Definition of Terms
politics and governance, religion, and business.
Science- the word came from the
Latin "scientia," meaning "knowledge." It refers
to the systematic and methodical activity of
building and organizing knowledge about how
the universe behaves through observation,
experimentation, or both.
According to famous American science historian,
John Heilbron (2003), " Modern science is a
discovery of regularity in nature, enough for
natural phenomena to be described by principles
and laws. he also explained that science required
invention to devise techniques, abstractions,
apparatuses, and organizations to describe these
natural regularities and their law-like
descriptions.
Technology- it is the application of scientific
knowledge, laws, and principles to produce
services, materials, tools, and machines aimed at
solving real-world problems. it came from the
Greek word techne, meaning 'art, skill, or cunning
of hand.'
Society- is composed of a group of people living
together in an ordered community.
Wolpert (2005) made an interesting comparison
between science and technology that is helpful in
the study of their interaction with
society, Wolpert explained that reliable scientific
knowledge has no moral or ethical value. It is
meant simply to explain how nature and the
universe work and that the obligation of the
scientists, besides studying the nature of the
universe, is to explain the possible uses and
applications of such scientific knowledge. Along
this line, Wolpert made it clear that science is not
the same as technology. Scientists are not
responsible for the application of knowledge in
technology. He further explained that the very
nature of science is that it is not possible to
predict scientific discoveries and how these
discoveries may be applied. While scientists are
not responsible for the reliable conduct of the
scientific inquiry and its honest interpretation
and dissemination, technological applications of
science are influenced by other sectors such as
Nowadays, advancements in science and
technology have become pervasive. They are
manifested in the activities that humans pursue
and the tools they use every day. The beauty of
this is that an advancement builds upon itself. As
such, humans today live more productive and
more exciting lives than their predecessors.
However, the dynamism and immensity of
scientific and technological progress also pose
challenges and drawbacks to the way humans
live. The introduction of machines tremendously
cut the need for the human workforce and gave
rise to the question of whether machines will
eventually replace humans. The invention of
drugs that cured the previously incurable
diseases introduced new strains of bacteria and
viruses that are resistant to the very same drugs
that once fought them-take an antibiotic-
resistant strain of gonorrhea as an example. The
rise of social media drastically changed the way
humans communicate, interact, and share
information; however, this tends to put people's
privacy at risk. Indeed, science and technology
have served a predominantly double-edged
function.
As problems in science and technology continue
to rise and become more observable, the need to
pay attention to their interactions with various
aspects of human life, e.g. social, political, and
economic, becomes even more necessary. How
the different aspects of society shape and
influence the progression and further
developments of science and technology in the
area of concern of a relatively new academic
discipline called Science, Technology, and Society.
Science and Technology and Society is a relatively
young field that previously independent and
older disciplines, such as the history of science,
philosophy of science, and sociology of science. As
an academic field, STS, according to Harvard
University's Kennedy School (2018) traces its
roots from the interwar period and the start of the
cold war. It was during the period when historians
and scientists found interest in
the interconnections of scientific knowledge,
technological systems, and society. The rise of STS
as an academic field resulted from the
recognition that many schools today do not really
prepare students to respond critically,
reflectively, and proactively to the challenges
posed by science and technology in the
contemporary world.
Dilemma - a situation where a person is forced to
choose between two or more conflicting options
neither of which is acceptable.
Ethical/Moral Dilemmas -are situations where
persons, who are called "moral agents" in
ethics, are forced to choose between two or
more conflicting options, neither of which
resolves the situation in a morally acceptable
manner.
Three Conditions that must be present in Moral
Dilemmas
1. The person or agent of moral action
is obliged to decide about which
course of action is best.
2. There must be different courses of
action to choose from.
3. No matter what course of action is
taken, some moral principles are
always compromised.
Ten Emerging Ethical Dilemmas
1. Helix- a digital app store designed to
read genomes.
2. BlessU-2 Popper- first robot priest
and monk
3. Emotion-Sensing Facial Recognition-
a software being developed to
assess your reactions to anything
such as shopping and playing games.
4. Ransomware- a way of holding data
hostage through the backing and
requiring a ransom to be paid.
5. Textalyzer- a device that analyzes
whether a driver was using his or her
phone during an accident.
6. Social Credit System- a system of
scoring citizens through their actions
by placing them under constant
surveillance.
7. Google Clips- a hands-free camera
that lets the user capture every
moment effortlessly.
8. Sentencing Software- a mysterious
algorithm designed to and courts in
sentencing decisions.
9. Friendbot- an app that stores the
deceased's digital footprint so one
can still chat with them.
10. Citizen App- an app that notifies
users of ongoing crimes or major
events in a specific area.
The social implications of an event or action are
the results, on society or part of society, of the
event or the action. The idea of social
implications can also be extended to a law or a
policy, that is, a planned set of repeated actions.
1. Personalized genetic
tests/personalized medicine
Within the last 10 years, the creation of fast, low-
cost genetic sequencing has given the public
direct access to genome sequencing and analysis,
with little or no guidance from physicians or
genetic counselors on how to process the
information.
2. Hacking into medical devices
Implanted medical devices, such as pacemakers,
are susceptible to hackers. Barnaby Jack, of
security vendor IOActive, recently demonstrated
the vulnerability of a pacemaker by breaching the
security of the wireless device from his laptop
and reprogramming it to deliver an 830-volt
shock.
3. Driverless Zipcars
In three states -- Nevada, Florida, and California -
- it is now legal for Google to operate its driverless
cars. Google's goal is to create a fully automated
vehicle that is safer and more effective than a
human-operated vehicle, and the company plans
to marry this idea with the concept of the Zipcar.
The ethics of automation and equality of access
for people of different income levels are just a
taste of the difficult ethical, legal, and policy
questions that will need to be addressed.
4. 3-D printing
Scientists are attempting to use 3-D printing to
create everything from architectural models to
human organs, but we could be looking at a
future in which we can print personalized
pharmaceuticals or home-printed guns and
explosives. For now, 3-D printing is largely the
realm of artists and designers, but we can easily
envision a future in which 3-D printers are
affordable and patterns abound for products
both benign and malicious, and that cut out the
manufacturing sector completely.
5. Adaptation to climate change
The differential susceptibility of people around
the world to climate change warrants an ethical
discussion. We need to identify effective and safe
ways to help people deal with the effects of
climate change, as well as learn to manage and
manipulate wild species and nature in order to
preserve biodiversity. Some of these adaptation
strategies might be highly technical (e.g. building
sea walls to stem off sea-level rise), but others are
social and cultural (e.g., changing agricultural
practices).
6. Low-quality and counterfeit
pharmaceuticals
Until recently, detecting low-quality and
counterfeit pharmaceuticals required access to
complex testing equipment, often unavailable in
developing countries where these problems
abound. The enormous amount of trade in
pharmaceutical intermediaries and active
ingredients raise a number of issues, from the
technical (improvement in manufacturing
practices and analytical capabilities) to the ethical
and legal (for example, India ruled in favor of
manufacturing life-saving drugs, even if it violates
U.S. patent law).
7. Autonomous systems
Machines (both for peaceful purposes and for
warfighting) are increasingly evolving from
human-controlled to automated, to
autonomous, with the ability to act on their own
without human input. As these systems operate
without human control and are designed to
function and make decisions on their own, the
ethical, legal, social and policy implications have
grown exponentially. Who is responsible for the
actions undertaken by autonomous systems? If
robotic technology can potentially reduce the
number of human fatalities, is it the responsibility
of scientists to design these systems?
8. Human-animal hybrids (chimeras)
So far scientists have kept human-animal hybrids
on the cellular level. According to some, even
more, modest experiments involving animal
embryos and human stem cells violate human
dignity and blur the line between species. Is
interspecies research the next frontier in
understanding humanity and curing disease, or a
slippery slope, rife with ethical dilemmas, toward
creating new species?
9. Ensuring access to wireless and
spectrum
Mobile wireless connectivity is having a profound
effect on society in both developed and
developing countries. These technologies are
completely transforming how we communicate,
conduct business, learn, form relationships,
navigate, and entertain ourselves. At the same
time, government agencies increasingly rely on
the radio spectrum for their critical missions. This
confluence of wireless technology developments
and societal needs presents numerous challenges
and opportunities for making the most effective
use of the radio spectrum. We now need to have
a policy conversation about how to make the
most effective use of the precious radio
spectrum, and to close the digital access divide
for underserved (rural, low-income, developing
areas) populations.
10. Data collection and privacy
How often do we consider the massive amounts
of data we give to commercial entities when we
use social media, store discount cards, or order
goods via the Internet? Now that
microprocessors and permanent memory are
inexpensive technology, we need to think about
the kinds of information that should be collected
and retained. Should we create a diabetic insulin
implant that could notify your doctor or
insurance company when you make poor diet
choices, and should that decision make you
ineligible for certain types of medical treatment?
Should cars be equipped to monitor speed and
other measures of good driving, and should this
data be subpoenaed by authorities following a
crash? These issues require appropriate policy
discussions in order to bridge the gap between
data collection and meaningful outcomes.
11. Human enhancements
Pharmaceutical, surgical, mechanical, and
neurological enhancements are already available
for therapeutic purposes. But these same
enhancements can be used to magnify human
biological function beyond the societal norm.
Antecedent- it is defined as a precursor to the
unfolding or existence of something.
1. Ancient Wheel- People from ancient
civilizations used animals for
transportation long before the
invention of the wheel. No one
knows who exactly invented the
wheel and when. There is, however,
a general agreement that the
ancient wheel grew out of a
mechanical device called the
potter's wheel- a heavy flat disk
made up of hardened clay that was
spun horizontally on an axis. The
invention of the wheel is often
credited to the Sumerians since no
other ancient civilization used a
similar device at the time. Today,
cars, carts, bicycles, and trucks are
just some of the many offshoots of
the wheels invented by the Sumerian
2. Paper- Roughly around 3000 B.C.,
the ancient Egyptians began writing
on papyrus, a material similar to
thick paper. Papyrus is made from
the pith of the papyrus plant cyperus
papyrus. It is lightweight, strong,
durable, and portable. Before the
Egyptians invented the papyrus,
writing was done on stone. With the
advent of the papyrus,
documentation, and record-keeping
become efficient, widespread, and
vast. Through its use, information
dissemination became exponentially
faster. records were kept and stood
the test of time
3. Shadoof- The shadoof was an early
tool invented and used by Egyptians
to irrigate the land. It is a hand-
operated device used for lifting
water. Its invention introduced the
idea of lifting things using
counterweights. Because of this
invention, irrigation and farming
became much more efficient. The
shadoof is also believed to be an
ancient precursor of more
sophisticated irrigation tools. Please
 click the video to watch how the
shadoof is being made and used
4. Antikythera Mechanism- Even before
the invention of the antecedents of
the modern computer, the Greeks
had already invented the ancient
world's analog computer orrery.
Discovered in 1902 and retrieved
from the waters of Antikythera,
Greece. Antikythera mechanism is
similar to a mantel clock and it is
known as the antecedent of modern
clockwork.
5. Aeolipile- Also known as the Hero's
engine, the aeolipile is widely
believed to be the ancient precursor
of the steam engine. It is a steam-
powered turbine that spun when the
water container at its center was
heated, thus making it practically the
first rudimentary steam engine.
Some Inventions During the Medieval Times
1. Heavy Plow- This is one of the most
important technological innovations
during the middle ages. The heavy
plow turned European agriculture
and economy on its head. Clay soil,
despite its being more fertile than
the lighter types of soil, was not
cultivated because of its
heavyweight. However, through the
invention of the plow, it became
possible to harness clay soil.
Professor Thomas Bernebeck
Andersen of the University of
Southern Denmark succinctly
describes the impact of the
invention of the heavy plow:
"The heavy plow turned the European
agriculture and economy on its head.
Suddenly, the field with the heavy,
fatty, and moist clay soil
became those that gave the greatest
yields." Because of this, Europe,
particularly its northern territories,
saw rapid economic prosperity. the
heavy plow stirred an agricultural
revolution in Northern Europe
marked by higher and healthier
agricultural yields.
2. Gunpowder- Around 850 A.D.,
Chinese civilization's alchemists
accidentally invented black powder
or gunpowder. Multiple accounts
suggest that the gunpowder might
have been an unintended byproduct
of attempts made by the Chinese to
invent the exilir of life, which is why
the Chinese called it huoyao or
translated as "fire potion." Prior to
the invention of gunpowder, swords
and spears were used in battles and
wars. Towards the end of the 13th
century, explosive invention crept
into most parts of Europe and Asia.
Since its invention, gunpowder has
allowed for more advanced
warfare. from fiery arrows to
cannons and grenades, gunpowder
has prompted the foundation for the
functionality of almost every new
weapon used in war since its
invention. It ushered in an
unprecedented advancement in
warfare and combat throughout the
Middle Ages
3. Paper Money-Although it was not
until the 17th century that
banknotes began to be used in
Europe, the first known versions of
paper money could be traced back to
the Chinese in the 17th century AD
as an offshoot of the invention of
block printing, which is similar to
stamping. Before the introduction of
paper money, precious metals, such
 as gold and silver were used as
currency. However, the idea of
assigning value to a marked piece of
paper did not immediately become
popular. in fact, when the Mongols
attempted to introduce paper
money into the Middle East market
in the 13th century, it did not gain
immediate success. Nonetheless,
traders and merchants eventually
realized the huge advantage of using
paper money because it was easier
to transport around compared to the
previous forms of currency.
4. Mechanical Clock- Although devices
for timekeeping and recording
sprung from ancient times, such as
the Antikythera mechanism, it was
not until the middle ages that
clockwork technology was
developed. The development of
mechanical clocks paved the way for
accurately keeping track the time.
5. Spinning Wheel- A machine used for
transforming fiber into thread or
yarn and eventually woven into cloth
on a loom. Please click the link to
watch the video about the Spinning
Wheel of India. The Spinning Wheel
encouraged the development of the
industry of fabrics, clothes, and
related products.
6. Printing Press- After the Chinese
developed woodblock printing,
Johann Guttenberg was able to
invent the printing press, a more
reliable way of printing using a cast
type. He utilized wooden machines
that extracted juices from fruits,
attached to them a metal impression
of the letters, and pressed firmly the
cast metal into a piece of paper,
which then made an exact
impression on paper. This general
invention soon evolved to be a
mechanical printing press which was
eventually used all over the world.
Some Inventions During the Modern Age
1. Compound Microscope- A Dutch
spectacle maker named Zacharias
Jansen is credited for the invention
of the first compound microscope in
1590. Together with his father Hans,
Zacharias began experimenting with
lenses by putting together several
lenses on a tube. This led to an
amazing discovery that an object,
when placed near the end of the
tube, can be magnified far larger
than what a simple magnifying lens
can do. Jansen's compound
microscope was an important
progression from a single lens
microscope. It was capable of
magnifying objects three times their
size when fully closed and up to ten
times when extended to the
maximum. Today, the compound
microscope is an important
instrument in many scientific
studies, such as in the areas of
medicine, forensic studies, tissue
analysis, atomic studies, and genetic
2. Telescope- Perhaps the single, most
important technological invention in
the study of astronomy during the
Modern Ages was the practical
telescope invented by Galileo Galilei.
This invention could magnify objects
20 times larger than the Dutch
perspective glasses. It was Galileo
who first used the telescope skyward
and made important astronomical
discoveries, and identified the
presence of craters and mountains
in the moon. Galileo's remarkable
 technological contribution
drastically changed the study of
astronomy. For the first time, it
became clear that the universe is far
larger than previously imagined and
the earth far smaller compared to
the entire universe
3. Jacquard Loom- As the
industrial Revolution reached full
speed, the Jacquard loom was
considered as one of the most
critical drivers of the revolution. Built
by French weaver Joseph Maxie
Jacquard, the Jacquard loom
simplifies textile manufacturing.
Built by French weaver Joseph Maxie
Jacquard, the Jacquard loom
simplifies textile manufacturing.
Prior to the invention of the
Jacquard loom, a drawloom was
used which required two individuals
to operate- the weaver and a
"drawboy"- if figured on textiles
were needed. As such, intensified
manual labor and greater effort had
to be exerted to produce complex
designs. In 1801, Jacquard
demonstrated the ingenuity of his
version of a loom in which a series of
cards with punch holes
automatically created complex
textile designs and made mass
production easier. The Jacquard
loom is also an important
antecedent of modern computer
technology as it demonstrated the
use of punched cards to instruct a
machine to carry out complex tasks.
For further information on a
Jacquard loom, please click the link
to watch the video.
4. Engine- Powered Airplane- Orville
Wright and Wilbur Wright are
credited for designing and
successfully operating the first
engine-powered aircraft. The Wright
brothers approached the design of
powered aircraft and flight
scientifically. Orville and Wilbur
proved the air crafts could fly
without airfoil-shaped wings. Their
pioneering success marked an age of
powered flights. Sans modern
knowledge on aerodynamics and a
comprehensive understanding of
the working of the aircraft wings, the
Wright brothers were brilliant
scientists who paved the way for
modern aircraft technology.
5. Television- The Scottish engineer
John Logie Baird is largely credited
for the invention of modern
television. Baird successfully
televised objects in outline in 1924,
recognizable human faces in 1925,
and moving objects in 1926, and
projected colored images in 1928.
Baird's television technology caught
on really swiftly. In fact, the British
Broadcasting Corporation (BBC)
used this for its earliest television
programming in 1929. Despite being
the first television invented. Baird's
television was later on criticized for
its fuzzy and flickering images,
primarily because it was mechanical
compared to electronic versions that
were developed much later.
1. Gregoria Zara- He invented the
first videophone. A native of Lipa,
Batangas and enrolled at the
Massachusetts Institute of
Technology (MIT) in the United
States, and graduated with a degree
in BS in Mechanical Engineering in
1926. The two-way televisions or
videophones 1955 were patented as a
"photophone signal separator
network."
2. Agapito Flores- He invented
the fluorescent lamp, which is the
most widely used source of lighting
 in the world today. The fluorescent
lamp reportedly got its name from
Flores. The fluorescent lamp,
however, was not invented in a
particular year. it was the product of
79 years of the development of the
lighting method that began with the
invention of the electric bulb by
Thomas Edison.
3. Daniel Dingel- He invented
the water-powered car. Daniel
Dingel started working on a water-
powered car and prototype in 1969.
His hydrogen reactor uses electricity
from a 12-volt car battery to
transform ordinary tap water with
salt into deuterium oxide or heavy
water. However, Dingel's car has
never been patented and
commercialized because of what he
suspects is an anti-Dngel car
conspiracy by multinational
companies.
4. Eduardo San Juan- He invented Lunar
Rover. Eduardo San Juan's invention
is known as the Moon Buggy. The
Moon Buggy was the car used by Neil
Armstrong and other astronauts
when they first explored the moon in
1969. He worked for Lockheed
Corporation and conceptualized
the design of the Moon Buggy that
the Apollo astronauts used while on
the moon. As a NASA engineer, San
Juan reportedly used his Filipino
ingenuity to build a vehicle that
would run outside the Earth's
atmosphere. he constructed its
model using homemade materials.
However, San Juan was not listed as
the inventor of the Moon Buggy in
American Scientific journals, instead,
it was attributed to a Polish inventor.
5. Diosdado Banatao- He invented
the GUI (Graphical User Interface).
Banatao is known for introducing the
first single-chip graphical user
interface accelerator that made
computers work a lot faster and for
helping develop the Ethernet
controller chip that made the internet
possible. In 1989, he pioneered the
local bus concept for personal
computers and in the following year
developed the first Windows
accelerator chip. Intel is now using
the chips and technologies
developed by Banatao.
6. Angel Alcala- He invented
the artificial coral reefs. This was
used for fisheries in Southeast Asia.
7. Roberto del Rosario- He
invented karaoke in 1975. Roberto
del Rosario developed a sing-along
system in 1975 and was patented in
the 1980s called his sing-along
system "Minus-One," now holds the
patent for the device now commonly
known as the" karaoke machine."
8. Juan Salcedo Jr. -He developed
the" Enriched Rice," a variety of rice
fortified with vitamins B1, which
helps prevent beriberi. His discovery
helped in the prevention and
reduction of beriberi in the Philippines
and in other countries.
Other Inventions by Filipino Scientists
1. Electronic Jeepney (e-jeepney)- The
jeepney is perhaps one of the most
recognizable national symbols of the
Philipines and the most popular
mode of transportation in the
country. It is also perhaps one of the
most enduring symbols of Filipino
ingenuity. Jeepneys were designed
and improvised from scratch out of
military jeeps that the Americans left
in the country after WW II.
2. Erythromycin- One of the most
important medical inventions is
Erythromycin. The Ilonggo
scientist Abelardo Aguilar invented
the antibiotic out of the strain of
bacterium called Streptomyces
 erythreus, from which this drug
derived its name.
3. Medical Incubator- World-renowned
Filipino pediatrician and national
scientist, Fe del Mundo, is called for
the invention of the incubator and
jaundice relieving device. Del Mundo
was the first woman pediatrician to
be admitted to the prestigious
Harvard University School of
Medicine. Del Mundo's incubator
was particularly outstanding as it
addressed the state of Philippine
rural communities that had no
electricity to aid the regulation of
body temperatures of newborn
babies.
4. Mole Remover- In 2000, a local
invention that had the ability to
easily remove moles and warts on
the skin without the need for any
surgical procedure shot to
fame. Rolando Dela Cruz is credited
for the invention of a local mole
remover that made use of extracts of
cashew nuts, which are very
common in the Philippines.
5. Banana Ketchup- Filipino food
technologist, Maria Orosa, is
credited for the invention of banana
ketchup, a variety of ketchup
different from the commonly known
tomato.
Intellectual Revolution
The intellectual revolution changed the way
people perceive the influence of science on
society in general. It focuses on three of the most
important intellectual revolutions in history:
Copernican, Darwinian, and Freudian. By
discussing these intellectual revolutions in the
context of science, technology, and society, the
attention of students is drawn again toward the
complex interplay of the various social contexts
and the development of modern science.
Now, let us proceed to the three prominent
scientists who contributed to the field of science
and technology.
Nicolaus Copernicus - one of the three famous
scientists. He postulated a model, known as the
"heliocentric model."
The Copernican Revolution
The Copernican Revolution refers to the 16th-
century paradigm shift named after the Polish
mathematician and astronomer, Nicolaus
Copernicus. Copernicus formulated the
heliocentric model of the universe. At the time,
the belief was that the earth was the center of
the solar system based on the geocentric model
of Ptolemy.
Copernicus introduced the heliocentric model
in a 40-page outline entitled Commentariolus. He
formalized his model in the publication of his
treatise, The Revolution of Celestial Spheres in
1543. In his model, Copernicus repositioned the
earth from the center of the Solar System and
introduced the idea that the earth rotates on its
own axis. The model illustrated the earth, along
with the other heavenly bodies, to be rotating
around the sun.
The idea that the sun is at the center of the
universe instead of the earth proved to be
unsettling to many when Copernicus first
introduced his model. In fact, the heliocentric
model was met with huge resistance, primarily
from the church, accusing Copernicus of heresy.
At the time, the idea that it was not the earth,
and, by extension, not man, that was at the
center of all creation was unthinkable.
Copernicus faced persecution from the church
because of this. However, despite the
persecution and the problems with the model,
the heliocentric model was soon accepted by
other scientists of the time, most profoundly by
Galileo Galilei.
The contribution of the Copernican
Revolution is far-reaching. It served as a catalyst
to sway scientific thinking away from age-long
views about the position of the earth relative to
the position to an enlightened understanding of
the universe. This marked the beginning of
modern astronomy. Although very slowly, the
heliocentric model eventually caught on among
other astronomers who further refined the
model and contributed to the recognition of
heliocentrism. This was capped off by Isaac
Newton's work a century later. Thus, the
Copernican Revolution marked a turning point in
the study of cosmology and astronomy making it
a truly important intellectual revolution. Below is
the Copernicus Theory.
Charles Darwin
Famous for his theory of evolution, which posited
that populations pass through a process of
natural selection in which only the fittest would
survive. He published his book The Origin of
Species in 1589. His book presented evidence
of how species evolved over time and presented
traits and adaptations that differentiate species.
In his book The Descent of Man, he introduced the
idea of all organic life, including human beings,
under the realm of evolutionary thinking. His
unorthodox way of pursuing science gave more
value to evidence-based science. It is a science
marked by observation and experiment.
Sigmund Freud
Sigmund Freud is known for his school of
thought known as "Psychoanalysis." This school
of thought is a scientific method of understanding
inner and unconscious conflicts embedded within
one's personality, springing from free associations,
dreams, and fantasies of the individual.
Psychoanalysis immediately shot into
controversy for it emphasized the existence of
the unconscious where feelings, thoughts, urges,
emotions, and memories are contained outside
of one's conscious mind. Psychoanalytic concepts
of psychosexual development, libido, and
ego were met with both support and resistance
from many scholars. Freud suggested that
humans are inherently pleasure-seeking
individuals. These notions were particularly
caught in the crossfire of whether Freud's
psychoanalysis fit in the study of the brain and
mind.
Scientists working on biological approaches to
studying human behavior criticized
psychoanalysis for lack of validity and bordering
on being scientific as a theory. Particularly, the
notion that all humans are destined to exhibit
Oedipus and Electra complexes (the sexual desire
towards the parent of the opposite sex and
exclusions of the parent of the same sex) did not
seem to be supported by empirical data. In the
same way, it appeared to critics that
psychoanalysis, then, was more of an ideological
stance than a scientific one.
Amidst controversy, Freud's psychoanalysis is
widely credited for dominating
psychotherapeutic practice in the early 20th
century.
Freud discussed the three mental structures of
the mind which are the id, ego, and superego.
These three structures are continuously in
conflict with one another. Also, he mentioned the
stages of psychosexual development of
individuals. The first is the oral stage where the
child gets its satisfaction from the mouth; the
second is the anal stage, the child undergoes
toilet training; the third stage is the phallic stage
where the child develops complexes, the Electra
complex (the girl is attracted to the father) and
the Oedipal complex ( the young boy is attracted
to the mother); the fourth stage is the latency
stage where the child's focus is on education or
learning, and the last stage is the genital stage
where there is a recurrence of the sex organs as
the source of satisfaction.
Pre-Colonial Period
Scientific and technological development in the
Philippines began in the pre-colonial
period. Even before the Spaniards came to the
Philippine islands, early Filipino settlers were
already using certain plants and herbs as
medicines. Systems of farming and animal raising former president and dictator Ferdinand
were also implemented. Moreover, early Marcos.
Filipinos had also developed different modes of
transportation, whether terrestrial or maritime. A milestone in Science and Technology

A complicated engineering feat was achieved by  He mandated the Department of

the natives of the Cordilleras when they built rice Education and Culture (DECS) to
terraces by hand. Through these terraces, the promote science and technology
people were able to cultivate crops on the courses in public schools.
mountainsides in cold temperatures. They  He established the National
incorporated an irrigation system that uses water
Academy of Science and Technology
from the forests and mountain tops to achieve an
(NAST)
elaborate fishing system. The rice terraces of the
 Philippine Atmospheric Geophysical
Cordilleras, which are still functional, show the
innovative and ingenious way of the natives to and Astronomical Services
survive in an otherwise unfriendly environment Administration (PAGASA) in place of
the abolished Weather Bureau;
Colonial Period  Agencies and organizations
Colonization by the Spaniards provided the o Philippines Coconut Research
Philippines with modern means of construction. Institute (PHILCORIN),
Walls, roads, bridges, and other large o Philippine Textile Research
infrastructures were built using some of the Institute (PTRI),
engineering skills and tools brought by the o Philippines Atomic Energy
Spaniards. In addition, the Spanish government Commission (PAEC)/Philippine
developed health and education systems that Nuclear Institute (PNI),
were enjoyed by the principalia class. o National Grain Authority(PGA)
The American occupation modernized almost all /National Food Authority (NFA),
aspects of life in the Philippines. They established o Philippine Council for
a government agency, the Bureau of Science, for Agricultural Research (PCAR)
the sole purpose of nurturing development in the /Philippine Council for
field of science and technology. Agriculture, Aquatic, and Natural
Resources and Development)
(PCAANRD)
o Philippine National Oil Company
(PNOC),
Post-Colonial Period o Plant Breeding Institute (PBI),
After achieving independence from the o International Rice Research
colonizers, the Philippines, under different Institute (IRRI),
administrations, continued to pursue programs in o Bureau of Plant Industry (BPI),
science and technology. Each leadership had its o Bureau of Forest Products (BFP),
own science and technology agenda. and
o National Committee on
Pres. Ferdinand Marco
Geological Sciences (NCGS)
One of the presidents who ushered in
advancements in science and technology was the Pres. Corazon Aquino
A milestone in Science and Technology
 National Science and Technology
Authority (NSTA) was renamed to
Department of Science and
Technology (DOST)
o DOST aimed to update the
production sector, improve
research activities and develop
infrastructures.
Pres. Fidel Ramos
A milestone in Science and Technology
 Competent scientists and engineers
increased to approx. 3,000.
 Doctors to barrio program
 National program for gifted Filipino
children in science and technology.
 Laws and Statutes
o RA 8439 -Magna Carta for
Scientist Engineers, Researchers,
and other personnel in
government.
o RA 7687 - Science and
Technology Scholarship Act of
1994
o RA7459 - Inventors and
Inventions Incentives Act
o RA 8293 - The Intellectual
Property Code of the Philippines
Pres. Joseph Estrada
A milestone in Science and Technology
 He mandated and implemented the
following Laws:
o RA 8749 - The Philippine
Clean Air Act of 1999
o RA 8792 - Electronic
Commerce Act of
2000
 He implemented cost-effective
irrigation technologies and provided
basic health care services.
Pres. Gloria M. Arroyo
A milestone in Science and Technology
 Filipinovation - the Philippines as an
innovation hub in Asia
o Laws
 RA 9367 - Biofuel Act
 RA 10601 - Agriculture
and Fisheries
Mechanization
(AFMECH
Pres. Benigno Aquino II
A milestone in Science and Technology
 Philippine Space Technology
Program launched Diwata-1 in 2016
 New scientists were acknowledge
o Gavino C. Trono
o Angel C. Alcala
o Ramon C. Barba
o Edgardo D. Gomez
Pres. Rodrigo Duterte
A milestone in Science and Technology
 Budget research and development
(R&D) increased six times over the
same period.
 Give importance to agriculture and
disaster preparedness.
 Philippine Space Technology
Program launched Diwata-2 in 2018
 Build, Build, Build Project
Philippine Government
The Philippine government introduced and
implemented several programs, projects, and
policies to boost the area of science and
technology. The goal is to prepare the whole
country and its people to meet the demands of a
technologically driven world and capacitate the
people to live in a world driven by science.
The National Research Council of the Philippines
(NCRP) clustered these policies into four, namely:
1. Social Sciences, Humanities,
Education, International Policies and
Governance
2. Physics, Engineering and Industrial
Research, Earth and Space Sciences,
and Mathematics
3. Medical, Chemical, and
Pharmaceutical Sciences
4. Biological Sciences, Agriculture, and
Forestry
DOST Projects
There are also other existing programs supported
by the Philippine government through the
Department of Science and Technology (DOST).
Some of these projects are the following:
 Providing funds for basic research
and patents related to science and
technology
 Providing scholarships for
undergraduate and graduate studies
of students in the field of science and
technology
 Establishing more branches of the
Philippine Science High School
System
 Balik Scientist Program to encourage
Filipino scientists abroad to come
home and work in the Philippines
 Developing science and technology
parks on academic campuses to
encourage academe and industry
partnerships
 The establishment of the National
Science Complex and National
Engineering Complex within the
University of the Philippines campus
in Diliman.
The Philippine-American Academy of Science and
Engineering (PAASE, 2008) identified several
capacity-building programs such as:
 Establishment of national centers of
excellence;
 Manpower and institutional
development programs, such as the
Engineering and Science Education
Program (ESEP) to produce more
Ph.D. graduates in science and
engineering
 Establishment of regional centers to
support specific industries;
 Establishment of science and
technology business centers to
assist, advise, and incubate
technopreneurship ventures; and
 Strengthen science education at an
early stage through the Philippine
Science High School system.
Philippine-California Advanced Research Institutes
(PCARI)
The Philippine-California Advanced Research
Institutes (PCARI) Project is a new approach to
enhance the skills and expertise of faculty and
staff of Philippine universities and colleges,
through scholarships, training, and research
partnerships with top-notch research universities
in California, USA, in the priority areas of
information infrastructure development (IID) and
health innovation and translational medicine
(HITM).
Information infrastructure development refers to
the technological and human components,
networks, systems, and processes that contribute
to the creation, flow or exchange, processing,
and management of electronic information
(adapted from Braa et al., 2007).
Health innovation and translational medicine
refer to the bench-to-bedside translation of basic
scientific research to practicable diagnostic
procedures and therapies with meaningful
improvements to physical, mental, or social
health outcomes (adapted from Zerhouni, 2005).
VIRTUAL INSTITUTES
The project is going to be implemented by two
virtual institutes:
1. The Institute for Informatin
Infrastructure
Development will direct projects in
information technology, energy, e-
government, and e-education; and
2. The Institute for Health Innovation
and Translational Medicine will direct
projects in health care through
strategic technology, delivery, and
training, to improve diagnosis,
treatment, and health services
delivery in the ten major causes of
morbidity and mortality in the
Philippines, such as asthma,
diabetes, tuberculosis, dengue, and
diarrhea.
OUTSTANDING FEATURES OF THE PCARI PROJECT
The PCARI Project:
 Involves scholarship, training, and
research;
 Focuses on two fields: information
infrastructure development (IID) and
health innovation and translational
medicine (HITM);
 Provides opportunities for direct
collaboration between Philippine
faculty researchers and UC-based
experts in order to build research
capabilities and infrastructure in
Philippine universities and colleges;
 Attracts the best and the brightest
with full support for research, which
includes modern equipment,
attendance in conferences and
state-of-the-art laboratories; and
 Addresses important problems of
society using the best technologies,
including the development of
technologies close to
commercialization.
BENEFITS OF THE PCARI PROJECT
 Jobs in new competitive high-value-
added industries and related
support services in information
infrastructure in support of disaster
risk management and response,
energy generation monitoring, e-
governance, water resources
management, and monitoring of civil
infrastructures, among others
 Affordable and efficient diagnostic
kits, medical devices, and
inexpensive drugs and the creation
of jobs to produce such to improve
the diagnosis and treatment of the
ten highest causes of mortality and
morbidity in the Philippines, such as
dengue, asthma, diabetes,
tuberculosis
 Increase in the number of faculty-
scientists and faculty-researchers
with the capacity to generate
effective technologies to benefit
society
 Improved research management
skills especially in research grants
administration and international
linkages
  World-class research institutes with
state-of-the-art facilities for
Information Infrastructure
Development Health Innovation and
Translational Medicine
Science Schools in the Philippines
The Concept of Science Education
Science education focuses on teaching, learning,
and understanding science.
 Teaching science involves exploring
pedagogical theories and models in
helping teachers teach scientific
concepts and processes effectively.
 Learning science includes both
pedagogy and the most interesting
aspect, which is helping students
understand and love science.
 Understanding science implies
developing and applying science-
process skills and using science
literacy in understanding the natural
world and activities in everyday life.
Science Education in Basic and Tertiary Education
 In basic education, science
education helps students learn
important concepts and facts that
are related to everyday life including
important skills such as process
skills, critical thinking skills, and life
skills.
 In tertiary education, science
education deals with developing
students’ understanding and
appreciation of science ideas and
scientific works. It also focuses on
the preparation of science teachers,
scientists, engineers, and other
professionals in various science-
related fields.
Science Schools in the Philippines
 Philippine Science High School
System (PSHSS)
-A government program for gifted students in
the Philippines
-A service institute of the Department of Science
and Technology (DOST)
-Offers free scholarship basis for the secondary
courses with special emphasis on subjects
pertaining to the sciences.
 Special Science Elementary Schools
(SSES) Project
-This project started in June 2007 with 57 (or 60
since its inception) identified elementary schools
that participated or were identified as science
elementary schools in the country.
The SSES Project aims to develop Filipino children
equipped with scientific and technological
knowledge, skills, and values. Its mission is to:
1. provide a learning environment to
science-inclined children through a
special curriculum that recognizes
the multiple intelligences of the
learners;
2. promote the development of
lifelong learning skills; and
3. foster the holistic development of
the learners.
 Quezon City Regional Science High
School
The school envisions to serve as a venue for
providing maximum opportunities for science-
gifted students to develop a spirit of inquiry and
creativity.
-The focus of its curriculum is on science and
technology.
 -It is well-supported by the local government
unit and by the Parents and Teachers Association
(PTA).
 Manila Science High School
-It is the first science high school in the
Philippines.
 Central Visayan Institute Foundation
-It is the home and pioneer of the prominent
school-based innovation known as the Dynamic
Learning Program (DLP).
 DLP is a synthesis of classical and
modern pedagogical theories
adapted to foster the highest level of
learning, creativity, and productivity.
-The school takes pride in its Research Center for
Theoretical Physics (RCTP).
Martin Heidegger
1. He was a German philosopher who is
fun of thinking about
'being', technology and etc.
2. He rejected the idea of positivist
thinkers and critical to technological
domination in the modern world.
3. Heidegger was critical to the essence
and modern technology and
4. He reconstructed the meaning of
technology that reflected in his essay
entitled " The Question Concerning
Technology".
The Greek concept of the essence of technology
was investigated by Martin Heidegger. The
meaning of technology for the Greeks was
assumed to be part of our everyday life. To clarify
further, the term technology was defined into
two categories.
1. Technology is a means to an end.
2. Technology is a human activity.
The first definition treated technology as
an instrument to achieve a purpose or end. For
example, student A bought a laptop and
smartphone to be used for online learning since
students were not allowed to attend a face to
face learning. Laptops and smartphones are
instruments for the student to achieve his/her
purpose which is to participate in online
learning.
The second definition pointed out that
technology is part of our daily activities of the
human person which is to invent technology such
as gadgets for online learning, protective
equipment to fight COVID-19, agricultural
machines to produce foods and etc.
The two definitions of technology are
interconnected with each other in such a way
that the outcomes of human activities are meant
to serve their purpose. However, this definition
of technology became problematic when
technology does not serve its purpose (essence).
The Greek definition of technology as a human
activity designed for a specific purpose was
restructured in modern times. Technology in the
modern era was reduced to calculative thinking
that controls nature. For instance, the invention
of the telescope, the steam machine, and other
devices were used to master nature. In the
mastery of nature, we used technology to
manipulate things around us. To see a clear
picture, Heidegger provided three revelations on
modern technology as challenging forth,
enframing and dangerous.
Modern Technology as Challenging Forth
Heidegger claimed that ancient and modern
technology are revealing. However, modern
technology is revealing not in the sense of
bringing forth but rather challenging nature.
Modern technology challenges nature through
extracting, transforming, storing, and distributing
it. Challenging forth reduced nature as standing
'reserve' or something to be disposed of by the
people. For example, people exploited the
natural resources without minding the negative
effects on the ecology, the modernization of
extracting gold, coal, and petroleum from the
ground compromised the bodies of water, using
of synthetic dyes and artificial flavoring
jeopardize human health, and the use of
chemicals in the agriculture poses threat to food
safety and health security.
Modern Technology as Enframing
According to Martin Heidegger, modern
technology is enframing. The term 'enframing'
derives from the word 'frame' which means
putting something into a box. This metaphorical
term of Heidegger connotes that modern
technology put nature into a box through
scientific knowledge. Enframing, according to
Heidegger, is akin to two ways of looking at the
world; calculative thinking and meditative
thinking. Humans put an order to nature and
control it through calculative thinking.
The Dangers of Technology
Heidegger at this point is critical to the
dangers of modern technology by pointing out its
defects as enframing nature, challenging forth,
treat nature as a standing reserve. In this case,
modern technology deviated from the essential
notion of technology and revealing or poiesis.
Heidegger sees this as a danger to humanity.
Recognizing the dangers of technology
requires critical and reflective thinking on its use.
For example, social media has indeed connected
people in the most efficient and convenient way,
but it is prone to abuse such as the invasion of
privacy, online disinhibition, and proliferation of
fake news.
The real threat of technology comes
from its essence, not its activities or products.
The correct response to the danger of technology
is not simply dismissing technology altogether.
Heidegger explained that people are delivered
over to technology in the worst possible way
when they regard it as something neutral
(Heidegger, 1997).
A brief overview of Aristotle's Life
Aristotle, who lived from 384 - 322 BC, is
probably the most important ancient Greek
philosopher and scientist. He was a student of
Plato and founded a school named Lyceum. In his
own school, Aristotle's students compiled their
lecture notes and came up with a book entitled
Nichomachean Ethics. This Nichomachean Ethics,
dedicated to his son Nichomachus, became a
foundation of Aristotle's ethics composed of ten
books.
What is a good life?
The term 'good life is one of the concerns of
Greek thinkers like Aristotle. In the
Nichomachean Ethics, Aristotle says that every
action aims at some good. Some goods are
classified as instrumental or intrinsic. The
instrumental good is a means to achieve
something else while intrinsic good is good in
itself or ultimate good (Eudaimonia or human
flourishing/happiness). At this point, Aristotle is
suggesting that if we want to live a good life then
we must develop intellectual and moral virtues.
Eudaimonia
Eudaimonia is a Greek word that means
human flourishing or happiness. Eudaimonia as
ultimate good is the final end of our action.
However, Aristotle categorized well into different
aspects; instrumental good and intrinsic good.
Instrumental good aims at something else while
intrinsic good is the final end or good in itself. For
example, enrolling in this course is good because
you will learn something and get a grade at the
end of the day. Why do you want a grade?
because I want to get a college degree. Why do
you want to get a degree? to secure a job. As you
push the question, you will end up in the final end
which is the eudaimonia. So, studying in college
is instrumental good if it helps you to achieve
happiness. On the other hand, studying in college
is intrinsic good if you are happy with what you
are doing right now. Sometimes, there are people
who wrongly assumed bodily pleasure or wealth,
fame, and honor as eudaimonia. This assumption
is wrong because eudaimonia is exclusive only to
a human being who exercises the faculty of
reason.
Human Person
The table above reflects Aristotle's
concept of the human soul and its hierarchy of
functions and activities. The soul was divided into
three; rational, sensitive, and nutritive. The
rational part of the soul is the ability of a human
person to think either based on theoretical or
practical knowledge. Aristotle formulated the
principle of 'man as a rational animal' to achieve
eudaimonia/happiness. Achieving
eudaimonia/happiness is possible only when a
human person learns to identify and choose the
mean of their action between excess and
deficiency. By doing this, we can moderate our
actions to achieve the ultimate good or virtuous
action. For example, integrating advanced
technology into human activities aided workers
to produce outputs faster and easier. Almost
everything is run by machines. But, too much
dependent on machines has negative effects on
human well-being. However, those societies that
never upgrade their technology were left behind
in the fast-changing industrial revolution and
considered backward societies. Between the two
extremes of actions, a rational animal who aims
to reach eudaimonia should choose the mean of
action of the advanced technocratic society and
backward society. Aristotle's method can be
applied to the action of generosity, courage,
anger and etc. to make them virtuous.
Arete
Arete is one of the significant concepts of
Aristotle in achieving a good life/Eudaimonia or
happiness. Arete is a Greek term that means
'excellence of any kind in terms of intellectual and
moral virtues. Intellectual virtue is achieved
through education and experience. On the other
hand, moral virtue is developed through the
constant practice of an action that promotes
good life. For instance, courage became a virtue
when it is properly displayed at the right time,
right manner, and right place in the face of
danger. A person who does not properly assess
the danger and reserve any fear may develop the
vice of foolhardiness or rashness. However, a
person may develop the vice of cowardice if
he/she becomes fearful and incapable of acting
on the problem in the face of danger.
Science, Technology, and Good Life
The rapid development of science and
technology is manifested through the current
trend in integrating machines into human affairs.
The automation of communication,
transportation, food production, education,
modernization of medicine, etc. must be geared
towards a good life. Guided by the concept of a
good life, policymakers, state leaders, and
technocrats can work hand-in-hand to make our
world a better place to live in. A world is in a state
of balance between excess and deficiency.
Human rights are rights inherent to all human
beings, whatever our nationality, place of
residence, sex, national or ethnic origin, color,
religion, language, and the like.
Human rights in the face of technological and
scientific advancement are critical factors in
one's journey toward a good life. Protecting the
well-being and protecting the dignity of the
human person must be at the core of continued
scientific and technological progress and
development. Such is the focus of the human
rights-based approach to science, technology,
and society by S. Romi Mukherjee.
The following are the three important
documents:
1. Universal Declaration of Human
Rights -This document affirms
everyone's right to participate in and
benefit from scientific advances, and
be protected from scientific
misuse. The right to the benefits of
science comes under the domain of
 'culture,' so it is usually examined
from a cultural rights perspective.
2. UNESCO Recommendation of the
Status of Scientific Researchers- This
document that all advances in
scientific and technological
knowledge should solely be geared
toward the welfare of the global
citizens, and calls upon member
states to develop necessary protocol
policies to monitor and secure this
objective. Countries are asked to
show that science and technology
are integrated into policies that aim
to ensure a more humane and just
society.
3. UNESCO Declaration on the Use of
Scientific Knowledge- This document
states, "Today, more than ever,
science and its applications are
indispensable for development. All
levels of government and the private
sector should provide enhanced
support for building up adequate and
evenly distributed scientific and
technological capacity through
appropriate education and research
programs as an indispensable
foundation for economic, social,
cultural, and environmentally sound
development. This is particularly
urgent for developing countries."
This declaration encompasses issues
such as pollution-free production,
efficient resources use, biodiversity
protection, and brain drains.
A human rights- approach to science, technology,
and development sets the parameters for the
appraisal of how science, technology, and
development promote human well-being.
Thus, the discussion on human rights in the face
of the changing scientific and technological
contexts must not serve as merely a decorative
moral dimension of scientific and technological
policies but rather the very heart of sustainable
futures.
Human rights should be integrated into the
journey toward the ultimate good. They should
guide humans not only to flourish as individual
members of society but also to assist each other
in flourishing collectively as a society. Human
rights are rights to sustainability, as Mukherjee put
it. They may function as the "golden mean,"
particularly by protecting the weak, poor, and
vulnerable from deficiencies and excesses of
science and technology. By imposing upon science
and technology the moral and ethical duty to
protect and uphold human rights, there can be a
more effective and sustainable approach to
bridging the gap between poor and rich countries
on both tangible and intangible aspects.
Ultimately, all these will lead humans to flourish
together through science and technology.
The article, "Why the Future Does Not Need Us?"
was written by William Nelson Joy, an American
computer scientist of Sun Microsystems. In his
article, Joy warned against the rapid rise of new
technologies. He explained that 21st-century
technologies are becoming very powerful that they
can potentially bring about new classes of
accidents, threats, and abuses. He further
warned that these dangers are even pressing
because they do not require large facilities or
even rare raw materials-knowledge alone will
make them potentially harmful to humans.
Joy argued that robotics, genetic engineering, and
nanotechnology pose much greater threats than
technological developments that have come
before. He particularly cited the ability of
nanobots to self-replicate, which quickly gets out
of control. In the article, he cautioned humans
against over-dependence on machines. He also
stated that if machines are given the capacity to
decide on their own, it will be impossible to
predict how they might behave in the future. In
this case, the fate of the human race would be at
the mercy of machines.
Joy also voiced his apprehension about the rapid
increase in computer power. He was concerned
that computers will eventually become more
intelligent than humans, thus ushering societies
into dystopian visions, such as robot rebellions.
To illuminate his concern, Joy drew from
Theodore Kaczynski's book, Unabomber
Manifesto, where Kaczynski described that the
unintended consequences of the design and use
of technology are clearly related to Murphy's
Law: " Anything that can go wrong will go wrong."
Kaczynski argued further that over-reliance on
antibiotics led to the great paradox of emerging
antibiotic-resistant strains of dangerous bacteria.
Since the publication of the article, Joy's
argument against twenty-first-century
technologies has received both criticisms and
expressions of shared concern. Critics dismissed
Joy's article for deliberately presenting
information in an imprecise manner that
obscures the larger picture or state of things. For
one, John Seely and Paul Duguid (2001), in their
article, A Response to Bill Joy and doom-and-
gloom Technofuturists, criticize Joy's failure to
consider social factors and only deliberately
focused on one part of the larger picture. Others
go as far as accusing Joy of being a neo-Luddite,
someone who rejects new technologies and shows
technophobic leanings.
As a material, Joy's article tackles the unpleasant
and uncomfortable possibilities that a senseless
approach to scientific and technological
advancements may bring. Whether Joy's
propositions are a real possibility or an absolute
moonshot, it is unavoidable to think of the future
that will no longer need the human race. It makes
thinking about the roles and obligations of every
stakeholder a necessary component of scientific
and technological advancement. In this case, it is
preeminently necessary that the scientific
community, governments, and businesses engage
in a discussion to determine the safeguards of
humans against the potential dangers of science
and technology.
Biodiversity is the variety of life—its ecosystems,
species, populations, and genes. Human actions
towards the land, freshwater, and oceans have
already caused biodiversity to decline. Even
greater losses will occur in the future if humanity
continues its present unsustainable use of
natural resources. In documenting this decline,
there has been a focus on species extinctions, the
most obvious manifestation of biodiversity loss.
In addition, there is a loss of ecosystems,
populations, and genes. All these are the only
truly irreversible consequences of environmental
change. When any of these is lost, it is gone
forever. Species losses are also the aspect of
biodiversity loss that is most often considered,
for example, by the U.N. Convention on Biological
Diversity. Even a species that survives can lose
much of its genetic diversity if local populations
are lost from most of its original range.
Furthermore, ecosystems may shrink in the area
dramatically and lose many of their functions,
even though their constituent species manage to
survive. The loss of ecosystems, species,
populations, and genes all have implications for
human health (Chivian, 2003).
The research and reports in Biodiversity
Studies by Roy (2016:5 15-27) reported that due
to the ever-increasing demand for natural
resources, the earth is on the verge of global
mass extinction. The biodiversity hotspots are the
remnant natural areas of high terrestrial
biodiversity which are rapidly degrading and
constitute more than half of the global endemic
species in approximately 2% of the global land
area which requires conservation and protection
along with an effort to identify new areas.
Presently, data gaps and the nonavailability of
adequate information across the biodiversity
hotspots have resulted in unsustainable
commercial exploitation in these areas. In this
paper, an effort has been made to assess the
status of the various biodiversity hotspots across
the globe with respect to the geographic
distribution, the area under natural vegetation,
the concentration of endemic plants, and the
human development index in these areas.
Monitoring such a large extent across the globe
has its difficulties. The use of recent tools and
technologies including earth observation systems
and information technology can help in
monitoring and identification of the global
biodiversity hotspots and help in the
conservation and protection of these areas. It is
suggested to identify the biodiversity-rich areas
at a coarse-scale and have a detailed study of the
biodiversity-rich areas to design appropriate
conservation and protection of the biodiversity
hotspots.
Johns and Eyzaquirre (2006) conducted a
study on Linking Biodiversity, Diet, and Health in
Police and Practice that the simplification of
human diets associated with increased
accessibility of inexpensive agricultural
commodities and erosion of agrobiodiversity
leads to nutrient deficiencies and excess energy
consumption. Non-communicable diseases are
growing causes of death and disability
worldwide. Successful food systems in transition
effectively draw on locally available foods, food
variety, and traditional food cultures. In practice,
this process involves empirical research, public
policy, promotion, and applied action in support
of multi-sectoral, community-based strategies
linking rural producers and urban consumers,
subsistence and market economies, and
traditional and modern food systems.
Implementation of the International Plant
Genetic Resources Institute's Global Nutrition
Strategy in Sub-Saharan Africa offers a useful
case study. Relevant policy platforms, in which
biodiversity conservation and nutrition are and
should be linked, include the Millennium
Development Goals, Millennium Ecosystem
Assessment, Convention on Biological Diversity,
Global Strategy on Diet, Physical Activity and
Health, Food-Based Dietary Guidelines, Right to
Adequate Food and UN Human Rights
Commission's Permanent Forum on Indigenous
Issues. The largely unexplored health benefits of
cultivated and wild plants include micronutrient
intake and functions related to energy density,
glycaemic control, oxidative stress, and immuno-
stimulation. Research on the properties of
neglected and underutilized species and local
varieties deserves higher priority. In tests of the
hypothesis that biodiversity is essential for
dietary diversity and health, quantitative
indicators of dietary and biological diversity can
be combined with nutrition and health outcomes
at the population level. That traditional systems
once lost are hard to recreate underlines the
imperative for timely documentation,
compilation, and dissemination of eroding
knowledge of biodiversity and the use of food
culture for promoting positive behaviors.
This study was conducted in the Philippines
by Tumbaga, Hipolito, and Gabriel (2020) on
community participation toward biodiversity
conservation among protected areas in
Pangasinan, Philippines. They said that
the understanding of community participation in
biodiversity conservation among developing
countries, such as the Philippines, is still lacking
and needs to be supplemented. This study aimed
to determine the community participation
toward biodiversity conservation in two
communities located at two Protected Areas in
Pangasinan, Philippines: Hundred Islands
National Park and Manleluag Spring Protected
Landscape. The knowledge, attitude, and
community participation in the two communities
vary, considering that they possess a unique
ecosystem dimension (coastal ecosystem and
forest ecosystem). Moreover, their knowledge of
threats and importance on biodiversity, including
their attitudes, is considered high. Despite their
ecosystem uniqueness, there were no observed
differences in both areas in terms of their
knowledge and attitude. However, in terms of
community participation, coastal communities
show a higher level of community participation as
compared to forested communities. The
demographic factors, such as income and the
number of programs and projects implemented
in their areas, probably determine the status of
their community participation.
Biodiversity Types: Genetic, Species, and
Ecological Diversity
The living world is a complex combination of
different levels of organisms. The key
components of life are at one extreme and
communities of species at the other extreme. The
manifestations of all types of diversities are found
at all these levels of organisms. Biodiversity is the
shorter form of the word biological diversity
which means diversity in the biological world.
Thus one can define biodiversity as the degree of
variety in nature with regard to biological species.
Definition:
The living world is a complex combination of
different levels of organisms. The key
components of life are at one extreme and
communities of species at the other extreme. The
manifestations of all types of diversities are found
at all these levels of organisms. Biodiversity is the
shorter form of the word biological diversity
which means diversity in the biological world.
Thus one can define biodiversity as the degree of
variety in nature with regard to biological species.
Types of Biodiversity:
(a) Genetic diversity:
It is the variation of genes within the species. This
results in a distinct population of one, even the
same species. It gives genetic variation within a
population or varieties within one species. There
are two reasons for differences between
individual organisms. One is a variation in the
gene which all organisms possess which is passed
from one to its offspring.
The other is the influence of the environment on
each individual organism. The variation in the
sequence of four base pairs in the DNA chain
forms the genetic variation in the organism. The
recombination) of genetic material during cell
division makes it imperative for genetic diversity
within a species. The loss of genetic diversity
within a species is called genetic erosion.
The whole area of agricultural productivity and
development depends on genetic diversity. The
plant, as well as animal genetic resources, play an
important role in the economy of a country.
Genetic diversity is the whole basis for a
sustainable life system on earth.
Scientists in many parts of the world are trying to
introduce genetically modified seeds in the
agriculture sector for better yield as well as for
resistance to drought and flood situations. The
local people or farmers are not showing any
interest to preserve the natural way of genetic
diversity.
(b) Species diversity:
This refers to the variety of species within a
particular region. The number of species in a
region is a measure of such diversity. The richness
of species in a given region provides a yardstick
for species diversity. Species diversity depends as
much on genetic diversity as on environmental
conditions.
Colder regions support less than the warmer
regions for species diversity. A good climate with
good physical geography supports a better
species diversity. Species richness is a term that
is used to measure the biodiversity of a given site.
In addition to species richness, species endemism
is a term used to measure biodiversity by way of
assessing the magnitude of differences between
species. In the taxonomic system, similar species
are grouped together in general, similar genera in
families, families in orders, and so on till in the
level of the kingdom. This process is a genuine
attempt to find relationships between organisms.
The higher taxa have thousands of species.
Species that are very different from one another
contribute more to overall biodiversity.
(c) Ecological diversity:
This is the number of species in a community of
organisms. Maintaining both types of diversity is
fundamental to the functioning of ecosystems
and hence to human welfare. Thus, ecological
diversity is decided on the basis of species and
genetic diversity. Ecological diversity is the scale
of biodiversity of an ecosystem. It describes the
level of biodiversity in an ecosystem.
Ecosystem diversity deals with the variations in
ecosystems within a geographical location and its
overall impact on human existence and the
environment. Ecological diversity is a type of
biodiversity. It is the variation in the ecosystems
found in a region or the variation in ecosystems
over the whole planet. Biodiversity is important
because it clears out our water, changes our
climate, and provides us with food. Ecological
diversity includes the variation in both terrestrial
and aquatic ecosystems. Ecological diversity can
also take into account the variation in the
complexity of a biological community, including
the number of different niches, the number of
trophic levels, and other ecological processes. An
example of ecological diversity on a global scale
would be the variation in ecosystems, such as
deserts, forests, grasslands, wetlands, and
oceans. Ecological diversity is the largest scale of
biodiversity, and within each ecosystem, there is
a great deal of both species and genetic diversity
(All cited by your article library, n.d.)
Living in Harmony with Nature
The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is an
international legally binding treaty with
three main goals: conservation of biodiversity;
sustainable use of biodiversity; and the fair and
equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the
use of genetic resources. Its overall objective is
to encourage actions that will lead to a
sustainable future.
The conservation of biodiversity is a common
concern of humankind. The CBD covers
biodiversity at all levels: Ecosystems, species, and
genetic resources. It also covers
biotechnology through the Cartagena Protocol
on Biosafety. In fact, it covers all possible
domains that are directly or indirectly related to
biodiversity and its role in development, ranging
from science, politics, and education to
agriculture, business, culture, and much more.
The governing body of the CBD is the Conference
of the Parties (COP). This ultimate authority
of all governments (or Parties) that have ratified
the treaty meets every two years to review
progress set priorities, and commit to work plans.
In 2010, Parties to the CBD adopted the Strategic
Plan for Biodiversity 2011–2020, a ten-year
framework for action by all countries and
stakeholders to safeguard biodiversity and the
benefits it provides to people.
The Secretariat of the Convention on Biological
Diversity (SCBD) is based in Montreal,
Canada. Its main function is to assist
governments in the implementation of the CBD
and
its programs of work, organize meetings, draft
documents, coordinate with other
international organizations and collect and
spread information. The Executive Secretary is
the
head of the Secretariat.
Cartagena Protocol on Biodiversity
Cartagena Protocol is an international agreement
that aims to ensure the safe handling, transport,
and use of living modified organisms (LMOs)
resulting from modern biotechnology that may
have adverse effects on biological diversity, taking
into account risks to human health. It makes a
precautionary approach by making sure that
countries are provided with the data necessary to
make informed decisions before agreeing to the
import of such organisms into their territory.
The Philippines recognizes the technologies
that can be of particular help for its development.
Since the Philippines is one of the biodiversity
"hotspots" in the world, it is helpful to know how
biotechnology will progress in the country.
In summary, nanotechnology refers to the
science, engineering, and technology conducted
at the nanoscale, which is about 1 to 100
nanometers. Nanotechnology deals with the very
smallest components of our world – atoms, and
molecules. A nanometer is one-billionth of a
meter, 0.000000001 or 10-9 meters. The word
“nano” comes from the Greek word for “dwarf.”
The term nanoscale is used to refer to objects
with dimensions on the order of 1-100
nanometers (nm).
Nanotechnology is helping to considerably
improve, even revolutionize, many technologies
and industry sectors: information technology,
homeland security, medicine, transportation,
energy, food safety, and environmental science,
among many others.
Reservations and pessimist view on
nanotechnology is acceptable. After all,
nanoscience and technology are relatively new
and there are many new discoveries happening
every now and then.
Brief History
Human gene therapy was actually first
realized in 1971 when the first recombinant DNA
experiments were planned. It can be simply
viewed as the insertion of foreign DNA into a
patient's tissue that hopes to successfully
eradicate the targetted disease. In 1972,
Theodore Friedman and Richard Roblin proposed
that people with genetic disorders can be treated
by replacing defective DNA with good DNA.
In 1985, Dr. W. French Anderson and Dr.
Michael Blasse worked together to show that
cells of patients with Adenosine deaminase (ADA)
deficiency can be corrected in tissue culture. In
1990, the first approved gene therapy clinical
research took place at the National Institutes of
Health (NIH) under the team of Dr. Anderson. It
was conducted on a four-year-old girl who had
ADA deficiency. In 1993. the first somatic
treatment that proposed a permanent genetic
change was performed.
The first commercial gene therapy product
Gendicine was approved in China in 2003 for the
treatment of certain cancers. Due to some clinical
successes since 2006, gene therapy gained
greater attention from researchers but was still
considered an experimental technique.
In 2016, the Committee for Medicinal Products
for Human Use of the European Medicines
Agency endorsed the gene therapy treatment
called Strimvelis which was approved by
European Commission in June 2018.
Some Studies transplanted genes to speed up
the destruction of cancer cells. Gene therapy or
cell therapies have emerged as realistic prospects
for the treatment of cancer and involve the
delivery of genetic information to a tumor to
facilitate the production of therapeutic proteins.
This area of gene therapy still needs further
studies before an efficient and safe gene therapy
procedure is adopted. (Gene Revolution: Issues
and Impacts, n. d., Wirth et al., 2013).
In summary, we discussed the difference
between GMOs and gene therapy, the effects,
the risks of GMOs, and ethical and moral issues
concerning genetic engineering.
GMOs are products of artificial manipulation
and alteration of a species' genetic material in a
laboratory using genetic engineering. Plants,
animal, bacteria, and virus genes may be
combined or may be crossbred to produce
another kind of species that do not naturally
occur in the environment while gene therapy is
the method of inserting genes or nucleic acid into
cells as a drug to treat genetic diseases. One of
the approaches is gene inhibition therapy in
which a cell containing a faulty gene that
produces cells functioning normally after
blocking the gene. Also, we discussed the history
where it started in 1971 when the first
recombinant DNA experiments were planned. In
1972, Friedman and Roblin proposed that people
with genetic disorders can be treated by
replacing defective DNA with good DNA. After
this, several scientists ventured into treating
diseases using gene therapy.
In a nutshell, climate change is the defining issue
of our time and we are at a defining moment. It
is a threat to both developing and developed
nations around the world. Overall, there are
three major causes of climate change, which
could be natural or man-made activities such as
volcanic eruptions, orbital changes, and human
activities. Moreover, climate change has
devastating effects on all living things, especially
humans. The effects are so enormous that
discussing it for a day may not be enough.
However, we may deduce it by looking into its
effects on society as a whole. Such effects include
but are not limited to the following:

 Acid deposition
 Ozone depletion
 Thermal inversion
 Natural disasters and many more.

Furthermore, the government needs to

strengthen its Disaster Risk Management
programs, while the public in particular needs to
develop environmental awareness and disaster in
order to protect the environment for future
generations.