronic signal.
Torque
Turboshaft engines include a display for torque in addition to rotor speeds. Torque is an
important measurement on turboshaft engines and will help to prevent overloading the gearbox
with resultant failure. Torque meters are installed in the reduction gearbox and measure the total
axial force produced by the gearbox before it is transmitted to the propeller or rotor. Torque
values are displayed in the flight deck as a pressure (PSI) or as a percentage of the maximum
allowable torque (100%).

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Torque is measured indirectly through oil pressure changes in a housing. The cylinder is attached
to a gearwheel and is aligned in parallel with the drive shaft. A change in torque causes an axial
force that moves the piston within the housing. The housing contains oil, which is compressed or
decompressed in response to the movement of the piston. Because the oil pressure is proportional
to the torque applied to the gearbox, it can be used to derive the torque figure.
Another approach to measuring torque uses the torsion angle of the shaft, which is measured by
two sensors.
Power
Aircraft do not include a separate indicator that identifies "Power", but rather, the crew or
maintenance technicians use all of the available parameters to determine if the engine is
producing sufficient power for operation. For turbojet and turbofan engines, power is determined
by either EPR, NI, N2, N3, or EGT. By viewing all of the available parameters for rotor speeds,
engine pressure ratio, and exhaust gas temperature, the crew member can make a decision about
engine power.
On turboshaft engines, rotor speeds, exhaust gas temperature, and torque are used to determine
the engine's power output.

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Multiplying the torque and shaft speed values of a turboshaft engine gives the power output:
P = Power (W or KW)
M = Torque (Nm)
n = Shaft speed (1/s)
The following formula is used for converting the power figure into shaft horsepower (SHP)
delivered in the gearbox:
The shaft speed is usually measured in RPM. The most common power reference for turboshaft
engines is shaft horsepower, which is the power delivered by the propeller or rotor shaft. It
differs from the engine's pure power output due to different losses such as frictional losses that
occur in the gearbox.
Power Augmentation Systems
Operation and Applications
Power augmentation systems are used to increase a jet engine's power output for short periods of
time. Power augmentation systems include water-methanol injection in civil aircraft and
afterburner systems in military fighter jets.
These systems are mainly used during the takeoff phase, when maximum power is required.
They help accelerate the airplane more quickly, thereby shortening the required runway length.
In military aviation, power augmentation systems are used during flight in order to accelerate
airplanes to supersonic speeds and to make them more maneuverable (aerial combat). Power
augmentation systems are controlled from the cockpit. Water injection systems were operated by
the flight engineer, who used to be the third crew member in commercial airliners.
These systems required a few minutes of preparation time before being operable, as the pumps
had to pressurize the water. When the water injection system was ready, a light in the flight
engineer's control panel lit up and the pilots could move the thrust levers forward. At a certain
thrust lever position, a valve opened, injecting water into the engine. After a few minutes, the
system was deactivated.
In military airplanes equipped with afterburners, the afterburner is activated by movement of the

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engine thrust levers. The pilot moves the thrust lever forward and past a small detent to engage
the afterburners
Water Injection, Water-Methanol
Water or water-methanol injection was used during the early jet age (turbojet engines). The
technology was commonly found on civil airplane engines until the mid-1970 s. Water injection
is based on the principle of reducing the engine inlet temperature by injecting water. Reducing
inlet temperature increases the amount of thrust produced by the engine. The degree of power
augmentation depends on the ambient temperature. On hot days, water injection increases thrust
by up to 35%. On colder days (single-digit temperatures), the system only achieves a 5%
nozzle clogged
performance gain. In temperatures around 0o C, the system does not deliver any benefits, as the
water freezes under normal circumstances. The water is injected either in front of the low
pressure compressor, high pressure compressor or directly into the combustion chamber. The
fluid water evaporates due to the high temperatures present, absorbing some of the heat. The
temperature margin between the water-cooled airflow temperature and the engine materials'
melting point can now be closed by injecting more fuel (around 10%), which leads to increased
thrust. Mixing the water with methanol has the advantage of the methanol being burned in the
combustion chamber. The drawbacks of water injection systems include:
• High quality water required (demineralized) Corrosion

• Higher weight due to system components
• Risk of compressor icing at low temperatures
• High thermal stress on hot components that come into contact with the relatively cold
water (thermal shock)
• Potential water pump failure at a critical point in engine operation
In addition to the reasons above, the powerful engines used for single engine takeoff and climb
capability in modern jet airplanes have rendered water injection systems redundant.
Afterburner Systems
Afterburner systems present another approach to power augmentation. Today, afterburners are
used exclusively in military airplanes. Afterburners are based on the principle of injecting fuel
into the hot exhaust gas jet behind the turbine, where it continuously combusts after an initial
ignition. The combustion increases the gas flows temperature and velocity, and with that the
amount of thrust produced by the engine. Afterburner systems consist of the following
components:

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• Diffusor:
The airflow is decelerated behind the turbine in order to keep its velocity within the subsonic
range at the afterburner outlet. Supersonic airflow velocities would choke the combustion
chamber. The airflow is slowed to Ma = 0.25.
• Jet pipe:
The afterburner jet pipe is a tube, whose inner walls are protected by a perforated heat
shield. The holes in the heat shield allow cooling air to enter the combustion section.
Temperatures in the combustions chamber reach up to 2,000 K.
• Annular fuel manifolds:

Most afterburners comprise multiple annular fuel lines (fuel manifolds) that feature small
holes through which the fuel sprays into the combustion chamber at pressures of up to
35 bar.
• Flame stabilizers:
The fuel manifolds hold c-shaped "flame stabilizers" arranged in a circle within the
combustion chamber. The flame stabilizers make the hot gas flow turbulent to mix it with
the injected fuel, stabilizing the combustion process. Some afterburners feature multiple
flame stabilizers arranged one above the other with a slight axial shift.
• Ignition system:
The initial ignition of the fuel-air mixture requires an igniter plug or an ignition catalyst.
Ignition catalysts are special materials with whose surface the mixture reacts and ignites.
• Variable area nozzle:

Engines equipped with afterburners usually feature adjustable thrust nozzles. Convergent-
divergent nozzles with an adjustable divergent section are the most common layout. The
divergent section opens continuously in proportion to the increasing mass flow, accelerating
the exhaust jet.

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Afterburners do not feature any rotating components as those would be subject to high thermal
stress. The afterburner is the hottest section of the engine, with temperatures of up to 2,000 K.
Activating the afterburner can increase the engine's thrust output by up to 60%, while using
enormous amount of fuel. Fuel consumption grows by up to 100% when flying with the
afterburners on. This is the reason why afterburners are used for short periods only.

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Turbo-Prop Engines
Gas Coupled I Free Turbines and Gear Coupled Turbines
Turboshaft engines are classified as either free turbines or gear-coupled turbines. Modern
turboprop aircraft use a free turbine configuration in which a separate turbine section drives the
free turbine is compressor free turbine
propeller. The separate turbine is referred to as the Power Turbine. Free turbine engines are
equipped with two turbines. A high pressure turbine situated directly behind the combustion
chamber drives the compressor. A second turbine downstream of the high pressure turbine drives
the reduction gearbox, which in turn, drives the propeller.
In gear-coupled turbines, the entire turbine is coupled to both the compressor and propeller
reduction gearbox.

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Turboprop Engine

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The free turbine turboshaft engine layout allows both the power turbine that drives the propeller
and the actual turbine engine (compressor, turbine) to spin at their individual optimum speed,
which increases efficiency. This separation means that the gas turbine can be brought up to speed
during start without consideration for the weight and forces required to turn the propeller. The
propeller can be kept stationary using the propeller brake while the engine keeps running during
ground handling. Doing so provides the aircraft with power without endangering ground
personnel with the spinning of propellers. During taxiing, the de-coupled engine reduces noise
emissions, as the propeller turns more slowly than if it were coupled directly to the gas generator.
Furthermore, gearbox and propeller vibration is not transmitted to the gas turbine.
Reduction Gears
Reduction gearboxes are used to reduce the high shaft speeds of the turbine or power turbine to
lower levels. This reduction is necessary as the propeller blade tips would otherwise enter the
supersonic speed range which can lead to blade damage. The opposite of a reduction gearbox, a
gearbox that increases the input speed level, is called step-up gear unit. The reduction of shaft
speed is achieved by coupling a small diameter gear wheel on the input shaft to a large diameter
gear wheel on the output shaft. The two gear wheels interlock, making the large gear wheel
rotate at a slower rate than the small gear wheel. If the small gear wheel completes one complete
revolution, the larger gear wheel may only do half a rotation. The small gear wheel turns twice as
fast as the larger one — or the larger one turns half as fast as the smaller one. The ratio of the
gear wheels' angular velocities is called reduction ratio (vice versa: step-up ratio). The ratio is
proportional to the gear wheels' diameter. The larger the difference in diameter is, the high the
reduction ratio becomes. The gearboxes used in turboprop engines are usually planetary
gearboxes with reduction ratios between 5 and 20. Planetary gearboxes consist of the following
components:
• Ring gear
• Planet gears
• Sun gear
ring gear
The sun gear is the outer ring of the gearbox and features internal gearing. The gear wheel in the
center of the gearbox is called sun gear, as it only rotates around its own axis. A number of
planetary gears find their place between the sun gear and the ring gear. The planetary gears rotate
around their own while that axis circles the sun wheel — like planets that circle the sun (the
name). The gear wheels sit on axially aligned shafts. Planetary gearboxes can be operated in
different modes by holding none, one, two or three of the components and making the other
components rotate around the stationary gear wheel or wheels.

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Reduction gearboxes for turbine engines have to fulfill a number of requirements. Firstly, the
reduction gearbox has to be highly reliable, as it is the component that transfers power from
engine to propeller. If it fails, the propeller is left without drive, substantially impacting the
aeroplane's performance and handling characteristics. Furthermore, the gearbox has to be
compact and light in order to keep aerodynamic drag and fuel consumption to acceptable levels.
In a turboprop engine, the gearbox accounts for between 25 and 30 percent of the engine's total
weight. Moreover, the gearbox has to be highly efficient. Like an engine, a gearbox has an
efficiency that captures what percentage of the input power is maintained at its output shaft.
When the gear wheels intermesh, they generate friction, which is a translation of mechanical to
thermal energy. Modern gearboxes exhibit efficiencies of 0.98 to 0.995, which means that
between 0.5 and 2 percent of engine power is converted into heat and isn't available for driving
the propeller.
Integrated Engine and Propeller Controls
Integrated engine and propeller controls mainly serve for keeping engine and propeller
parameters within their limits, ensuring efficient operation. Most turboprop engines are equipped
with constant speed units (governors) that keep the propeller's speed at a predefined level
independent of the engine's torque or power output. They control propeller pitch which is the
main factor for propeller speed and the amount of drag produced by the propeller.
The constant speed propeller governor uses centrifugal force to move spring loaded weights
outwards when the propeller achieves a certain speed. The centrifugal force overcomes the
spring force that holds the weights together. Deflecting the weights opens a valve that allows oil
to flow out of or into an actuator. The actuator adjusts the propeller blades' pitch. The principle
works in both directions. If the propeller speed drops, the weights are pulled towards the shaft's
axis and the propeller blades' pitch is adjusted into the opposite direction. The constant speed
unit has a flight and a ground mode. In flight mode, it automatically adjusts blade pitch and fuel
flow. In ground mode, blade pitch can be adjusted independent of the constant speed unit using
the power levers. Pulling the power levers fully back reduces pitch into the beta area, where the
propeller produces reverse thrust.

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Constant speed units have the advantage of automatically maintaining a propeller speed defined
by the manufacturer or in some cases, by the cockpit crew. This means that the pilots are freed of
the task of manually adjusting the propeller speed during flight state changes (change in altitude
or airspeed). Propeller speeds have to be kept within a tight window as turboprop engines only
produce their maximum power within that window. Increasing propeller pitch also increases the
amount of torque the propeller requires to maintain its speed. Reducing the propeller blades'
pitch conversely reduces the required torque. If the pilots choose a higher power setting, the
propellers are adjusted to a higher pitch angle, maintaining the given speed. The actual power
increase is affected by injecting more fuel into the combustion chamber. The constant speed unit
is therefore connected to the fuel metering unit.
Overspeed Safety Devices
Overspeed protection devices protect the propeller speed from exceeding the predefined limits.
The propeller's spinner houses an overspeed governor comprising centrifugal weights and a

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hydraulic cylinder, which is filled with oil through a valve. Should the propeller exceed the
speed limit, the centrifugal forces overpower the spring load and the centrifugal weights that sit
on the shaft move outwards. The weights open the valve and the oil flows into the cylinder,
moving the piston forwards. This forwards movement adjusts the propeller blades' pitch to slow
it down.

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The type of overspeed safety device described above is common however some engine/propeller
systems use electronically controlled devices instead of the spring and flyweight arrangement.
This helps to provide finer control while reducing weight and space requirements.
Turboshaft Engines
Arrangement
Turboshaft engines are similar in construction to turboprop engines but are most often used in
helicopter or auxiliary power unit applications. They can be used where there is limited space as
they tend to be compact and so they are a good choice as an auxiliary power unit because they
have a very good power to weight ratio.
Turboshaft engines usually induct air into the compressor from intakes on the sides. Most often,
turboshaft engines use radial compressors because they can deliver a higher stage pressure ratio
than an axial style compressor. Large turboshaft engines may combine multiple stages of axial
compressor with a final radial compressor stage. Combustion chambers are usually arranged in a
reverse flow style to save space. Turboshaft engine turbines can be either an axial or radial type.
Turboshaft engines are classified as free turbine or gear coupled turbine designs. If the gas
turbine's shaft drives the connected load directly, it is classified as a gear coupled turboshaft
engine. This configuration is used where the load must react quickly to power changes but
otherwise operate at a constant speed. The electric generator on an APU is an example of such a
load.
Free turbine turboshaft engines feature a separate second turbine section that is responsible to
exclusively power the load. This type is used when loads have to be accelerated quickly or where
high moments are required.
In helicopters, the engine is placed in proximity to the main gearbox, which in turn is situated
close to the main rotor. Helicopter engines are usually found in the upper fuselage section above
the cabin. Because the engine and gearbox are the heaviest components, they must be placed
centrally within the fuselage in as small a space as possible. Airplane APUs are usually located
in the aft fuselage section.

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Drive Systems
Turboshaft engines may drive a single or double drive shaft to power different loads. The loads
can vary and this type of engine can be used to drive the main rotor for a helicopter, turn an air
compressor, or drive a generator for an auxiliary power unit. Turboshaft engines do not produce
significant thrust and their primary purpose is to drive a rotor or accessories. In most cases, the
drive shaft connects to an accessory drive gearbox which can then power multiple components
(compressors, pumps, generators).

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Depending on the engine, the engine driveshaft exits the engine casing at the front, back, or in
both directions. The shaft flanges are attached to two spur gears. The first gearwheel connects to
a spur gearwheel or a bevel gear that powers the accessory drive. Spur gears are used where the
input and output shafts are parallel to one another and bevel gears are used in all other cases.
The following components are connected to the accessory gearbox:
• Fuel pumps
• Hydraulic pumps
• Oil pumps
• FADEC electric generator
• Tachometer generator for measuring engine speed
• Starter-generator
• Starter
• Fuel metering unit
The second gear wheel on the drive shaft connects the drive shaft to the reduction gearbox that
transfers power to the main rotor.

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Reduction Gearing
Like the reduction gearbox on a Turboprop engine, the Turboshaft engine requires a means of
reducing the high drive shaft speed to a more suitable speed for driving a load. The Turboshaft
engine also uses a reduction gearbox that can output anywhere from 6000-8000 RPM for
accessory drives to a few hundred RPM for helicopter main rotors. The reduction gearbox is
comprised of multiple gears and intermediate shafts to achieve the required reduction ratio.
Reduction within the gearbox occurs in stages which helps to transmit the high forces and
moments. The main rotor gearbox, which usually employs a planetary gearbox layout, is
connected to the reduction gearbox output shaft. The main rotor is connected to the main rotor
gearbox as is the tail rotor connection which requires a long driveshaft. A small reduction
gearbox in the aircraft's tail boom adjusts the driveshaft speed for the tail rotor. If the engines are
installed horizontally, the main gearbox redirects the force from the horizontal engine output
shaft to the vertical shaft orientation of the main rotor using a pair of cone gear wheels.
Couplings
Helicopters are equipped with a coupling between the main rotor and the engine. In case of an
engine failure, this coupling automatically decouples the two assemblies in order to allow the
rotor to keep rotating and provide the required lift. In a helicopter, the lift is created by the
turning rotor blades. If the engine fails and the rotor becomes stationary, it can no longer
generate lift, unlike aeroplanes where the wings can produce lift even after an engine failure. It is
therefore vital to include a coupling, usually a freewheeling unit within the main gearbox. A
freewheeling unit is comprised of an array of rollers that sit between the hollow driveshaft (on
the outside) and the output shaft (inside). The output shaft features cams which, as they are
angled, jam the rollers between the two shafts achieving force-closure. The decreased space
keeps the rollers in position and allows force transmission. When the engine is started, the
driveshaft turns faster than the output shaft, jamming the rollers between the two shafts and
accelerating the output shaft. During flight, the two shaft operate in the same direction at the
same speed and the rollers rotate with the two shafts so the connection remains closed. If the
engine fails, the drive shaft slows down in relation to the output shaft, eventually coming to rest.
Now, the rollers are moved out of position by the cams. As the distance between drive shaft and
output shaft is now larger than the rollers' diameter, the force closure is broken. The output shaft
and drive shaft are uncoupled, while the gearbox is driven by the rotor to provide energy for the
auxiliary devices (generators, pumps).
In single shaft engines, there is an additional clutch for starting the engine and rotor. During
start- up, the engine (turbine, compressor) has to be accelerated first before it is able to get the
relatively heavy rotor unit up to speed. Turboshaft-engine helicopters are equipped with a
centrifugal clutch for this purpose. Above a certain drive shaft speed, centrifugal weights in the

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clutch move outwards and close the connection between engine and main gearbox (and the main
rotor).
Working principle of a freewheeling unit

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Freewheel clutches facilitate autorotation landings in case of an engine failure. Autorotation is a

flight state in which the main rotor of a rotorcraft (e.g. helicopter) is driven solely by the airflow
passing through it. Initiating autorotation allows for a controlled descent and safe landing.
The ratio of engine power and propeller (rotor) weight in a helicopter is significantly lower than
for turboprop aeroplanes. Rotor and main transmission are rather heavy components and carry
substantial inertia. This means that accelerating a rotor requires more force than accelerating a
light turboprop aircraft propeller. This is why single shaft engines are initially decoupled from
the rotor system, allowing the engine to speed up before closing the clutch and accelerating the
rotor. The clutches used are mainly centrifugal clutches. Centrifugal clutches consist of a spline
hub, centrifugal weights, tension springs and a clutch case. The spline hub, to which the
centrifugal weights are held by the tension springs, attaches to the drive shaft. The clutch case is
part of the output shaft. With increasing drive shaft speed, the centrifugal force acting on the
centrifugal weights overcomes the spring force holding them on the spline hub. The weights
move outwards, contacting the clutch case and making force closure. The output shaft starts to
rotate, driving the rotor. If the drive shaft slows down, the weights move back inwards as the
spring force exceeds the centrifugal force.
Free turbines make do not require clutches, as the main engine can accelerate independent of the
power turbine. The rotor can be accelerated in sync with the engine.
Control Systems
Modern turboshaft engines are controlled and monitored by Electronic Engine Control Units
(ECU) operating within a FADEC system. Previous versions of turboshaft engines used
traditional fuel control units with protections built in for overspeed and over-torque. Turboshaft
engines that use a FADEC control usually have a dual channel ECU to ensure redundancy in the
event of a lost input or ECU channel failure. Turboshaft engines monitor some different
parameters than were discussed on the Turbofan engines and include:
• Core Engine Speed (Ng)

• Power Turbine speed (Np) in a twin-shaft turboshaft engine
• Turbine gas temperature (TGT)
• Compressor inlet and outlet pressure
• Gearbox torque
• Fuel flow
• Oil pressure and temperature
Turboshaft engine rotor speeds are usually maintained at a constant 100% and there are control
systems that ensure that rotor speed and torque values are not exceeded. If an engine rotor speed

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or torque becomes excessive, a signal is transmitted to the EEC to reduce or cut the fuel supply.
In twin engine helicopters, the engine control systems also synchronize the two engines by
ensuring that that the engines deliver the same amount of power when in normal operation. Some
engines are equipped with adjustable guide vanes at the compressor inlet. The guide vanes are
controlled by the ECU or FADEC in order to increase or decrease the amount of air that enters
the engine. Doing so controls the engine's power output and prevents compressor surge or stall.
In addition to controlling the engine's continuous operation, the FADEC may include storage and
recall for engine operating parameters for technician recall and troubleshooting.
Auxiliary Power Units (APUs)
Purpose
Auxiliary Power Units (APU's) are small turboshaft engines that enable an aircraft to be self-
sufficient by providing electrical and pneumatic power. Most large aircraft (passenger and
cargo), are equipped with an APU. Most APU's are installed in the aft section of an aircraft to
isolate the airport ramp area from noise and exhaust however some previous applications had the
APU installed in the wheel well or in one of the cargo bays. The APU normally uses its own
battery or the aircraft's main battery to start.

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The APU provides the airplane with electric and pneumatic energy. Electric energy is required
for the on-board power supply, while the pneumatic pressure is mainly used to start up the
engines and for cabin air conditioning. On most aircraft, the APU can be used both on the ground
and in flight although there are restrictions for pneumatic supply requirements above certain
altitudes. APUs are mainly used to provide electrical and pneumatic power when there are no
facilities for ground support as their specific fuel consumption is fairly high. During flight, the
APU may be started to supply an electrical bus if an engine generator fails. APUs are of special
importance on ETOPS flights. ETOPS is an acronym for "Extended-Range Twin-Engine
Operational Performance Standards" and describes the requirements for multi-engine aircraft
operations in areas where, in case of a technical problem (especially engine failures), alternative
airports can only be reached after prolonged flight. ETOPS was initially used for the certification
of twin-engine aeroplanes but is now also applied to aeroplanes with more than two engines.
These areas include oceans and remote land masses (e.g. deserts).
ETOPS requirements are based on the distances between suitable landing airports for the aircraft
type and ETOPS requirements are identified by "minutes". Airline routes are chosen to comply
with the approved ETOPS time between suitable airports and vary from 60-370 minutes. ETOPS
times are regulated by government agencies after application by the manufacturer and individual
airlines. On twin engine airplanes, the APU provides some relief for the loss of electrical power
associated with an engine failure and so the APU is subject to additional maintenance
requirements on ETOPS flights.
Operation
The Auxiliary Power Unit is a type of turboshaft engine and operates very similar to other gas
turbine engines. Most aircraft use the APU while on the ground to provide ground services such

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as electrical power and pneumatic air for air conditioning, however modern aircraft may allow
APU operation up to 25,000 feet. APU's operating at higher altitudes will have special
considerations for fuel control due to the change in air density.
The APU inlet air usually enters the compartment through an opening in the aft fuselage sidewall
although some aircraft alter this configuration. This inlet is normally closed when the APU isn't
operating to help prevent foreign object damage. Most APUs feature two-stage radial
compressors. The first compressor (also called the load compressor) provides pressurized air for
the cabin air conditioning system and main engine start (often referred to as the MES mode). The
second radial compressor upstream of the combustion chamber is part of the actual gas turbine
unit and compresses the air for the combustion process. Both compressors are connected to the
same shaft which is driven by the turbine. The APU's compression ratio is between 5 and 7. The
shaft also drives a gearbox which is usually located in the forward section of the APU. The
gearbox in turn powers an electric generator that supplies the electrical busses. Most modern
APUs operate at constant speed and the pressure generated by the load compressor for engine
start-up and cabin air system is controlled using adjustable guide vanes. The vanes open and
close in response to the air demands on the compressor.

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Installed APU

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Protective Systems
The APU is equipped with fire detectors that can generate a cockpit fire warning to the crew or
maintenance technician. In most cases, a fire warning during operation will cause the APU to
shut down, sound a fire warning chime or bell in the flight deck and at the wheel well (main or
nose), and the fire extinguishing circuit will be armed.
Following a fire warning on the ground, some modern aircraft incorporate a small time delay and
then automatically activate the fire extinguishing circuit, discharging the contents of a fire bottle
into the APU compartment. The APU compartment is separated from the fuselage by a firewall
that helps to prevent the spread of an APU fire.
A shaft speed sensor protects the APU from over speeding, while a temperature sensor indicates
excessive temperatures in the APU compartment. In modern APUs, the fire extinguishing system
may activate automatically if the aircraft is on the ground and if no countermeasures have been
taken after a certain amount of time.
An externally mounted red warning light and horn (usually found in the nose or main gear wheel

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well area), can aurally and visually alert ground handling staff in the event of an APU fire. In
many cases, the APU fire extinguishing system can be activated from the same area.
Powerplant Installation
Configuration of Firewalls
Firewalls prevent engine fires from spreading from one engine section to the others. Firewalls
are an integral part of the nacelle. Turbofan engines usually feature two firewalls, one around the
fan and the other around the high pressure compressor. Their exact position varies between
engine types. Firewalls shield potentially inflammable auxiliary systems, such as the fuel, oil,
electric and hydraulic systems from the hot core engine sections (combustor, turbine, nozzle).

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On some engines, the inside of the nacelle is coated with silicon or ceramic compounds that
withstand temperatures of up to 1350 K. These coatings reduce the risk of flames exiting the
engine's side with subsequent damage to the fuselage or wing area.
Wires and lines that pass through firewalls feature fireproof connectors or materials on their pass
through points in order not to weaken the firewall. The engine is usually split into two or three
different venting zones. These zones are supplied with a continuous flow of ambient air that
removes any flammable fumes or gasses. The airflow also cools the systems that are installed in
the nacelle (e.g. EEC, ignition system). The first zone spans the fan or low pressure compressor
area and is enclosed by the front and back firewall. This zone also surrounds the forward part of
the bypass section. The second large venting zone surrounds the core engine area around the high
pressure section, while the third zone wraps around the low pressure section. Zone areas are
variable depending on the engine manufacturer and size of the engine.

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Configuration of Cowlings
Engine cowlings are installed to provide streamlining, to protect engine components and
accessories, and to create an envelope for fire protection systems. Cowlings are attached to the
pylon and are usually separated into forward, mid, and aft sections although some engines have
only a forward and aft cowling. Modern cowlings are constructed of composite material to
reduce their overall weight.
Cowlings can be opened for access to the engine by releasing a number of latches, usually found
on the bottom of the cowl, and then manually lifting the cowl to a position where a "hold-open"
rod can be installed. Many large engines use a power assist to open the fan reverser cowling as
they are very heavy.
Engine cowlings are closed in a specific order and latches are usually closed in a sequence as
well to prevent cowl bowing, bending, or misfit.

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Latches: Left: Cowling Locked Center and right Cowling: unlocked

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like a jet
Some engines are equipped with a combined propelling nozzle through which the bypass airflow
and core engine airflow exit the engine together. These engines feature a third cowling
component that constitutes the common propelling nozzle. Like the pylon, cowlings are not part
of the engine but of the airframe. This means that the technical responsibility for the cowling
configuration lies with the airplane manufacturer and not with the engine manufacturer. In terms
of maintenance and service activities, cowlings are treated as engine components. Cowlings have
to be very light to reduce the aeroplane's overall weight. They are usually made of carbon fiber
composite material.
Configuration of Acoustic Panels
Acoustic panels are installed in the engine inlet, housing, and hub surfaces within the engine to
help reduce the engine noise profile. Most acoustic panels are constructed of a honeycomb
material with a porous structure. Sound waves generated by the engine are absorbed by the
material and overall noise emissions can be reduced by up to 8db.
Operation principle of acoustic panels (left: dissipative attenuation right: reactive canceling)

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Engine sound emissions can be reduced by incorporation of two principles. The first principle is
called dissipative attenuation. Dissipation describes the conversion of different shapes of energy
into heat by frictional effects. The direction of the airflow is of key importance for dissipative
attenuation, as sound can spread both within and against the direction of airflow. In the forward
engine section, the sound waves exit the engine forwards through the inlet, against the direction
of the airflow. Further aft, the waves spread in the airflow direction. It is important for the
effectiveness of dissipative attenuation materials that the mass flow passes along the elements.
The higher the mass flow that flows along the panel, the more attenuation it can provide.
The second approach is based on reactive (absorptive) noise cancellation, as it is the sound
wave's reflection that is absorbed, not the initial arriving wave. The wave is "trapped" within the
material. The effect of acoustic panels using this approach depends greatly on the wavelength.
Reactive cancellation materials are generally optimized for one specific wavelength or
frequency. This is why different thicknesses of these materials are used, providing noise
reduction for a broad frequency range (e.g. noise during start-up and cruise flight). The ratio of
the flow channel's length and width is also of significance for the effectiveness of noise reduction
panels. A long and narrow channel lined with acoustic panels absorbs more noise, as the sound
waves hit the panels more often. Every time a wave contacts the panel, it is attenuated and
reflected.

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Configuration of Engine Mounts
Engines are mounted on pylons that can be a part of the wing or fuselage structure. Engines are
equipped with two solid steel mounts with the forward mount situated near the upper section of
the rear fan or compressor housing and the rear mount situated near the turbine rear frame area.
Most engine mounts also include an isolator assembly to help prevent engine vibration from
transferring to the airframe.
Engine mounts transmit thrust loads to the airframe while thrust links and evener bars are often
used to dissipate the torque that can occur during acceleration. Most pylons use cone bolts to
receive the engine mounts and these require caution during installation. The cones are designed
to guide the engine mounts into place and it is important to fully mesh the engine mount to the
cone bolt before starting the torque procedure. Engine stands (dollies) will normally include
adjustments to enable engines to match the wing's dihedral during installation.
Engine mount layouts

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Engine mounts are positioned where the thrust forces are transferred to the assembly (turbine or
compressor) housing. The forward mounts are usually located above the compressor intermediate
housing while the rear mount is usually attached to the turbine rear frame area. These locations
vary with the engine type and manufacturer but will always be located in the area where thrust
can be safely and efficiently transferred to the airframe.
Engine mounts allow a small amount of engine movement as they must account for the engine's
thermal expansion and contraction. Most large bypass engines include thrust links that provide
additional efficiency in transferring thrust to the airframe as well as acting as anti-torque
controls. The thrust links attach to the forward or aft mount area and are designed to have some
movement as the engine torques during acceleration and deceleration.
Engine mounts are particularly critical components as a failure could lead to an engine falling off
the pylon with potentially disastrous results. Engine mounts are therefore designed according to
the fail-safe principle, ensuring that the failure of a component does not lead to a failure of the
entire assembly.
Configuration of Anti-Vibration Mounts
Engine mounts are most often equipped with a vibration isolator (dampener) that helps to
dissipate engine vibration before it enters the airframe. Vibration isolators are constructed of an
elastic material that can be sensitive to some chemicals used in aircraft and so it is important to
ensure that they are inspected if they come in contact with a Type IV hydraulic fluid, fuel, or
engine oil.
Use caution when installing engine vibration isolators as there are a number of applications
available for engine-airframe configurations. Some engine types have removal and installation
procedures that dictate a specific order or removal and installation of the isolators.
Anti-vibration engine mounts are especially important in turboprop aeroplanes, as propeller

vibration adds to the engine vibration. In addition to damping by choosing suitable materials,
dynamic vibration absorbers are integrated into the mount's structure. Dynamic vibration
absorbers are spring-mass assemblies that are set up to oscillate at the exact frequency the engine
vibrates at. The vibration absorber's oscillation absorbs the engine's vibration, which can't spread
into the airframe. This type of vibration damping is called vibration neutralisation.

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Configuration of Hoses
Flexible hoses must withstand high temperatures, pressures, and vibration and so the procedures
for their installation must be carefully followed. In some cases, hoses routed near high
temperature areas are insulated or shielded to provide protection. Clamps are used to assist with
hose routing and to keep them secure during engine operation.
Hoses and tubes containing flammable fluids are marked with a colored band with symbols to
identify what is in the hose. The hose manufacturer and manufacture date is also marked in plain
view.
Flexible fuel lines are hoses made with synthetic materials. In order to reduce the likelihood of a
fuel hose leak leading to a fire, the hose can be installed inside of a fire resistant device or a
jacket. Any fuel leak can be safely drained away. The fireproof jacket can be made of stainless
steel or a non-flammable composite material. The jacket is secured to the hose by the use of
grommets or clamps at each end of the jacket. The jacket ends may also be sealed to prevent
entry of unwanted fluids and debris.
Hoses and other flexible fluid lines may be bent to a certain degree but never twisted. Twisting
degrades the capability of the hose or flexible fluid line material to operate under the demanding

M15 P a g e | 173
conditions found in aviation. To help identify a hose with excessive twist, lines are marked on
the outside of the hose. If the lines show a spiral, maintenance action must be undertaken to
relieve the twisting stress on the hose. Possible sources of in-service damage, such as chafing
and excessive heat sources, must also be considered when installing hoses in an engine
compartment.
Configuration of Pipes
Most rigid pipes are constructed of stainless steel to help prevent corrosion. Pipes are carefully
formed to ensure that the minimum bend radii are maintained to prevent internal pressure loss
and to avoid stress points that could result in cracks or erosion. Pipes may be fitted with a variety
of fittings and so during maintenance, it is important to check the type of fitting that is installed.
Long runs of rigid tubing will use clamps to provide support and stand-off from the engine
assembly.
Pipes designed to carry fuel are often double walled or "shrouded" so that any fuel leakage can
be controlled. In most cases, these shrouds lead to a drain point or area that can be inspected for
leakage.
Pipes

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Fuel system pipes are, in some cases, double-walled. An additional pipe surrounds the actual fuel
pipe in order to minimize the effects of a potential leakage.
Configuration of Feeders
Feeders are designed to withstand high temperatures and pressures. They must also demonstrate
resistance to vibration while at the same time, be as light as possible.
Fluid feeder tubes are usually separated from other lines and wires in the nacelle so that any
leakage will not damage the surrounding components, lines, or wiring.
Configuration of Connectors
Aircraft electrical connectors are available in a number of configurations. The most common
style is the "canon plug" style which features a circular connector with a number of "pins" or
connections within its housing. These plugs have a male and female connector and vary in size
from a few mm in diameter to several cm. A positive locking feature is included on these type of
connectors and in some cases, they are also lock wired to structure to prevent migration due to
vibration.

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Electrical pins within the connector are separated by an insulating material and will normally
include lettering or numbering for pin identification. When a single component has a number of
electrical connections, they are usually designed so that the wire connection is unique and cannot
fit another receptacle.
Different connectors shapes on a FADEC
Configuration of Wiring Looms
Most sensors, relays, actuators, and electrical components use wires to transmit and receive
signals. In modern engines, the number of electrically controlled components is increasing as
FADEC uses more and more signals to determine the optimum operating conditions for the
engine.
Wires are usually combined in a wiring loom, which is comprised of a number of individual
wires. Special cable ties hold the wiring loom together to prevent the individual wires from
catching on other components. Wire looms provide rigidity to the wire bundle which assists in
more efficient routing through the engine compartment.

M15 P a g e | 176
On some engines, the wiring looms are color-coded. Wires of the same color belong to an
individual system which makes it easy to recognize and associate them. Using wire loom color is
not a reliable means of component or feeder identification and you should always use the Wiring
Diagram Manual when troubleshooting or repairing an electrical wiring system.
On some engines, the loom color coding uses the following codes:
• Green wires: Engine-aircraft connection

• Yellow wires: Electric system
• Blue wires: Sensors for determining parameters (engine speed, temperature, etc)
• Black wires: Ignition system
Configuration of Control Cables and Rods
Control cables are identified by their number of strands and wires. 7x7 means that the cable
consists of 7 strands, each of which is composed of 7 wires. Other common specifications
include 1.x7 (one strand of 7 wires), 7x19 and IX19. Control cables and rods are made from
stainless steel or are galvanized to improve corrosion protection.

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Control wires either consists of stainless steel or are galvanized. Due to the different number of
strands and wires, some control cables are more flexible or resistant to wear than others.
Configuration of Lifting Points
Lifting points are incorporated on the engine to enable hoist chains, hooks, or fittings to attach
during an engine change. Most engines incorporate four lifting points to ensure that the engine
can be raised or lowered evenly. These lifting points align with fittings on an engine dolly (cart)
so that the engine can be safely positioned when it is not installed on the aircraft. Many styles of
engine carts have a separate engine cradle attached that is used to raise and lower during engine
change.
In addition to the mounting points on the engine, pylons usually incorporate fittings to enable a
chaincupi
"bootstrap" style of chain hoist to assist with engine change. Individual maintenance manuals
describe the correct installation and positioning of these bootstrap fixtures.

M15 P a g e | 178

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Configuration of Drains
Engine drains and drain tubes direct leakage from accessory gearbox drive pads, strut areas,
components, and cowlings and route it overboard. In some cases, drain masts are installed to
remove these fluids while other engines use strategically positioned vent scoops to create a low
pressure area that evacuates the collection points. Engines that are installed on aircraft with low
ground clearance will not usually incorporate a drain mast but will use drain holes and scoops to
evacuate fluid leakage.
Some engines have a drain module where leakage is accumulated before being routed overboard.
These drain modules assist the technician in troubleshooting areas of leakage.

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Engine bleed air can also be used to help draw out or induce fluid in the lines to move towards
the external drains.
Fire Protection Systems
Operation of Detection and Extinguishing Systems
Engines are equipped with individual overheat and fire detection systems that are arranged
according to manufacturer's specifications. They also include a fire extinguishing system that
includes multiple bottles of extinguishing agent. In addition, the APU includes a detection and
protection system for fire or overheat.
Fire or overheat is detected through the use of fire/overheat loops or in some cases, by heat
sensors (switches) that are triggered at certain temperatures. Detection systems will normally use
a dual loop system, where signals from both loops are required before displaying a cockpit
warning.
A number of styles for overheat and fire detection are available with the two most common being

M15 P a g e | 181
resistance style and gas pressure sensors. Older aircraft used separate loops to identify an
overheat or fire situation but most modern aircraft use a discriminator circuit where both loops
are used to identify either overheat or fire conditions. A single loop sensing fire or overheat will
not display a warning until the second loop confirms the condition.
Resistance style detectors use the principle of decreased resistance with increasing temperature
to send a warning to an Overheat and Fire Detection Module which interprets the resistance
change as an overheat or fire condition before sending a warning to the cockpit.
Gas pressure style detectors use gas-filled tubes connected to a responder unit. This type of
detector uses the principle of increasing pressure with rising temperature to trigger the responder
unit and send a signal to the Detection Control Unit. As with the resistance style units, the
detection control unit deciphers the inputs and sends warnings to the flight deck.

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Engine fire extinguishing systems use multiple bottles to assist in fighting an engine fire, usually
two per engine. Fire extinguishing containers are filled with an inert gas that floods the engine
nacelle area and removes the oxygen that is a critical element of the combustion process. Once
the extinguishing circuit has been initiated, the fire bottle will completely discharge and cannot
be shut off.
The inert gas housed in the extinguishing cylinders is released into tubing when an explosive
squib is detonated to puncture a frangible disc. The frangible disc is a lightweight material that is
easily pierced by the squib. The fire extinguishing bottles normally contain two squibs and
frangible discs that are activated by turning a fire handle or pushing a fire discharge switch in the
flight deck. Almost all aircraft power these squibs from the Hot Battery Bus which means that
the squib is enabled whenever a battery is installed and connected. Extreme caution should be
used when the fire system is enabled as it is very easy to inadvertently discharge the cylinders.
Fire handles or switches control the flow of extinguishing agent to the engine and when the fire
handle is pulled, fuel, air, and hydraulic fluid supply is isolated from the engine. In addition, the
fire extinguishing circuit is armed and aural fire warnings in the flight deck are cancelled.
Rotating the fire handle or pushing a discharge switch will fire the explosive squib to release the
agent to the engine or APU.
The APU fire extinguishing circuit typically includes a single cylinder of extinguishing agent.

M15 P a g e | 183
Engine fire extinguishing bottles may be located in the wheel well, in the pylon area, in the cargo
compartment. The APU fire extinguisher is usually located in one of the aft fuselage
compartments.
Fire extinguisher bottles include a yellow and red disc type indicator to provide visual indication
of the bottle status during an inspection. The yellow discharge disc will be ruptured if the bottle
has been discharged normally while the red discharge disc will be ruptured if the cylinder
emptied due to overheat (excessive pressure). In both cases, the fire extinguisher will require
replacement prior to the next flight unless it is an APU extinguisher where it is possible to
dispatch with the APU placarded as unserviceable.
Fire detection loops are usually situated between the cowlings and the turbine/core engine
housing. In addition, a section of loop will protect the area around the accessory gearbox where
pumps and generators have the potential for overheat or fire.
As an alternative to gas pressure sensors, thermistor sensors can be used. These sensors consist
of a tube, which is filled with resistive material and two conductors. Some designs use the tube
itself as a conductor, in which case there is only one conductor in the tube's center. The rigid
tube also serves as protection against external damage. A thermistor is a resistor, whose
resistance changes with temperature. If temperatures increase, the electric resistance of the

M15 P a g e | 184
material drops. The two conductors are used to measure the resistance of the material between
them. If its resistance drops below a certain threshold, an alarm signal is transmitted. This type of
sensor is often referred to by the manufacturers that produce them, Kidde or Fenwal.
Infrared sensors are another type of sensor for fire detection systems. These sensors recognize
flames by the change in the light spectrum in the nacelle and generate a warning when the
spectrum meets a pre-defined value.
Extinguishing agent bottles are inspected at regular intervals in order to ensure their
serviceability. The explosive cartridges (squibs) contain an explosive agent and have a limited
lifetime of 5-10 years. As the material contained in squibs is dangerous, handling, shipping, and
disposing of these components is subject to special regulations.

M15 P a g e | 185
In addition to the fire detection system, engines are equipped with an overheat detection system.
This system provides advance warning of engine overheat conditions and gives the flight crew or
technician an opportunity to determine the cause before a fire warning is generated. The flight
crew or technician may choose to reduce thrust, remove pneumatic, electrical, hydraulic, or fuel
sources, or in some cases, shut down the engine prior to receiving a fire warning.
Engine Monitoring and Ground Operation
Procedures for Starting and Ground Run-Up
Engine ground run ups are conducted to determine system or engine serviceability, or to measure
engine performance. It is very important that personnel conducting engine runs are aware of the
precautions and limitations for engine operation, including wind direction, minimum aircraft
gross weight, maximum starting EGT, minimum oil pressure, and starter operation. Damage can
occur to personnel, equipment, and property if the aircraft is not run in accordance with the

M15 P a g e | 186
maintenance manual requirements. All engine runs must be conducted over secure and sound
surfaces such as concrete to avoid FOD ingestion and blast damage behind the aircraft. No
personnel are allowed within the area described by the maintenance manual during engine
ground run ups and the size of the area varies with the amount of engine power that is applied.
Safety areas for ground run-ups (depending on the engine sizes)

M15 P a g e | 187
Prior to engine start, the brakes must be set and chocks installed. If the aircraft is to be taxied to
another position, the use of chocks may be dependent on company policy. At most airports, the
ground controller must authorize aircraft ground run ups and aircraft movement. Maintenance
personnel usually follow a checklist to ensure that all systems are serviceable and available
during the ground run up.
There are restrictions on operating times when an engine is being run at high power and it is very
important that the aircraft be headed into the wind for this type of run. Use the aircraft
maintenance manual to review all precautions and limitations prior to operating an engine.

M15 P a g e | 188
Staff carrying out ground run-ups are usually trained for the procedures and safety regulations in
a flight simulator or on a carefully supervised live engine run. Company policies normally
describe the minimum staff requirements for technicians conducting engine ground runs and will
provide a description of responsibilities for each run up crew member.
The engine's on-board fire extinguishing is ineffective if the cowlings are open because the
extinguishing agent escapes the engine area quickly. When running engines with the fan
cowlings open, a ground based fire extinguisher is normally in close proximity for use by the
ground support staff when required.

M15 P a g e | 189
The information gained during engine ground run ups must be documented. In addition to
recording the engine parameters, technicians will normally record all ambient conditions
(temperature, barometric pressure, wind direction and speed).
Interpretation of Engine Power Output and Parameters
Interpreting engine power output and acceptable parameters can require some experience. There
are a number of aids available to assist in this interpretation, including manufacturer's manuals
for Fault Isolation. Trim tables identify the target values for engine parameters and give
tolerances for acceptable operation. When engine runs are being performed to verify a system's
performance, the applicable ATA chapter will usually identify operating limits, pressures, and
temperatures. Those values must be referenced during engine operation to help the technician
make an informed decision as to the serviceability of the system.
The table on the following page lists possible combinations of parameters and their probable
causes in a jet engine. The category "severe damage" includes all types of damage caused by a
combination of factors, where it isn't possible to determine a singular cause, as well as types of
damage that can't be classified into any of the other categories. If flames exit the propelling
nozzle (tailpipe fires), fuel has collected at the bottom of the turbine area and during start, this
fuel ignites, generating flames in the tailpipe. The only effective way of extinguishing a tailpipe
fire is to dry crank the engine because the on-board fire extinguisher system does not protect this
area. The tailpipe area is not normally monitored for fire or overheat.

M15 P a g e | 190
Trend (including Oil Analysis, Vibration and Borescope) Monitoring
Engine performance trend monitoring is conducted over a set period of time and provides good
information for engine condition. Individual engine tests can assist with determining the
condition of an engine at that time (a snapshot) but parameters recorded for trend monitoring
give a much better overall picture of engine performance. Some aircraft include an "Engine
Condition Trend Monitoring" system that records engine parameters at set times and this
information can be used to assist with troubleshooting when required. FADEC engines may
include a download capability that enables the technician to review previous flight history.
Modern aircraft may include this information in a Flight Management Computer (or similar unit)
installed for display in the flight deck.
Trend monitoring enables maintenance organizations to better plan for engine troubleshooting,
repair, or replacement.
Trend monitoring for vibration helps to determine the state of the rotating components such as
compressors, turbines, and gearboxes/bearings. As the engine wears, it is not unusual to see
gradual increases in the amount of vibration and engine manufacturers provide troubleshooting
information for rising or increasing vibration levels.

M15 P a g e | 191
From time to time, a Spectrographic Oil Analysis Program (SOAP) will be performed to
determine the concentration and composition of materials suspended in engine oil. Engine
manufacturers can determine the source of metals or compounds in the oil sample to make
determinations about the serviceability of internal engine parts.
Borescope inspections are used to view internal sections of the engine. A full engine borescope
will involve the removal and reinstallation of many borescope plugs that enable the technician to
view rotors, bearing cavities, seals, and bushings. Borescopes may be flexible or rigid and each
is used in different inspection areas. Interpreting the results of a borescope inspection can be
difficult and requires additional training and experience.
Modern borescope equipment allows video transmission of the area under inspection for viewing
on large screens. This helps the technician to make a much better determination of engine
condition. The borescopes used for visual inspections are usually equipped with adjustable zoom
lenses and have a length of between 1 and 120 mm for rigid and 5 to 500 mm for flexible
devices. The diameter of a borescope is usually between 2 and 10 mm and can be used at up to
120o C. The engine must be cooled down before using borescope equipment. Older style 2D
borescopes do not allow depth measurements of cracks however the more modern 3D borescopes
can provide information to determine the depth of a score or crack.
Boro-Blending is a repair procedure that utilizes borescope technology. It includes a grinding

tool on the borescope's tip that can be used to smooth the edges of small cracks or chips.

M15 P a g e | 192
TM=>ECTM
Engine condition trend monitoring (ECTM) has established itself as an evolution of trend
monitoring. Trend monitoring analyzes the change in specific engine parameters over a period of
time but Engine Condition Monitoring can provide real-time and historical information to
determine engine performance data. The ECTM system also has the ability to interpret data to
determine the condition of engine systems that are not specifically monitored or measured.
Modern engines can transmit specific data to ground stations during flight where this data can be
analyzed in real-time. Engine data transmission may use the ACARS standard (Aircraft
Communications Addressing and Reporting System) or other proprietary systems developed by
specific manufacturers. The real-time feed of information enables the operator to evaluate the
engine condition and schedule possible maintenance activities prior to the next flight.
When analyzing individual parameters, it is important to distinguish between temporary, singular

events and systemic changes in parameters. For example, if the post-flight report identified a
period of increased vibration, the event may have been caused by ambient conditions at the time.
The vibration may have been caused by engine icing or by an environmental change that could
have resulted in a spike in vibration. The event may have disappeared within a few seconds and
the engine could have returned to its normal operating parameters but the ECTM would have
captured the transient condition as a part of its extensive database for engine condition
Oil analysis can be used to determine how bearing and gear wheel wear has progressed. An
impending failure of these components is usually preceded by increased wear which causes an
increase in the number of particles suspended in the lubricant. FADEC-equipped engines may
include an oil debris monitor (ODM) that is used in addition to the metal particle detector. The
ODM determines the number and size of particles and can distinguish between ferromagnetic
(containing iron, magnetic) and non-ferromagnetic materials. If the particle level rises above a
defined level, the FADEC receives a warning message and transmits it to the flight deck for
technician or flight crew awareness.
Inspection of the Engine and Components to Criteria, Tolerances and

Data Specified by the Engine Manufacturer
Engine and engine component inspections are always based on the engine manufacturer's
recommendations and specifications. In addition to the physical engine, manufacturers provide
the operator with the documents required for scheduled and unscheduled maintenance.
Scheduled maintenance is based on defined times (e.g. flight hours) or cycles. It is recurring and
easy to plan. Unscheduled maintenance is carried out after component or system faults have
occurred or defects found during routine scheduled inspections. These incidents may include
foreign object damage, the exceedance of parameters or other damage. The specifications and

M15 P a g e | 193
guidelines for how, when and with which equipment measures are to be carried out are defined
in the aircraft maintenance manual (ANIM).
Technicians and other personnel performing any aircraft maintenance activity must always use
the most current version of the Aircraft Maintenance Manuals.
The maintenance documents issued by the engine manufacturer (also called OEM for "Original
Equipment Manufacturer") are checked and certified by the responsible aviation authority. The
OEMs may define a certain repair procedure or the materials to be used (e.g. special oil). Apart
from fixed values (cycle times, flight hours), maintenance activities can be based on engine
condition (condition-based monitoring). Trend monitoring or ECTM may be used to determine
when the engine requires maintenance. This approach enables more accurate troubleshooting and
can reduce the numbers of "No Fault Found" occurrences that have the benefit of reduced overall
maintenance costs.
Aircraft used in ETOPS operations are subject to more restrictive regulations.
Maintenance can be defined as:
• Servicing: Includes lubricating, cleaning, fluid replenishment, and simple adjustments.

• Inspection: Inspections assess the current state. Activities include measuring, checking and
diagnosing.
• Overhaul: The initial state is restored by replacing and repairing components.
• Modification: Replace, change, or swap components with those demonstrating new
technology.
Organizations offering these services may be referred to as "Maintenance, Repair, and Overhaul"
or "MRO" facilities. Many engine maintenance activities can be completed while the engine is
still mounted on the aeroplane. If the engine has to be removed and disassembled, it is referred to
as an "overhaul" or "shop visit'.
Compressor Washing/Cleaning
Engines operated extensively in salty, dusty, or polluted areas wear more quickly due to the
erosive effects of these contaminants. This additional wear can result in decreased performance
and many manufacturers describe a compressor washing procedure that can help to restore some
of the lost efficiency. Water or water/cleaner mixture is injected into the engine inlet while it
rotates at low speed. Some manufacturers perform this function during a dry motor run while
others require the engine to be at low idle speed. The water or water/cleaner mixture removes

M15 P a g e | 194
dirt and residue from the compressor blades and helps to restore the aerodynamic face of the
blades.
As an alternative to using water as a cleaning agent, coarse ground coal or walnut shells may be
used. This process is called coke or ash cleaning and is more effective at removing dirt both from
the compressor and turbine. Over time, the walnut or coal particles have a substantial erosive
effect on the engine.
In general, cleaning the compressor decreases fuel consumption, engine temperatures, and
increases efficiency and compressor pressure ratio. Cleaning the compressor also increases the
surge margin and contributes to a longer time between engine removals. Core engine cleaning
will help remove loose or flaking contaminants but cannot remove burnt deposits (coking
accumulation) which will require engine disassembly to clean.
Foreign Object Damage
Significant damage can occur to an engine when it ingests foreign materials that include stones,
grass clippings, plastic bags, ramp debris, and birds. This damage has the broad term "Foreign
Object Damage" or FOD.
Modern engine designs feature fan blades that move birds or other foreign objects outwards
during operation so that they pass through the fan bypass rather than through the core of the
engine where they can do significant damage. In some cases, the resultant damage from a bird
strike simply requires removal of the damaged fan blade and reinstallation of a replacement
blade. A visual inspection followed by a borescope inspection is often required following the
ingestion of FOD.
Most airports include containers for ramp personnel to deposit any foreign material found on the
ramp area. Strict adherence to this policy helps to reduce the instances of Foreign Object
Damage during ramp operation.

M15 P a g e | 195
FOD in cruise flight mainly has erosive effects, affecting the engine's performance
significantly over years (e.g. reducing the EGT margin), large foreign objects such as birds and
DOD can cause immediate problems. Usually, the performance decrease makes the EGT rise and
the imbalance caused by foreign objects hitting a blade increases engine vibration. As the
combustor often forms a barrier, mainly the compressor and fan are subject to FOD. FOD can
"cake" to the blades due to the high compressor temperatures. Large FOD can cause damage to
components with a delay (minute, sometimes even hours after the object has hit the engine).
These delayed effects include fires, which ignite as a consequence of clogged cooling air and
secondary airflow channels. If there is a reason to assume an engine has suffered FOD or DOD
(e.g. rising vibration figures) during flight, the engine has to be monitored and checked
thoroughly. Depending on the scope of damage to engine components, this may go as far as
removing the engine from the wing and disassembling individual components (shop visit). In
addition to the technical reasons, these inspections are required legally. In case of a bird strike,
complex and detailed analyzes are carried out to determine how the bird has passed through the
engine (sometimes using UV light). Insurances also require a DNA analysis of the bird as proof.

M15 P a g e | 196
Engine Storage and Preservation
Preservation and Depreservation for the Engine and Accessories/Systems
Engines are preserved and stored if it is not anticipated that they will be put into service for a
period of time. In many cases, this applies to spare engine assemblies which have been
assembled tested, and serviced with the intention of having them available as a spare. The
requirements for preservation depend on the amount of time that the engine is expected to be in
storage. Short term storage generally means that the engine will not be used for up to a period of
four weeks however this definition is provided by the engine manufacturer. Long term
preservation requirements are generally quite significant and include the addition of preserving
fluids, desiccant materials, caps, plugs, and corrosion inhibitors to reduce the amount of moisture
and debris in the storage
The storage area should be controlled to a relative humidity of less than 40% as corrosion can
start when humidity levels are excessively high.
When the engine has been called into service, all caps, plugs, and inhibiting oils must be
removed. Fuel and oil filters are replaced and individual engine systems are tested prior to on-
wing operation. Following installation, the engine undergoes a series of engine run ups to
determine its serviceability and performance.


M15 Gas Turbine Engine: Aviation Training Hub

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M15

GAS TURBINE ENGINE

AVIATION TRAINING HUB

For Training Purpose Only Rev: 00

Ice Protection ............................................................................................................................ 51

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Operation of Engine Air Distribution and Anti-Ice Control Systems..................................... 109

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Example for the presence of potential energy

Epot = 2kg x 9.81 m/s2 x 0.5m = 9.81J

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Sketch for the example on potential energy

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Energy conservation on the example of a pendulum

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• v representing the body's velocity in [m/s]

A ball with a weight of 2 kg traveling at 5 m/s therefore has a kinetic energy of 25 J.

Newton's Laws of Motion

1st law ---change is not possible without changer

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• F being the force [N = kg*m/s2]

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The Relationship between Force, Work, Power, Energy, Velocity,

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The acceleration a can be calculated using the following relationship:

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The Brayton cycle can be split into four process steps:

Steps 1-2 Isentropic Compression isentropic=adiabatic=isotherm

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Steps 3-4 Isentropic Expansion

Constructional Arrangement and Operation of Turbojet Engine s

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Turbojet engine layout

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Constructional Arrangement and Operation of Turbofan Engines

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A turbofan engine features the following assemblies:

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Constructional Arrangement and Operation of Turboshaft E ngines

1. Compressor: Compresses and accelerates the inducted airflow.

Constructional Arrangement and Operation of Turboprop Engines

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1. Compressor: Compresses and accelerates the inducted airflow.

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Choked Nozzle Thrust

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1HP = 735.49875 W respectively 1 W = 0.001359622HP

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Equivalent Shaft Horsepower

Specific Fuel Consumption

Specific Fuel Consumption is a quality parameter for engines. It is defined as follows:

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The thermal efficiency of a turbofan engine is thus calculated as follow: