GEC 007 - Science, Technology, and Society

Introduction to Science, Technology and Society

Science - the word came from the Latin "scientia," meaning "knowledge." It refers to the
systematic and methodical activity of building and organizing knowledge about how the universe
behaves through observation, experimentation, or both.

According to famous American science historian, John Heilbron (2003), " Modern science is a
discovery of regularity in nature, enough for natural phenomena to be described by principles and
laws. he also explained that science required invention to devise techniques, abstractions,
apparatuses, and organizations to describe these natural regularities and their law-like
descriptions.

Technology - it is the application of scientific knowledge, laws, and principles to produce services,
materials, tools, and machines aimed at solving real-world problems. It came from the Greek word
techne, meaning 'art, skill, or cunning of hand.'

Society - is composed of a group of people living together in a more or less ordered community.

Wolpert (2005) made an interesting comparison between science and technology that is helpful in
the study of their interaction with society, Wolpert explained that reliable scientific knowledge has
no moral or ethical value. It is meant simply to explain how nature and the universe work and that
the obligation of the scientists, besides studying the nature of the universe, is to explain the
possible uses and applications of such scientific knowledge. Along this line, Wolpert made it clear
that science is not the same as technology. Scientists are not responsible for the application of
knowledge in technology. He further explained that the very nature of science is that it is not
possible to predict scientific discoveries and how these discoveries may be applied. While
scientists are not responsible for the reliable conduct of the scientific inquiry and its honest
interpretation and dissemination, technological applications of science are influenced by other
sectors such as politics and governance, religion, and business.

Ethical Dilemmas
What is a Dilemma? It is a situation where a person is forced to choose between two or more
conflicting options neither of which is acceptable.

What are Ethical Dilemmas? Ethical/Moral Dilemmas - are situations where persons, who are
called "moral agents" in ethics, are forced to choose between two or more conflicting options,
neither of which resolves the situation in a morally acceptable manner.

Three Conditions that must be present in Moral Dilemmas

● The person or agent of moral action is obliged to make a decision about which course of
action is best.
● There must be different courses of action to choose from.
● No matter what course of action is taken, some moral principles are always compromised.

Ten Emerging Ethical Dilemmas

● Helix- a digital app store designed to read genomes.
● BlessU-2 Popper- first robot priest and monk
● Emotion-Sensing Facial Recognition- a software being developed to assess your
reactions to anything such as shopping and playing games.
● Ransomware- a way of holding data hostage through the backing and requiring a ransom to
be paid.
● Textalyzer- a device that analyzes whether a driver was using his or her phone during an
accident.
● Social Credit System- a system of scoring citizens through their actions by placing them
under constant surveillance.
● Google Clips- a hands-free camera that lets the user capture every moment effortlessly.
● Sentencing Software- a mysterious algorithm designed to and courts in sentencing
decisions.
● Friendbot- an app that stores the deceased's digital footprint so one can still chat with them.
● Citizen App- an app that notifies users of ongoing crimes or major events in a specific area.

Social Implications of Dilemmas

The social implications of an event or action are the results, on society or part of society, of the
event or the action. The idea of social implications can also be extended to a law or a policy, that
is, a planned set of repeated actions.

● Personalized genetic tests/personalized medicine - Within the last 10 years, the creation
of fast, low-cost genetic sequencing has given the public direct access to genome
sequencing and analysis, with little or no guidance from physicians or genetic counselors on
how to process the information. What are the potential privacy issues, and how do we protect
this very personal and private information? Are we headed toward a new era of therapeutic
intervention to increase the quality of life or a new era of eugenics?
● Hacking into medical devices - Implanted medical devices, such as pacemakers, are
susceptible to hackers. Barnaby Jack, of security vendor IOActive, recently demonstrated the
vulnerability of a pacemaker by breaching the security of the wireless device from his laptop
and reprogramming it to deliver an 830-volt shock. How do we make sure these devices are
secure?
● Driverless Zipcars - In three states -- Nevada, Florida, and California -- it is now legal for
Google to operate its driverless cars. Google's goal is to create a fully automated vehicle that
is safer and more effective than a human-operated vehicle, and the company plans to marry
this idea with the concept of the Zipcar. The ethics of automation and equality of access for
people of different income levels are just a taste of the difficult ethical, legal, and policy
questions that will need to be addressed.
● 3-D printing - Scientists are attempting to use 3-D printing to create everything from
architectural models to human organs, but we could be looking at a future in which we can
print personalized pharmaceuticals or home-printed guns and explosives. For now, 3-D
printing is largely the realm of artists and designers, but we can easily envision a future in
which 3-D printers are affordable and patterns abound for products both benign and
malicious, and that cut out the manufacturing sector completely.
● Adaptation to climate change - The differential susceptibility of people around the world to
climate change warrants an ethical discussion. We need to identify effective and safe ways to
help people deal with the effects of climate change, as well as learn to manage and
manipulate wild species and nature in order to preserve biodiversity. Some of these
adaptation strategies might be highly technical (e.g. building sea walls to stem off sea-level
rise), but others are social and cultural (e.g., changing agricultural practices).
● Low-quality and counterfeit pharmaceuticals - Until recently, detecting low-quality and
counterfeit pharmaceuticals required access to complex testing equipment, often unavailable
in developing countries where these problems abound. The enormous amount of trade in
pharmaceutical intermediaries and active ingredients raise a number of issues, from the
technical (improvement in manufacturing practices and analytical capabilities) to the ethical
and legal (for example, India ruled in favor of manufacturing life-saving drugs, even if it
violates U.S. patent law).
● Autonomous systems - Machines (both for peaceful purposes and for warfighting) are
increasingly evolving from human-controlled to automated, to autonomous, with the ability to
act on their own without human input. As these systems operate without human control and
are designed to function and make decisions on their own, the ethical, legal, social and policy
implications have grown exponentially. Who is responsible for the actions undertaken by
autonomous systems? If robotic technology can potentially reduce the number of human
fatalities, is it the responsibility of scientists to design these systems?
● Human-animal hybrids (chimeras) - So far scientists have kept human-animal hybrids on
the cellular level. According to some, even more modest experiments involving animal
embryos and human stem cells violate human dignity and blur the line between species. Is
interspecies research the next frontier in understanding humanity and curing disease, or a
slippery slope, rife with ethical dilemmas, toward creating new species?
● Ensuring access to wireless and spectrum - Mobile wireless connectivity is having a
profound effect on society in both developed and developing countries. These technologies
are completely transforming how we communicate, conduct business, learn, form
relationships, navigate, and entertain ourselves. At the same time, government agencies
increasingly rely on the radio spectrum for their critical missions. This confluence of wireless
technology developments and societal needs presents numerous challenges and
opportunities for making the most effective use of the radio spectrum. We now need to have
a policy conversation about how to make the most effective use of the precious radio
spectrum, and to close the digital access divide for underserved (rural, low-income,
developing areas) populations.
● Data collection and privacy - How often do we consider the massive amounts of data we
give to commercial entities when we use social media, store discount cards, or order goods
via the Internet? Now that microprocessors and permanent memory are inexpensive
technology, we need to think about the kinds of information that should be collected and
retained. Should we create a diabetic insulin implant that could notify your doctor or
insurance company when you make poor diet choices, and should that decision make you
ineligible for certain types of medical treatment? Should cars be equipped to monitor speed
and other measures of good driving, and should this data be subpoenaed by authorities
following a crash? These issues require appropriate policy discussions in order to bridge the
gap between data collection and meaningful outcomes.
● Human enhancements - Pharmaceutical, surgical, mechanical, and neurological
enhancements are already available for therapeutic purposes. But these same
enhancements can be used to magnify human biological function beyond the societal norm.
Where do we draw the line between therapy and enhancement? How do we justify
enhancing human bodies when so many individuals still lack access to basic therapeutic
medicine?

Historical Antecedents

Antecedent - it is defined as a precursor to the unfolding or existence of something. Thus,

historical antecedents in science and technology are factors that paved the way for the
presence of advanced and sophisticated scientific and technological innovations today.
Knowledge of the history of science and technology in use in appraising these innovations today.
By understanding how previous generations influenced and were influenced can come up with
informed decisions on the proper application of science and technology to daily life.

Some Inventions During Ancient Times

● Ancient Wheel - People from ancient civilizations used animals for transportation long
before the invention of the wheel. No one knows who exactly invented the wheel and when.
There is, however, a general agreement that the ancient wheel grew out of a mechanical
device called the potter's wheel- a heavy flat disk made up of hardened clay that was spun
horizontally on an axis. The invention of the wheel is often credited to the Sumerians since
no other ancient civilization used a similar device at the time. Today, cars, carts, bicycles, and
trucks are just some of the many offshoots of the wheels invented by the Sumerians.
● Paper - Roughly around 3000 B.C., the ancient Egyptians began writing on papyrus, a
material similar to thick paper. Papyrus is made from the pith of the papyrus plant cyperus
papyrus. It is lightweight, strong, durable, and portable. Before the Egyptians invented the
papyrus, writing was done on stone. With the advent of the papyrus, documentation, and
record-keeping become efficient, widespread, and vast. Through its use, information
dissemination became exponentially faster. records were kept and stood the test of time.
● Shadoof - The shadoof was an early tool invented and used by Egyptians to irrigate the
land. It is a hand-operated device used for lifting water. Its invention introduced the idea of
lifting things using counterweights. Because of this invention, irrigation and farming became
much more efficient. The shadoof is also believed to be an ancient precursor of more
sophisticated irrigation tools. Please click the video to watch how the shadoof is being made
and used.
● Antikythera Mechanism - Even before the invention of the antecedents of the modern
computer, the Greeks had already invented the ancient world's analog computer orrery.
Discovered in 1902 and retrieved from the waters of Antikythera, Greece. Antikythera
mechanism is similar to a mantel clock and it is known as the antecedent of modern
clockwork.
● Aeolipile - Also known as the Hero's engine, the aeolipile is widely believed to be the ancient
precursor of the steam engine. It is a steam-powered turbine that spun when the water
container at its center was heated, thus making it practically the first rudimentary steam
engine.

Some Inventions During the Medieval Times

● Heavy Plow - This is one of the most important technological innovations during the middle
ages. The heavy plow turned European agriculture and economy on its head. Clay soil,
despite its being more fertile than the lighter types of soil, was not cultivated because of its
heavyweight. However, through the invention of the plow, it became possible to harness clay
soil. Professor Thomas Bernebeck Andersen of the University of Southern Denmark
succinctly describes the impact of the invention of the heavy plow: "The heavy plow turned
the European agriculture and economy on its head. Suddenly, the field with the heavy, fatty,
and moist clay soil became those that gave the greatest yields." Because of this, Europe,
particularly its northern territories, saw rapid economic prosperity. The heavy plow stirred an
agricultural revolution in Northern Europe marked by higher and healthier agricultural yields.
● Gunpowder - Around 850 A.D., Chinese civilization's alchemists accidentally invented black
powder or gunpowder. Multiple accounts suggest that the gunpowder might have been an
unintended byproduct of attempts made by the Chinese to invent the elixir of life, which is
why the Chinese called it huoyao or translated as "fire potion." Prior to the invention of
gunpowder, swords and spears were used in battles and wars. Towards the end of the 13th
century, explosive inventions crept into most parts of Europe and Asia. Since its invention,
gunpowder has allowed for more advanced warfare. from fiery arrows to cannons and
grenades, gunpowder has prompted the foundation for the functionality of almost every new
weapon used in war since its invention. It ushered in an unprecedented advancement in
warfare and combat throughout the Middle Ages.
● Paper Money - Although it was not until the 17th century that banknotes began to be used
in Europe, the first known versions of paper money could be traced back to the Chinese in
the 17th century AD as an offshoot of the invention of block printing, which is similar to
stamping. Before the introduction of paper money, precious metals, such as gold and silver
were used as currency. However, the idea of assigning value to a marked piece of paper did
not immediately become popular. In fact, when the Mongols attempted to introduce paper
money into the Middle East market in the 13th century, it did not gain immediate success.
Nonetheless, traders and merchants eventually realized the huge advantage of using paper
money because it was easier to transport around compared to the previous forms of
currency.
● Mechanical Clock - Although devices for timekeeping and recording sprung from ancient
times, such as the Antikythera mechanism, it was not until the middle ages that clockwork
technology was developed. The development of mechanical clocks paved the way for
accurately keeping track of the time.
● Spinning Wheel - A machine used for transforming fiber into thread or yarn and eventually
woven into cloth on a loom. Please click the link to watch the video about the Spinning Wheel
of India. The Spinning Wheel encouraged the development of the industry of fabrics, clothes,
and related products.
● Printing Press - After the Chinese developed woodblock printing, Johann Guttenberg was
able to invent the printing press, a more reliable way of printing using a cast type. He utilized
wooden machines that extracted juices from fruits, attached to them a metal impression of
the letters, and pressed firmly the cast metal into a piece of paper, which then made an exact
impression on paper. This general invention soon evolved to be a mechanical printing press
which was eventually used all over the world.

Some Inventions During the Modern Age

● Compound Microscope - A Dutch spectacle maker named Zacharias Jansen is credited
for the invention of the first compound microscope in 1590. Together with his father Hans,
Zacharias began experimenting with lenses by putting together several lenses on a tube.
This led to an amazing discovery that an object, when placed near the end of the tube, can
be magnified far larger than what a simple magnifying lens can do. Jansen's compound
microscope was an important progression from a single lens microscope. It was capable of
magnifying objects three times their size when fully closed and up to ten times when
extended to the maximum. Today, the compound microscope is an important instrument in
many scientific studies, such as in the areas of medicine, forensic studies, tissue analysis,
atomic studies, and genetics.
● Telescope - Perhaps the single, most important technological invention in the study of
astronomy during the Modern Ages was the practical telescope invented by Galileo Galilei.
This invention could magnify objects 20 times larger than the Dutch perspective glasses. It
was Galileo who first used the telescope skyward and made important astronomical
discoveries, and identified the presence of craters and mountains in the moon. Galileo's
remarkable technological contribution drastically changed the study of astronomy. For the
first time, it became clear that the universe is far larger than previously imagined and the
earth far smaller compared to the entire universe.
● Jacquard Loom - As the industrial Revolution reached full speed, the Jacquard loom was
considered as one of the most critical drivers of the revolution. Built by French weaver
Joseph Maxie Jacquard, the Jacquard loom simplifies textile manufacturing. Built by French
weaver Joseph Maxie Jacquard, the Jacquard loom simplifies textile manufacturing. Prior to
the invention of the Jacquard loom, a drawloom was used which required two individuals to
operate- the weaver and a "drawboy"- if figures on textiles were needed. As such,
intensified manual labor and greater effort had to be exerted to produce complex designs.
In 1801, Jacquard demonstrated the ingenuity of his version of a loom in which a series of
cards with punch holes automatically created complex textile designs and made mass
production easier. The Jacquard loom is also an important antecedent of modern computer
technology as it demonstrated the use of punched cards to instruct a machine to carry out
complex tasks. For further information on a Jacquard loom.
● Engine - Powered Airplane- Orville Wright and Wilbur Wright are credited for designing and
successfully operating the first engine-powered aircraft. The Wright brothers approached
the design of powered aircraft and flight scientifically. Orville and Wilbur proved the aircraft
could fly without airfoil-shaped wings. Their pioneering success marked an age of powered
flights. Sans modern knowledge on aerodynamics and a comprehensive understanding of
the working of the aircraft wings, the Wright brothers were brilliant scientists who paved the
way for modern aircraft technology.
● Television - The Scottish engineer John Logie Baird is largely credited for the invention of
modern television. Baird successfully televised objects in outline in 1924, recognizable
 human faces in 1925, and moving objects in 1926, and projected colored images in 1928.
Baird's television technology caught on really swiftly. In fact, the British Broadcasting
Corporation (BBC) used this for its earliest television programming in 1929. Despite being
the first television invented. Baird's television was later on criticized for its fuzzy and
flickering images, primarily because it was mechanical compared to electronic versions that
were developed much later.

Various Filipino inventions

● Gregoria Zara - He invented the first videophone. A native of Lipa, Batangas and enrolled
at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in the United States, and graduated with
a degree in BS in Mechanical Engineering in 1926. The two-way televisions or
videophones 1955 were patented as a "photophone signal separator network."
● Agapito Flores - He invented the fluorescent lamp, which is the most widely used source of
lighting in the world today. The fluorescent lamp reportedly got its name from Flores. The
fluorescent lamp, however, was not invented in a particular year. It was the product of 79
years of the development of the lighting method that began with the invention of the electric
bulb by Thomas Edison.
● Daniel Dingel - He invented the water-powered car. Daniel Dingel started working on a
water-powered car and prototype in 1969. His hydrogen reactor uses electricity from a
12-volt car battery to transform ordinary tap water with salt into deuterium oxide or heavy
water. However, Dingel's car has never been patented and commercialized because of what
he suspects is an anti-Dingel car conspiracy by multinational companies.
● Eduardo San Juan - He invented the Lunar Rover. Eduardo San Juan's invention is known
as the Moon Buggy. The Moon Buggy was the car used by Neil Armstrong and other
astronauts when they first explored the moon in 1969. He worked for Lockheed Corporation
and conceptualized the design of the Moon Buggy that the Apollo astronauts used while on
the moon. As a NASA engineer, San Juan reportedly used his Filipino ingenuity to build a
vehicle that would run outside the Earth's atmosphere. He constructed its model using
homemade materials. However, San Juan was not listed as the inventor of the Moon Buggy
in American Scientific journals, instead, it was attributed to a Polish inventor.
● Diosdado Banatao - He invented the GUI (Graphical User Interface). Banatao is known for
introducing the first single-chip graphical user interface accelerator that made computers
work a lot faster and for helping develop the Ethernet controller chip that made the internet
possible. In 1989, he pioneered the local bus concept for personal computers and in the
following year developed the first Windows accelerator chip. Intel is now using the chips
and technologies developed by Banatao.
● Angel Alcala - He invented the artificial coral reefs. This was used for fisheries in
Southeast Asia.
● Roberto del Rosario - He invented karaoke in 1975. Roberto del Rosario developed a
sing-along system in 1975 and was patented in the 1980s called his sing-along system
"Minus-One," now holds the patent for the device now commonly known as the" karaoke
machine."
● Juan Salcedo Jr. -He developed the" Enriched Rice," a variety of rice fortified with vitamins
B1, which helps prevent beriberi. His discovery helped in the prevention and reduction of
beriberi in the Philippines and in other countries.
Other Inventions by Filipino Scientists
● Electronic Jeepney (e-jeepney) - The jeepney is perhaps one of the most recognizable
national symbols of the Philippines and the most popular mode of transportation in the
country. It is also perhaps one of the most enduring symbols of Filipino ingenuity. Jeepneys
were designed and improvised from scratch out of military jeeps that the Americans left in
the country after WWII.
 ● Erythromycin - One of the most important medical inventions is Erythromycin. The Ilonggo
scientist Abelardo Aguilar invented the antibiotic out of the strain of bacterium called
Streptomyces erythreus, from which this drug derived its name.
● Medical Incubator - World-renowned Filipino pediatrician and national scientist, Fe del
Mundo, is called for the invention of the incubator and jaundice relieving device. Del Mundo
was the first woman pediatrician to be admitted to the prestigious Harvard University School
of Medicine. Del Mundo's incubator was particularly outstanding as it addressed the state of
Philippine rural communities that had no electricity to aid the regulation of body
temperatures of newborn babies.
● Mole Remover - In 2000, a local invention that had the ability to easily remove moles and
warts on the skin without the need for any surgical procedure shot to fame. Rolando Dela
Cruz is credited for the invention of a local mole remover that made use of extracts of
cashew nuts, which are very common in the Philippines.
● Banana Ketchup - Filipino food technologist, Maria Orosa, is credited for the invention of
banana ketchup, a variety of ketchup different from the commonly known tomato.

Intellectual Revolutions and Society - The intellectual revolution changed the way people
perceive the influence of science on society in general. It focuses on three of the most important
intellectual revolutions in history: Copernican, Darwinian, and Freudian. By discussing these
intellectual revolutions in the context of science, technology, and society, the attention of students
is drawn again toward the complex interplay of the various social contexts and the development of
modern science.

The Copernican Revolution

The Copernican Revolution refers to the 16th-century paradigm shift named after the Polish
mathematician and astronomer, Nicolaus Copernicus. Copernicus formulated the heliocentric
model of the universe. At the time, the belief was that the earth was the center of the solar system
based on the geocentric model of Ptolemy.

Copernicus introduced the heliocentric model in a 40-page outline entitled Commentariolus. He

formalized his model in the publication of his treatise, The Revolution of Celestial Spheres in
1543. In his model, Copernicus repositioned the earth from the center of the Solar System and
introduced the idea that the earth rotates on its own axis. The model illustrated the earth, along
with the other heavenly bodies, to be rotating around the sun.

The idea that the sun is at the center of the universe instead of the earth proved to be
unsettling to many when Copernicus first introduced his model. In fact, the heliocentric model was
met with huge resistance, primarily from the church, accusing Copernicus of heresy. At the time,
the idea that it was not the earth, and, by extension, not
man, that was at the center of all creation was
unthinkable. Copernicus faced persecution from the
church because of this. However, despite the persecution
and the problems with the model, the heliocentric model
was soon accepted by other scientists of the time, most
profoundly by Galileo Galilei.

The contribution of the Copernican Revolution is

far-reaching. It served as a catalyst to sway scientific
thinking away from age-long views about the position of
the earth relative to the position to an enlightened
understanding of the universe. This marked the beginning
of modern astronomy. Although very slowly, the heliocentric model eventually caught on among
other astronomers who further refined the model and contributed to the recognition of
heliocentrism. This was capped off by Isaac Newton's work a century later. Thus, the Copernican
Revolution marked a turning point in the study of cosmology and astronomy making it a truly
important intellectual revolution. Below is the Copernicus Theory.

As you can see from the image, the sun is at the center of the solar system instead of the earth as
postulated by Ptolemy.

Charles Darwin
Famous for his theory of evolution, which posited that populations pass through a process of
natural selection in which only the fittest would survive. He published his book The Origin of
Species in 1589. His book presented evidence of how species evolved over time and presented
traits and adaptations that differentiate species.

In his book The Descent of Man, he introduced the idea of all organic life, including human beings,
under the realm of evolutionary thinking. His unorthodox way of pursuing science gave more value
to evidence-based science. It is a science marked by observation and experiment.

Sigmund Freud is known for his school of thought known as "Psychoanalysis." This school of
thought is a scientific method of understanding inner and unconscious conflicts embedded within
one's personality, springing from free associations, dreams, and fantasies of the individual. Below
is Freud's comparison of the mind to an iceberg.

Psychoanalysis immediately shot into controversy for it emphasized the existence of the
unconscious where feelings, thoughts, urges, emotions, and memories are contained outside of
one's conscious mind. Psychoanalytic concepts of psychosexual development, libido, and ego
were met with both support and resistance from many scholars. Freud suggested that humans
are inherently pleasure-seeking individuals. These notions were particularly caught in the crossfire
of whether Freud's psychoanalysis fit in the study of the brain and mind.

Scientists working on biological approaches to studying human behavior criticized psychoanalysis

for lack of validity and bordering on being scientific as a theory. Particularly, the notion that all
humans are destined to exhibit Oedipus and Electra complexes (the sexual desire towards the
parent of the opposite sex and exclusions of the parent of the same sex) did not seem to be
supported by empirical data. In the same way, it appeared to critics that psychoanalysis, then,
was more of an ideological stance than a scientific one. Amidst controversy, Freud's
psychoanalysis is widely credited for dominating psychotherapeutic practice in the early 20th
century.

The video explains Sigmund Freud's psychoanalysis. He discussed the three mental structures of
the mind which are the id, ego, and superego. These three structures are continuously in conflict
with one another. Also, he mentioned the stages of psychosexual development of individuals. The
first is the oral stage where the child gets its satisfaction from the mouth; the second is the anal
stage, the child undergoes toilet training; the third stage is the phallic stage where the child
develops complexes, the Electra complex (the girl is attracted to the father) and the Oedipal
complex ( the young boy is attracted to the mother); the fourth stage is the latency stage where
the child's focus is on education or learning, and the last stage is the genital stage where there is
a recurrence of the sex organs as the source of satisfaction.
Role of Science and Technology in Nation Building
The development of science and technology in the Philippines has already come a long way.
Many significant inventions and discoveries have been accomplished by or attributed to Filipinos.
The following time periods show the development of science and technology in the world:
● Pre-Colonial Period
● Colonial Period
● Post-Colonial Period

Pre-Colonial Period
Scientific and technological development in the Philippines began in the pre-colonial period. Even
before the Spaniards came to the Philippine islands, early Filipino settlers were already using
certain plants and herbs as medicines. Systems of farming and animal raising were also
implemented. Moreover, early Filipinos had also developed different modes of transportation,
whether terrestrial or maritime.

A complicated engineering feat was achieved by the natives of the Cordilleras when they built rice
terraces by hand. Through these terraces, the people were able to cultivate crops on the
mountain sides in cold temperatures. They incorporated an irrigation system that uses water from
the forests and mountain tops to achieve an elaborate fishing system. The rice terraces of the
Cordilleras, which are still functional, show the innovative and ingenious way of the natives to
survive in an otherwise unfriendly environment.

Colonial Period
Colonization by the Spaniards provided the Philippines with modern means of construction. Walls,
roads, bridges, and other large infrastructures were built using some of the engineering skills and
tools brought by the Spaniards. In addition, the Spanish government developed health and
education systems that were enjoyed by the principalia class.

The American occupation modernized almost all aspects of life in the Philippines. They
established a government agency, the Bureau of Science, for the sole purpose of nurturing
development in the field of science and technology.

Post-Colonial Period
After achieving independence from the colonizers, the Philippines, under different administrations,
continued to pursue programs in science and technology. Each leadership had its own science
and technology agenda.

Pres. Ferdinand Marcos - One of the presidents who ushered in advancements in science and
technology was the former president and dictator Ferdinand Marcos.

● He mandated the Department of Education and Culture (DECS) to promote science and
technology courses in public schools.
● He established the National Academy of Science and Technology (NAST)
● Philippine Atmospheric Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration
(PAGASA) in place of the abolished Weather Bureau;
● Agencies and organizations
● Philippines Coconut Research Institute (PHILCORIN),
● Philippine Textile Research Institute (PTRI),
● Philippines Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC)/Philippine Nuclear Institute
(PNI),
● National Grain Authority(PGA) /National Food Authority (NFA),
 ● Philippine Council for Agricultural Research (PCAR) /Philippine Council for
Agriculture, Aquatic, and Natural Resources and Development) (PCAANRD)
● Philippine National Oil Company (PNOC),
● Plant Breeding Institute (PBI),
● International Rice Research Institute (IRRI),
● Bureau of Plant Industry (BPI),
● Bureau of Forest Products (BFP), and
● National Committee on Geological Sciences (NCGS)

Pres. Corazon Aquino - National Science and Technology Authority (NSTA) was renamed to
Department of Science and Technology (DOST). DOST aimed to update the production sector,
improve research activities and develop infrastructures.

Pres. Fidel Ramos

● Competent scientists and engineers increased to approx. 3,000.
● Doctors to barrio program
● National program for gifted Filipino children in science and technology.
● Laws and Statutes
○ RA 8439 -Magna Carta for Scientist Engineers, Researchers, and other
personnel in government.
○ RA 7687 - Science and Technology Scholarship Act of 1994
○ RA7459 - Inventors and Inventions Incentives Act
○ RA 8293 - The Intellectual Property Code of the Philippines.

Pres. Joseph Estrada

● He mandated and implemented the following Laws:
○ RA 8749 - The Philippine Clean Air Act of 1999
○ RA 8792 - Electronic Commerce Act of 2000
● He implemented cost-effective irrigation technologies and provided basic health care
services.

Pres. Gloria M. Arroyo

● Filipinovation - the Philippines as an innovation hub in Asia
○ Laws
● RA 9367 - Biofuels Act
● RA 10601 - Agriculture and Fisheries Mechanization (AFMECH)

Pres. Benigno Aquino III

● Philippine Space Technology Program launched Diwata-1 in 2016
● New scientists were acknowledge
● Gavino C. Trono
● Angel C. Alcala
● Ramon C. Barba
● Edgardo D. Gomez

Pres. Rodrigo Duterte

● Budget research and development (R&D) increased six times over the same period.
● Give importance to agriculture and disaster preparedness.
● Philippine Space Technology Program launched Diwata-2 in 2018
● Build, Build, Build Project
Philippine Government
The Philippine government introduced and implemented several programs, projects, and policies
to boost the area of science and technology. The goal is to prepare the whole country and its
people to meet the demands of a technologically driven world and capacitate the people to live in
a world driven by science.

The National Research Council of the Philippines (NCRP) clustered these policies into four,
namely:
● Social Sciences, Humanities, Education, International Policies and Governanc
● Physics, Engineering and Industrial Research, Earth and Space Sciences, and
Mathematics
● Medical, Chemical, and Pharmaceutical Sciences
● Biological Sciences, Agriculture, and Forestry
DOST Projects
There are also other existing programs supported by the Philippine government through the
Department of Science and Technology (DOST).

Some of these projects are the following:

● Providing funds for basic research and patents related to science and technology
● Providing scholarships for undergraduate and graduate studies of students in the field of
science and technology
● Establishing more branches of the Philippine Science High School System
● Balik Scientist Program to encourage Filipino scientists abroad to come home and work
in the Philippines
● Developing science and technology parks on academic campuses to encourage
academe and industry partnerships
● The establishment of the National Science Complex and National Engineering Complex
within the University of the Philippines campus in Diliman.
● DOST-Logo — Pinoy Thaiyo

The Philippine-American Academy of Science and Engineering (PAASE, 2008) identified

several capacity-building programs such as:

Establishment of national centers of excellence;

● Manpower and institutional development programs, such as the Engineering and
Science Education Program (ESEP) to produce more Ph.D. graduates in science and
engineering
● Establishment of regional centers to support specific industries;
● Establishment of science and technology business centers to assist, advise, and
incubate technopreneurship ventures; and
● Strengthen science education at an early stage through the Philippine Science High
School system.
● UP experts join PAASE bid to improve lives via science and innovation – University of
the Philippines

Philippine-California Advanced Research Institutes (PCARI)

The Philippine - California Advanced Research Institutes (PCARI) Project is a new approach to
enhance the skills and expertise of faculty and staff of Philippine universities and colleges, through
scholarships, training, and research partnerships with top-notch research universities in California,
USA, in the priority areas of information infrastructure development (IID) and health innovation
and translational medicine (HITM).
Information infrastructure development refers to the technological and human components,
networks, systems, and processes that contribute to the creation, flow or exchange, processing,
and management of electronic information (adapted from Braa et al., 2007).
Health innovation and translational medicine refer to the bench-to-bedside translation of basic
scientific research to practicable diagnostic procedures and therapies with meaningful
improvements to physical, mental, or social health outcomes (adapted from Zerhouni, 2005).

VIRTUAL INSTITUTES - The project is going to be implemented by two virtual institutes:

● The Institute for Information Infrastructure Development will direct projects in
information technology, energy, e-government, and e-education; and
● The Institute for Health Innovation and Translational Medicine will direct projects in
health care through strategic technology, delivery, and training, to improve diagnosis,
treatment, and health services delivery in the ten major causes of morbidity and
mortality in the Philippines, such as asthma, diabetes, tuberculosis, dengue, and
diarrhea.

OUTSTANDING FEATURES OF THE PCARI PROJECT

The PCARI Project:

● Involves scholarship, training, and research;
● Focuses on two fields: information infrastructure development (IID) and health
innovation and translational medicine (HITM);
● Provides opportunities for direct collaboration between Philippine faculty researchers
and UC-based experts in order to build research capabilities and infrastructure in
Philippine universities and colleges;
● Attracts the best and the brightest with full support for research, which includes modern
equipment, attendance in conferences and state-of-the-art laboratories; and
● Addresses important problems of society using the best technologies, including the
development of technologies close to commercialization.

BENEFITS OF THE PCARI PROJECT

● Jobs in new competitive high-value-added industries and related support services in
information infrastructure in support of disaster risk management and response, energy
generation monitoring, e-governance, water resources management, and monitoring of
civil infrastructures, among others
● Affordable and efficient diagnostic kits, medical devices, and inexpensive drugs and the
creation of jobs to produce such to improve the diagnosis and treatment of the ten
highest causes of mortality and morbidity in the Philippines, such as dengue, asthma,
diabetes, tuberculosis
● Increase in the number of faculty-scientists and faculty-researchers with the capacity to
generate effective technologies to benefit society
● Improved research management skills especially in research grants administration and
international linkages
● World-class research institutes with state-of-the-art facilities for Information
Infrastructure Development Health Innovation and Translational Medicine

Science Schools in the Philippines - The Concept of Science Education

Science education focuses on teaching, learning, and understanding science.
● Teaching science involves exploring pedagogical theories and models in helping
teachers teach scientific concepts and processes effectively.
 ● Learning science includes both pedagogy and the most interesting aspect, which is
helping students understand and love science.
● Understanding science implies developing and applying science-process skills and
using science literacy in understanding the natural world and activities in everyday life.

Science Education in Basic and Tertiary Education

● In basic education, science education helps students learn important concepts and facts
that are related to everyday life including important skills such as process skills, critical
thinking skills, and life skills.
● In tertiary education, science education deals with developing students’ understanding
and appreciation of science ideas and scientific works. It also focuses on the
preparation of science teachers, scientists, engineers, and other professionals in
various science-related fields.

Science Schools in the Philippines

- Philippine Science High School System (PSHSS)
● A government program for gifted students in the Philippines
● A service institute of the Department of Science and Technology (DOST)
● Offers free scholarship basis for the secondary courses with special emphasis on
subjects pertaining to the sciences.

Special Science Elementary Schools (SSES) Project - This project started in June 2007 with
57 (or 60 since its inception) identified elementary schools that participated or were identified as
science elementary schools in the country.

The SSES Project aims to develop Filipino children equipped with scientific and technological
knowledge, skills, and values. Its mission is to:
● provide a learning environment to science-inclined children through a special curriculum
that recognizes the multiple intelligences of the learners;
● promote the development of lifelong learning skills; and
● foster the holistic development of the learners.
● Quezon City Regional Science High School
The school envisions serving as a venue for providing maximum opportunities for science-gifted
students to develop a spirit of inquiry and creativity.
● The focus of its curriculum is on science and technology
● It is well-supported by the local government unit and by the Parents and Teachers
Association (PTA).

Manila Science High School

- It is the first science high school in the Philippines.
Central Visayan Institute Foundation
- It is the home and pioneer of the prominent school-based innovation known as the
Dynamic Learning Program (DLP).

DLP is a synthesis of classical and modern pedagogical theories adapted to foster the highest
level of learning, creativity, and productivity.
- The school takes pride in its Research Center for Theoretical Physics (RCTP).