Republic of the Philippines

POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES

Office of the President of Branches and Campuses
SANTA MARIA, BULACAN CAMPUS
Santa Maria, Bulacan

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS FOR

CMPE 30141
COMPUTER ENGINEERING DRAFTING AND DESIGN

COMPILED BY:

ENGR. MYLA ROSALES CAPUNO, CE

FACULTY

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INTRODUCTION/OVERVIEW

This Instructional Materials (IMs) for Online Teaching System for Computer Engineering
Drafting and design might complete both lecture and design laboratory, and students can obtain
hands-on training even they are on their own homes. Generally, these manuals should be
discuss about the design process and prepare aspiring engineers to pursue their entry-level
skilled in terms of designing of diagrams, electrical and electronics system and parts and printed
circuit boards. Students will enhance their skilled in designing and making a simple activity that
will act as their actual learnings. They must learn about to analyze and to create a project that
will benefits every one of them by using Computer Aided Design softwares.

Lessons and Activity are based on the topics inside of this instructional materials. Learnings will
be gathered thru online discussion by using Zoom or other apps for meetings and interactions.
Activity will be posted using softwares.

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TABLE OF CONTENT

i. Introduction 2
ii. Course Outcome, Course Objective 5
I. Reviewed of AutoCAD Drawings, 6
Shortcut keys and other Commands
1. Commands 6-9
2. Keyboard Shortcut Keys 9-10
3. Status bar Toggle 11-14
4. General Commands 15-24
5. Performance Related Commands 24-29
6. Accessibility Commands 29-32
7. 3D commands 32 -36
8. Assessment/Activity 37
II. Block Diagrams and Flowcharts 38-39
1. What is the Difference between Flowcharts and Block Diagrams 36
2. Basic Flowcharts & Block Diagrams Symbols and Meanings 39
3. Type of Flowcharts and Block Diagrams 39-48
4. Assessment/Activity 49
III. Electrical, Electronics and Logic Components 50
1. Integrated Circuits 50-51
2. Different Types of Integrated Circuit 51-54
3. General Types of Integrated Circuits 54-58
4. Transmitters 58-59
5. Receivers 59-60
6. Transceivers 60
7. Basic Components Used in Electronics and Electricals 61-71
8. What is Integrated Circuits 71-74
9. Assessment/Activity 74-75
IV. Designation, Standards and Abbreviations 76
1. Introduction 76
2. Drawing Elements 76-82
3. Nomenclature 82-88
4. Drafting Practices 88-97
5. Positioning the Parts on the Drawing 97-102

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6. Types of Drawings 97-102
7. Numbering Systems for Drawings and Supporting Documentations 103-112
8. Engineering Order 112-117
9. Part List and Index List 117-121
10. Design References, Standards and Specifications 121-125
11. Assessment/Activity 125
V. Hand – Sketched Schematic Drawings 126
1. Technical Drawings 126-132
2. Sketching 132-135
3. Assessment/Activity 135
VI. Circuit Layout Simulation Tools 136-141
1. Assessment/Activity 141
VII. Wiring and Cabling Diagrams, Electronic Packaging 142
1. Electronic Packaging 142
2. Design Considerations 142-143
3. Packaging Materials 143-147
4. Assessment/Activity 148
VIII. PCB Design Process 149
1. What is Printed Circuit Board 149-150
2. Designing Process of PCB 150-155
3. Different Type of Printed Circuit Board 156-160
4. Assessment/Activity 161
IX. PCB Design Issues 162
1. Four Technical Issues to Avoid in PCB Design 162-164
2. Printed Circuit Board (PCB) Design Issues 164-183
3. Assessment/Activity 183
X. Reference 184

Course Outcomes:

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1. Student’s ability to familiarize and review more about the 2D and 3D drawings.
2. Student’s ability to create more effective and creative of diagrams in terms of block and
flowchart.
3. Students will be able to draw and design the electrical, electronics and its components.
4. Student’s ability to use architectural and engineering scales will increase.
5. Students ability to produce engineered drawings will improve.
6. Student’s ability to convert sketches to engineered drawings will increase.
7. Students will become familiar with wiring and cabling diagrams.
8. Students will become familiar PCB Design and Issues.
9. Students will develop good communication skills and team work.

Course Objectives:

In this competency-based course students will learn the fundamentals of drafting in a

modern, networked, computer lab using AutoCAD drafting software. The course will cover the
concepts and application of block diagrams, electronics and electrical system, and basic
dimensioning. Topics also include sketching and technical drawings and also PCB Design and
issues. Students will be introduced to 3-D visualization using computer wire frame and surface
modeling techniques. Advanced students will learn 3-D modeling techniques and have the
opportunity to use Autodesk’s Inventor Software. This course includes online instruction and
hands-on activity activities.

Lesson I:

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Reviewed of AutoCAD Drawings, Shortcut keys and other Commands

OBJECTIVE: This is to review the students for their learnings about commands in AutoCAD last
semester for the familiarization of all commands and keyboard shortcut keys.

Commands:

This is the list of some of the most basic AutoCAD commands which every AutoCAD
user should know. These are some of the Draw and Modify commands which make the very
basics of AutoCAD and if you are just starting to learn AutoCAD then you should know all of
these basic commands.

 L
 It can be used for making simple lines in the drawing.
 C
 It is the command used for making a circle in AutoCAD.
 PL
 This command can be used to make a Polyline in your drawing.
 REC
 This command will make a rectangle in AutoCAD.
 POL
 This command can be used to make a polygon with minimum of 3 sides and a maximum
of 1024 sides.
 ARC
 As the name suggests, this command can be used to make an arc in AutoCAD.
 ELLIPSE
 As the name suggests, this command can be used to make an ellipse with the major and
minor axis.

 REG

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 This command can be used to make a region geometry in AutoCAD.
 CO
 This command is used to copy object(s) in AutoCAD.

 ARRAY
 Using this command you can make Rectangular, polar or Path array.

 TRw
 This command is used for trimming a geometry.
 OP
 Using this command you can open options window which contains most of the settings
of AutoCAD.

 SC
 This command is used to change the scale of an object.
 B

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 This command is used for creating a block, the properties of the block can be defined
using the block definition window.

 I
 This command can be used to insert an existing block or a drawing as a block in
AutoCAD.
 ST
 Using this command you can open text style window which controls properties of the
default AutoCAD text style.
 X
 This command can be used to explode objects like Polyline to simple lines, an array or a
block to a simple geometry etc.
 F
 This command can be used to add rounded corners to the sharp edges of the geometry,
these round corners are also called fillets.
 CHA
 This command can be used to add slant edges to the sharp corners, these slant edges
are also called chamfers.
 LA
 This command can be used to open layer properties manage palette which is a tool for
creating and managing layers in a drawing.

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 Keyboard Shortcut Keys:

Keyboard shortcuts or hotkeys are the shortest and quickest way of activating some of
the common AutoCAD operations or commands. In this list I have included some of the most
frequently used and useful keyboard shortcuts.

 Ctrl + N
 You can use this shortcut to open a new drawing a tab in AutoCAD.
 Ctrl + S
 You can use this keyboard shortcut to save a drawing file.
 Ctrl + Shift + S
 You can use this keyboard shortcut to save the drawing as a new file, in short, this is the
hotkey for “save as” command.
 Ctrl + 0
 Clears screen to show only the drawing area and hides palettes and tabs. Press it again
to reset default AutoCAD interface.
 Ctrl + 1
 Select and object and press Ctrl + 1 to open the properties palette which lists properties
of the object. You can use this palette to modify most of the properties of the object too. You
can also use PR command to open the property palette.
 Ctrl + 2
 You can use it to open design center palette which contains many AutoCAD blocks that
can be used directly in your drawing.
 Ctrl + 9
 You can use this keyboard shortcut to toggle the visibility of the command line. If for
some reason your command line is hidden from the drawing area, then use this keyboard
shortcut to bring it back.

 Ctrl + C

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 Select objects from the drawing area and press Ctrl + C to copy to objects to the
clipboard.
 Ctrl + V
 To paste the copied objects of the clipboard in the drawing keeping their original
properties, you can use this keyboard shortcut.
 Ctrl + Shift + V
 To paste the copied objects as a block you can use this keyboard shortcut, the block
thus created will have a random set of characters as is name. You can use this keyboard
shortcut to make blocks quickly without going through the create block window.
 Ctrl + Z
 This keyboard shortcut can be used to undo last action in your drawing. You can press
this shortcut key multiple times to undo many actions.
 Ctrl + Y
 This keyboard shortcut can be used to redo the last undo action which you have
performed.
 Ctrl + Tab
 You can use this keyboard shortcut to cycle through all open drawing tabs in AutoCAD.

Status bar Toggle

The status bar is an important feature of AutoCAD user interface and its tools are
required quite frequently while making or editing your drawing hence they are available on
status bar for easy access. You can activate or deactivate status bar icons using keyboard
shortcuts, commands or by clicking on its respective icon.

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In this section, I have listed the most frequently used status bar options along with their
properties and uses.

 F7
 This status bar tool will toggle the visibility of background grid which is often visible in
your drawing area.
 F9
 Toggle Snap mode, when snap mode is active AutoCAD cursor will jump to specific
points in the drawing area which is defined in snap mode.

 DYNMODE

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  By default the value of this system variable is set to -3 which keeps it off you change this
system variable to 3 to make dynamic input active. Dynamic input allows you to add information
dynamically on the cursor tooltip.

 F8
 Toggles ortho mode on/off. When ortho mode is on you can make lines either
horizontally or vertically only.
 F10
 Toggles Polar tracking on/off. With polar tracking active you can make lines inclined to
any angle which is defined in the polar tracking increment angle.
 ISODRAFT
 Using this toggle you can activate the isometric drawing plane in AutoCAD. You can
select from Isoplane Left, Isoplane Top and Isoplane Right. You can also toggle between
different isoplanes using F5 function key. The default value of ISODRAFT option is
orthographic.
 F11
 Toggles Object snap tracking on/off. Using this option you can track snap points of
geometries like center, midpoint, endpoint etc. and make geometries with their reference.
 F3
 One the most important status bar toggles. This function key activates/deactivates object
snap option, when object snap is active you will be able to snap your cursor to some exact
points in the geometry like End, center, quadrant, tangent etc. This option allows you to make
precise AutoCAD drawings.

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  LWDISPLAY
 This system variable toggles the visibility of lineweight in a drawing. The default value of
this system variable is OFF which keeps the lineweight display off you can change its value to
ON to keep lineweight visible in the drawing area.
 TRANSPARENCYDISPLAY
 Just like lineweight this status variable allows you to toggle the visibility of transparency
of an object. You change the value of this system variable to 1 to make transparency visible or 0
if you want to make it invisible.
 SELECTIONCYCLING
 Using this system variable you can select overlapping objects very easily. When the
value of this system variable is set to 2, an overlapping icon and a menu containing a list of
overlapping objects appear and you can select the required object from this list.

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 If you set the value of this system variable to 1, only the overlap icon appears not
the menu. You can turn this off by changing the value of this system variable to 0.
 F6
 Dynamic UCS can be activated or deactivated using this function key. Using dynamic
UCS you can make geometries directly of the face or another 3D object irrespective of the
position of UCS. You can also toggle dynamic UCS using UCSDETECT system variable, the
values of this system variable can be 1 for ON and 0 for OFF.

GRAPHICSCONFIG

 Using this status bar option you can open Graphics configuration window which is used
to change settings related to display and graphics properties of AutoCAD. You can also use
3DCONFIG for opening the graphics performance window.

 General Commands

These are some of the commands which can be frequently used in your drawing workflow to
improve your overall efficiency. You might be familiar with many of these commands but there
are also some commands which are really helpful still they remain largely unused.

 BCOUNT
 This command is useful for counting the number of blocks in your drawing. It reports
the number of each instance of block used in the drawing along with its name. To count the
block it should be visible in the drawing area.

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 TXTEXP
 Using this command you can convert single line as well as multiline text into geometries.
 XLINE (XL)
 Using this command you can make infinite lines starting from the point of selection.
When you trim or break this infinite line to a finite length it becomes a simple line geometry.
 POINT (PO)
 This command makes a single point geometry in the drawing. To modify the type of point
created by this command you can use PTYPE command and choose the desired point
type from Point Style window.
 REVCLOUD
 Using this command you can make a revision cloud geometry by freehand sketching.
 SKETCH
 You can make a freehand sketch using this command. You can use Line, Polyline or
Spline as the object type for making this freehand sketch.
 MULTIPLE
 If you want to repeat any command without pressing enter key then use MULTIPLE
command. To cancel repetition of command press ESC key.
 NCOPY
 Use this command to copy nested objects from a block or Xref without exploding them.
 ‘CAL
 Using this subcommand you can perform calculations directly on the AutoCAD
command line even when you are in the middle of a command. You can start this subcommand
by entering ‘CAL (don’t forget to add an apostrophe before CAL) while running any other
command. Explodes the block containing attributes retaining the attribute setting and its layer
definition. This is especially helpful if you want to retain the text of attribute after exploding the
block.

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  SP
 Using this command you can check the spelling of selected text and correct the spellings
from Check Spelling window.
 ARCTEXT
 This command can be used to write arc aligned text in AutoCAD. You can use this
command to even write text aligned to a circle. More about this command can be found in this
related article.
 OOPS
 This command can be used to restore the last deleted object in your drawing. After
deleting an object if you made many other changes in the drawing and realized that you might
need to restore the deleted object then simply type OOPS and press enter.
 CHSPACE
 This command can be used to change the space of an object from model space to paper
space and vice versa. See the animated image shown below for reference.

 DIVIDE
 You can use this command to divide any 2D geometry into many equal parts. At each
point of division, a point geometry will be added on the 2D curve. More about this command can
be found in this related article.
 RENAME
 If you need to rename any named object like layer, block or linetype simply use this
command to rename it. More about this command can be found in this related article.
 BREAK

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 This command can be used to break 2D geometries at one or two points. It is helpful if
you want to break a curve at the point of intersection with other curve or if you want to create a
gap by breaking a part of the geometry.

 TIME
 Using this command you can find a lot of information about your drawing like the date
when the drawing was created and total editing time consumed on the drawing.

 QSELECT
 This command can be used to make the selection from your drawing with filters. As an
example, you can use quick select to make a selection set containing all circles of the drawing
with the radius of a particular value.
 DI
 It can be used to find the distance between two points in the drawing.
 COPYBASE
 Using this command you can copy any object using a base point.

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 PASTECLIP
 You can paste the copied objects from clipboard to your drawing using this command. If
you use COPYBASE to copy the objects then you will be able to paste it in the same or another
drawing with the selected base point.
 LIST
 Using this command you can find lots of properties of an object like the layer they are
on, area, length or radius, perimeter or circumference and a lot more. To use this command
simply type LIST on the command line then press enter and select the object from drawing area
about which you want to know and press enter again.

 DIM
 This command was introduced in AutoCAD 2016 version and it can be used to make
most of the dimensions like Linear, aligned, radius, diameter and baseline. To access this
command you can use DIM command or select the DIM tool from dimensions panel of Annotate
tab.

 TOLERANCE
 If you want to add a feature control frame representing tolerance related information in
your drawing then you can use this command.

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 SCALETEXT
 Using this command you can change the scale of existing Text or Mtext object in the
drawing. To use this command type SCALETEXT on the command line press enter and select
the text from drawing area and press Enter again.
 Now select “Existing” option from the command line and then select “scale factor” option
and then type the scale in which you want to convert the text height and press enter. When the
scale of these text entities are changed the base point will remain fixed.
 BASE
 Using this command you can change the base point of a drawing without changing its
origin. This is especially helpful in the situation where you want to insert the drawing into
another as an Xref. By default, AutoCAD takes origin as the base point which can be modified
using this command without changing the origin.
 DWGPREFIX
 If you have a drawing open in AutoCAD and you don’t know the location where it is
saved you can simply type DWGPREFIX command to look it. This command can be used to
quickly find the location of Xref’s attached in the drawing.

 TJUST
 Using this command you can change the text justification of Text and Mtext elements in
the drawing.
 UNITS
 Using this command you can set the drawing units and other settings like the precision
of linear and angular dimensions and default rotation angle.

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  ML
 Using this command you can make a multiline geometry which contains multiple parallel
lines.
 TINSERT
 You can insert a block or a drawing as a block in the table using this command. You can
also fit the block in the table cell and also justify its location automatically with TINSERT
dialogue box. I have made a simple table by importing blocks of design center as shown in the
image below.

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  MIRRTEXT
 By default, AutoCAD does not mirror text in the drawing but if you want to mirror the text
of your drawing then change the value of MIRRTEXT system variable to 1.

 AREA
 As the name suggests this command can be used to find the area of closed or open
shapes in the AutoCAD drawing. To know more about finding the area in AutoCAD drawings
refer to this related article.
 TORIENT
 Using this command you can reorient text entities in a best readable position. In image A
below the text is oriented at different angles and in some of the situations, the text is not
properly readable. Whereas in image B below TORIENT command has been used to make the
text readable for all angles.

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 ID
 This command can be used to find the coordinate values of a point in AutoCAD drawing.
 MINSERT
 Using this command you can insert existing blocks of a drawing as a rectangular array
component. An array added using MINSERT command can’t be exploded.
 BOUNDARY
 Using this command you can extract closed boundaries from any enclosed area. This
boundary can be used to find the area of the enclosed region or for many other applications. In
the image below the boundary of the area mentioned as A has been extracted as a polyline
using BOUNDARY command.

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  DIMROTATED
 This command can be used to make a dimension line inclined to a particular angle with
respect to the positive side of the X-axis. In the example shown below the dimensions are made
with DIMROTATED command.

 BREAKLINE
 You can use this tool to make a Breakline symbol on a line. Type BREAKLINE on the
command line and press enter then click on scale option of the command line and apply an
appropriate scale to the breakline.
 Select the starting and end points of the breakline then click at any point on the line to
specify the location of breakline or directly press enter to place it exactly at the center of the line.

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 TXT2MTXT
 Using this command you can convert a text object into a Mtext object and you can also
combine multiple separate Mtext objects into a single Mtext unit.
 SAVEALL
 As the name suggests this command can be used to save all of the open drawings in
AutoCAD window.

Performance Related Commands

There are many best practices that you follow to keep your AutoCAD software and PC in great
working condition and there are also many inbuilt tools and commands in AutoCAD that help
you in keeping the performance of your software properly optimized. In this section, you will find
all those performance and optimization related commands which you can use in your daily
workflow.

 PURGE
 This command can be used to remove unused named objects like layers, blocks and
dimension styles from the drawing.
 LAYDEL
 Using this command you can delete some of the most stubborn layers from your drawing
which can’t be removed using PURGE command. This command can also remove Defpoints
layer and also layer containing objects but I would not recommend that.
 FILLMODE
 Using this system variable you can turn off or on the visibility of filled area in hatches or
wide polylines by changing its value to 0 or 1 respectively. By turning the FILLMODE to off you

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can enhance the performance of AutoCAD by limiting resources consumed on regenerating
the filled geometries.
 You need to regenerate the drawing using REA command after changing this system
variable to see its effect on the drawing.

 APERTURE
 This system variable controls the area of influence of object snap. The aperture size as
defined by this system variable is the area of the square under which the point will be selected if
the cursor is brought into it. The default value of this aperture is 10 but depending on the
complexity of the drawing you can change this value between 1-50.
 The size of the aperture is relative to the current scale of the screen and it is not an
absolute value. In the image below the red box (not visible in AutoCAD) is the aperture size for
two values 10 and 50 respectively.

 OVERKILL
 Use this command to remove overlapping or unnecessary geometries from the drawing.
 ISAVEPERCENT

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  You can change the value of this system variable to reduce the time it takes to save a
drawing. This system variable also affects file size of AutoCAD drawings and its compatibility
with other softwares.
 By decreasing the value of this system variable you can increase its compatibility with
other softwares and it also decreases the size of the CAD file but the time consumed in save
operation generally increases. When you increase the value of this system variable opposite
happens.
 The default value of this system variable is 50 and it can be changed from 0 to 100.
 SELECTIONPREVIEW
 When hovering the cursor over any object a preview will appear if the value of this
system variable is set to 3. You can remove this preview thereby improve the performance by
changing the value of this system variable to 0.
 HIGHLIGHT
 This system variable is also similar to SELECTIONPREVIEW but in this case, the object
will appear highlighted when selected. Its default value is 1 but you can turn off this highlight
effect by changing its value to 0.
 RECOVERALL
 This command repairs a corrupted or damaged drawing along with all of its attached
Xref’s.
 LAYMCH
 Using this command you can change the layers of selected objects. To use this
command type LAYMCH on the command line and press enter key then select objects whose
layer assignment you want to change and press enter then select any object of the layer which
you want to apply on selected objects and press enter key again.
 PICKBOX
 Using this system variable you can change the size of Pickbox which appears at the
cursor of AutoCAD. The default value of this system variable is 3 and you can change its value
from 0 to 50.
 STARTMODE
 This system variable will toggle the visibility of start tab at the beginning of the AutoCAD
application. By default the value of this system variable is 1 which allows start screen to appear,
you can change this value to 0 if you don’t want to see the start screen.
 CLOSEALL

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  If you have multiple tabs open in your AutoCAD window and you don’t want to manually
close them one by one then you can simply use CLOSEALL command to close all the open
windows. AutoCAD will prompt you with the save dialogue box before closing all unsaved
drawings and it will take you to start screen after closing all of the drawings.

 FILEDIA
 This system variable suppresses the dialog box that opens up when invoking certain
commands like Save, Save As and Export. The default value of this system variable is 1 which
allows the dialog box to open. When you, however, change the value of this system variable to
0 the command will run on the command line and the dialog box will not open.
 AUDIT
 This command should be used for removing errors from your drawing. It is always a
good practice to keep checking your drawing file with AUDIT tool for errors.
 RECOVER
 This command is similar to the AUDIT command but it is useful for the drawings which
are corrupted to such an extent that you can’t even open it. More about drawing repair tools can
be found in this related article.

 MA

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 This command is a great time saver if you want to copy properties of one object on other
without changing its geometry or contents.
 CLOSEALLOTHER
 Using this command you can close all open drawing windows except the current drawing
window.

 TEXTFIT
 Using this command you can shrink or expand the text entities in a drawing to fit in the
required area. In the example below I have fitted the AutoCAD text within the rectangle using
TEXTFIT command.
 WIPEOUT
 Using wipeout command you can clean background in a crowded drawing to make
overlaying objects clear against the background. In the image shown below Wipeout command
has been used to clean the area around the second hook. You can use WIPEOUTFRAME
system variable and change its value to 0 to remove wipeout frame boundary also.
 DWGUNITS
 Using this command you can convert your AutoCAD drawing from one unit to another
and you can also scale the existing drawing to new scales automatically, you can know more
about this command in the related article.

 TEXTMASK
 Using this command you can automatically create a masking behind the text to make it
clearly visible against the crowded background. In the image below Textmask has not been
applied for the first case and in the second case, it has been applied.
 LAYMRG

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 If you want to merge layers of multiple objects then this command is for you. Type
LAYMRG press enter key then select the objects whose layers you want to change then press
enter again. Select any object of target layer on which you want to transfer the selected objects
and press enter again.
 All the objects of the selected layer will be transferred to the end layer and also the
selected layer will be removed.
 DS
 Using this command you can open the drafting settings window which can be used to
change settings related to status bar options like object snap, polar tracking, snap and grid
settings.
 LAYWALK
 Using this command you can check all the objects which are on a particular layer. When
you use LAYWALK command a list with all layers appears on the screen and you can click on
any of the layer(s) from the list and objects from that layer(s) will only become visible in the
drawing area. The original status of layer and object visibility is restored once you close
LAYWALK window.
 CENTERMARK
 This tool was added in the AutoCAD 2017 version and it allows you to create center
mark easily on a circle or arc.
 CENTERLINE
 As the name suggests you can add a centerline easily between parallel or intersecting
lines using this tool. See the related article for more on Centermark and Centerline tools.

 TABLET
 If for some reasons you are looking to use Tablet as pointing and navigation device in
AutoCAD then you can use this command to turn the Tablet input on and off. The Tablet can be
turned on and off using TABMODE system variable also.

Accessibility Commands

These commands will help you in making your overall drawing workflow faster and efficient by
eliminating the need for using many repetitive tasks. It is always a great practice to use as fewer
steps as possible to keep the drawing workflow easy and also to avoid unnecessary data in your
drawing, and the commands of this section will help you in achieving just that.

29
 TEXTSCR
 This command will open a text window which has a history of recently used commands.
 BATTMAN
 This tool can be used to modify the attribute information of blocks containing attributes.
 3DCONFIG
 You can use this command to turn on/off hardware acceleration or change the graphics
related properties of AutoCAD like smooth line display and high-quality graphics display.

 SEEK
 This command will redirect you to BIMobject.com page (formerly Autodesk seek) which
is a CAD and BIM object catalog. It is one of the great places to get blocks for your projects.
 FS
 Using this command you can select objects which are connected to the selected object
in the drawing area. The behavior of this command is controlled by FSMODE system variable, if
the value of FSMODE is OFF then FS command will select only the selected object and one
object that is directly connected to the selected object.

30
  If the value of FSMODE is ON then FS command will select the selected object as well
as all the objects connected to it and its next connected object in the series. This selection
series continues as long as the command finds connected objects.
 TEXTTOFRONT
 Using this command you can bring TEXT, Dimensions and Leader lines on the front of
all underlying objects like hatches. This command is especially helpful if you want to bring
multiple annotations to the front of all drawings objects without changing their draw order
selectively.
 PUBLISH
 Using this command you can print multi-sheet files directly, unlike PLOT command
which only plots single sheet this command will allow you to plot multiple sheets or even all of
the sheets of the drawing directly.
 ISOLATE
 Using this command you can hide all objects from the drawing area except the selected
objects. By hiding unnecessary objects from drawing you can get a clean work area. To bring
back all the hidden object back to the drawing select UNISOLATE or UNHIDE command.
 HIDEOBJECTS
 This command is similar to ISOLATE command but in this case, you can hide selected
objects keeping remaining objects visible. In this case, also you can bring back hidden objects
by using UNHIDE or UNISOLATE command.
 GROUP
 Using this command you can group multiple objects as a single unit. This command is
great for making groupings of the similar type of objects like a group of similar blocks. To break
this group you can use UNGROUP command.

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  ADCENTER
 This command can be used to bring Design Center palette in the drawing area. You can
also use CTRL+2 key to open the design center palette. To know more about the design center
go to the related article.
 IMPORT
 Using this command you can import drawings of many different formats in AutoCAD, the
list of all supported formats is shown in the image below.
 FIELD
 Fields are dynamic text information which can add a lot of intelligence to your drawing by
keeping data interlinked and updated. Fields are extensively used in the sheet set and layout
drawings and they can be used to automate a lot of information in AutoCAD drawings.
 You can start the Field window using FIELD command of AutoCAD.
 WBLOCK
 If you want to export a certain part of your drawing or any of its blocks to an external file
then you can use write block tool or its command equivalent WBLOCK.

3D Commands

This section has some noteworthy AutoCAD 3D commands related to solid, surface and mesh
modelling. You might be familiar with many of these commands but there are also many
commands which are not frequently used despite their great features.

 THICKEN
 Using this command you can convert a surface into a 3D solid by adding thickness to it.
 CONVTOSOLID
 Using this command you can convert 3D mesh and watertight objects made with
surfaces to 3D solid and you can also control whether converted solid is smooth or faceted.
 POLYSOLID
 Using this command you can make a 3D wall-like shape as shown in the image here,
you can also define height and thickness of this poly solid using command line options.

32
 DELOBJ
 This system variable controls the behavior or 2D curves when 3D tools like Extrude,
Press pull and Sweep is used. You can change the value of this system variable so that
AutoCAD either retains or deletes curves after converting them to 3D.
 VOLUME
 Using this command you can find the volume of a 3D solid as well as lots of other
information like its moment of inertia, radius of gyration, centroid, and products of inertia.

33
 XEDGES
 You can extract edges of a 3D solid as 2D geometries using this tool. In the image
shown here the XEDGES tool has been used to extract the edges of the 3D solid and then the
solid geometry has been moved to reveal the edges only.

 REGEN3
 This command was introduced in AutoCAD 2017.1 update and it is especially helpful in
removing the 3D graphics related anomalies and surface tessellations.
 SECTIONPLANE
 Using this command you can create a section plane in the drawing that can be used to
see the 3D drawings by sectioning them along different planes.
 FLATSHOT
 This command is great for converting a 3D drawing into 2D and using this command you
can also create multiple views of a single 3D drawing like the front, top and isometric on a single
plane. To know more about this command follow the related article.
 INTERFERE
 This command can be used to detect intersecting 3D solids. The command is especially
useful in situations where you want to detect clashes between different solids like pipes and
walls.
 PROJECTGEOMETRY
 Using this command you can project a 2D curve on a 3D surface, solid or region as
shown in the animated image below.

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 Shell (SOLIDEDIT)
 Using this command you can convert a 3D solid into a hollow solid with a wall thickness.
To use this command type SOLIDEDIT on the command line press enter type B press enter
again type S and press enter again. Alternatively, you can also select the shell tool from Solid
editing panel of the Solid tab.
 SURFPATCH
 Using this command you can fill the open areas of a surface like the top of a cylinder as
shown in the animated image below.

 HELIX
 As the name suggests this command can be used to make a helix in AutoCAD drawing.
 Move face (SOLIDEDIT)

35
 Using this tool you can move faces like a groove of a 3D solid from one point to other as
shown in the animated image below. For using this tool type SOLIDEDIT on the command line
press enter then type F press enter then type M and press enter again.

 SURFTRIM
 This command is similar to the trim command of 2D drawings but in this case, it will trim
surfaces instead of 2D geometries.
 3DALIGN
 Using this command you can align a 3D solid object with respect to another 3D solid,
this video explains the use of this command in detail.
 SURFOFFSET
 Using this command you can offset any surface inside, outside or on both sides of the
surface as shown in the animated image below.

 SOLIDHIST
 Using this tool you can record the history of solids on which Boolean operations are
performed and you can modify these solids later.

36
 In the image below Subtract operation is performed on two solids and then the amount
of removed part is changed by selecting the Cone by pressing CTRL key then changing its base
radius.

 By default, the value of this system variable is 0 which keeps this feature off but you
can turn it on by changing its value to 1.
 IMPRINT
 Using this command you can imprint 2D drawings on planar faces of a 3D solid or a
surface to create additional faces for 3D tools like Press pull.
 Did we miss any command or tool which should be included in this list? Let us know in
the comments below.

Assessment/Activity No.1: REVIEW OF AUTOCAD COMMANDS AND KEYBOARD

SHORTCUT KEYS

Objectives: To review the students to test if they remember the commands and keyboard
shortcut keys in AutoCAD software.

Intended Learning Outcomes:

1. Familiarization of Commands and Keyboard Shortcut keys of AutoCAD.

Materials: AutoCAD software

Activity Process:

37
1. Instructor will prepare all commands in a bottle then pick 5 commands inside the battle
then students perform it one-by-one using their share screen to see if they remember all the
commands in AutoCAD during review.

Assignments: Improvised Handbook AutoCAD Commands and Keyboard Shortcut Keys

Objectives: To ensure the availability of the learning tools for students by creating a simple
improvised Hand-book materials containing all commands and keyboard shortcut keys in
AutoCAD.

Procedures:

1. Print/Write all the Command and Keyboard Shortcut Keys alphabetically in a short/long
bond paper.
2. Compile it like a book then use as a tools for performing AutoCAD.
3. It will consider as Project No. 1 to be checked before Mid-Term.

38
 Lesson II:

Block Diagrams and Flowcharts

A Block Diagram – is a diagram of a system in which the principal parts or functions

are represented by blocks connected by lines that show the relationships of the blocks. They
are heavily used in engineering in hardware design, electronic design, software design, and
process flow diagrams.
A Flowchart – is a type of diagram that represents an algorithm, workflow or process.
The flowchart shows the steps as boxes of various kinds, and their order by connecting the
boxes with arrows. This diagrammatic representation illustrates a solution model to a given
problem

What Is The Difference Between Flowchart And Block Diagram?

FLOWCHARTS
Process Flowcharts
The main reason of using Process Flowchart or PFD is to show relations between major
parts of the System.

Process Flowcharts are used in process engineering and chemical industry where there is a
requirement of depicting relationships between major components only and not include minor
parts. Process Flowcharts for single unit or multiple units differ in their structure and
implementation.

Concept Draw PRO is Professional business process mapping software for making Process
flowcharts, Process flow diagram, Workflow diagram, flowcharts and technical illustrations for
business documents and also comprehensive vision for mac application. Easier define and
document basic work and data flows, financial, production and quality management processes
to increase efficiency of your business with Concept Draw PRO. Business process mapping
software with Flowchart Maker Concept Draw PRO includes extensive drawing tools, rich
examples and templates, process flowchart symbols and shape libraries, smart connectors that
allow you create the flowcharts of complex processes, process flow diagrams, procedures and
information exchange.

39
Process Flowchart Solution is project management workflow tools which is part Concept
Draw Project marketing project management software. Drawing charts, diagrams, and network
layouts has long been the monopoly of Microsoft Visio, making Mac users to struggle when
needing such vision alternative like vision for mac, it requires only to view features, make a
minor edit to, or print a diagram or chart. Thankfully to MS Visio alternative like Concept Draw
PRO software, this is cross-platform charting and business process management tool, now
vision alternative for making sort of vision diagram is not a problem anymore however many
people still name it business process vision tools.

Basic Flowchart Symbols and Meaning

Flowcharts are the best for visually representation the business processes and the flow of a
custom-order process through various departments within an organization. Concept Draw PRO
diagramming and vector drawing software extended with Flowcharts solution offers the full set
of predesigned basic flowchart symbols which are gathered at two libraries: Flowchart and
Flowcharts Rapid Draw. Among them are: process, terminator, decision, data, document,
display, manual loop, and many other specific symbols. The meaning for each symbol offered
by Concept Draw gives the presentation about their proposed use in professional Flowcharts for
business and technical processes, software algorithms, well-developed structures of web sites,
Workflow diagrams, Process flow diagram and correlation in developing on-line instructional
projects or business process system. Use of ready flow chart symbols in diagrams is incredibly
useful - you need simply drag desired from the libraries to your document and arrange them in
required order. There are a few serious alternatives to Visio for Mac, one of them is Concept
Draw PRO. It is one of the main contender with the most similar features and capabilities.

40
Types of Flowcharts

A Flowchart is a graphical representation of process, algorithm, workflow or step-by-step

solution of the problem. It shows the steps as boxes of various kinds and connects them by
arrows in a defined order depicting a flow.

There are twelve main Flowchart types:

 Basic Flowchart,
 Business Process Modeling Diagram (BPMN)
 Cross Functional Flowchart
 Data Flow Diagram (DFD)
 IDEF (Integrated Definition)
 Flowchart, Event-driven Process Chain (EPC) Diagram
 Influence Diagram (ID)
 Swimlane Flowchart, Process Flow Diagram (PFD)
 Specification and Description Language (SDL) Diagram
 Value Stream Mapping
 Workflow Diagram.

41
 Using the Flowcharts solution from the Diagrams area of Concept Draw Solution Park
you can easy and quickly design a Flowchart of any of these types. This solution offers a lot of
special predesigned vector symbols for each of these widely used notations. They will make the
drawing process of Flowcharts much easier than ever. Pay also attention for the included
collection of ready Flowchart examples, samples and quick-start templates. This is business
process improvement tools. If you are looking for MS Visio for your Mac, then you are out of
luck, because it hasn't been released yet. However, you can use Visio alternatives that can
successfully replace its functions. Concept Draw PRO is an alternative to MS Visio for Mac that
provides powerful features and intuitive user interface for the same.

Cross-Functional Flowchart

Use of Cross-Functional Flowchart is a clear way of showing each team member’s

responsibilities and how processes get shared or transferred between different responsible
people, teams and departments.
Use the best flowchart maker Concept Draw PRO with a range of standardized cross-functional
flowchart symbols to create the Cross-Functional Flowcharts simply and to visualize the
relationship between a business process and the functional units responsible for that process.
To draw the most quickly Cross-Functional Flowcharts, Cross Functional Process Maps,
or Cross Functional Process Flow Diagrams, start with a Cross-functional flowchart samples
and templates from Concept Draw Solution Park. The Concept Draw Arrows10 and Rapid Draw
technologies will be also useful for you in drawing. Concept Draw PRO supports designing both
types - horizontal and vertical Cross-functional flowcharts. A vertical layout makes the accents
mainly on the functional units while a horizontal layout - on the process. If you need a Visio
alternative in Mac OS X, try Concept Draw PRO. Its interface is very intuitive and it’s actually
much easier to use than Visio, yet somehow it’s just as powerful if not more so. Concept Draw
PRO performs professional quality work and seamless Visio interaction.

Functional Flow Block Diagram

You need to draw a Functional Flow Block Diagram? You are an artist? Now it doesn't
matter. With Block Diagrams solution from the "Diagrams" area for Concept Draw Solution Park
you don't need more to be an artist to design the Functional Flow Block Diagram of any
complexity.

42
UML Block Diagram

Use Case Diagram Taxi Service UML. This sample was created in ConceptDraw PRO
diagramming and vector drawing software using the UML Use Case Diagram library of the
Rapid UML Solution from the Software Development area of ConceptDraw Solution Park. This
sample shows the work of the taxi service and is used by taxi stations, by airports, in the tourism
field and delivery service.

Basic Diagramming

43
 “Functional
Flow Block Diagram”, or
“FFBD” – is a time-
sequenced and “step-by-
step” flow diagram, with
the help of which it is
convenient to describe some
system’s functional flow.

The “Functional
Flow Block Diagram
notation” was developed in the 50s, and it is quite widely used in classical systems engineering.
“Functional Flow Block Diagrams” are the ones, used in the classic business process while
modelling different methodologies, as well as flow charts, control flow diagrams, so-called
“PERT” diagrams, “IDEF”, “Gantt” charts and flow charts. “Functional Flow Block Diagrams”
can be also known as “Functional Flows”, “Functional Flow Diagrams” or “Functional Block
Diagrams”.

“Functional Flow Block Diagrams” are usually made using a number of different levels.
With their aid it is simpler to show the same tasks, which are identified through functional
decomposition and so to display these tasks in their logical and sequential relations. These
diagrams can be used for developing the requirements and for identifying the profitable trade
studies. This kind of diagram helps incorporate the alternate as well as contingency operations
and, as a result, to improve the probability of the particular mission success.

Using the flow diagrams, it is simpler to provide an understanding of some operation of

the system in general. These diagrams can be used as a basis for development of both
contingency and operational procedures. The pinpoints areas can be also mentioned on the
flow diagrams and with the help of them it is also possible to represent different means of
satisfying some function, but it is important to take into consideration, that each of the functions
which are described with the aid of “FFBD” should be separated and so represented in a way of
a single box. Function numbering: Each stage should have an according number scheme and
provide the data regarding function origin. These numbers establish identification and
relationships that will carry through all Functional Analysis and Allocation activities and facilitate
traceability from lower to top levels.

44
 There are a few principles, which is always better to follow in terms of creating the
functional flow block diagrams. First of all, each of the diagrams should contain a reference to
other functional diagrams in a way of using some particular functional reference. Secondly, the
lines, created within such diagrams, (those, which show the connections between different
functions) should indicate a function flow, but not an intermediate activity. Also these diagrams
should be laid out for the flow direction to go from the left side to the right one. There are often
arrows used within such diagrams and they are there for indicating the different functional flows.
A circle also can be used while making such diagram and it can be used for denoting a
summing gate. “Bar G” and “G” are used for denoting such conditions as “go” and “no-go”. On
such block diagram a function should be represented in a way of a rectangle which contains the
function’s title as well as its unique decimal delimited number. A horizontal line can be used too
and it is usually there for separating the number from the title itself.

The basic logic symbols for making any “Functional Flow Block Diagram” can be: “AND”
(shows the condition when all of the succeeding or the preceding paths are required; this
symbol may contain an input with a few outputs or a few inputs with a single output, but never
mixed multiple inputs and outputs), “Exclusive OR” (described a condition, when only one of the
multiple succeeding or preceding paths is required, but never all of them; this symbol may
contain an input with a few outputs, or a few inputs with an output, but never mixed inputs and
outputs) and “Inclusive OR” (describes a condition when a few or all of the multiple succeeding
or preceding paths are being required).

Every “Functional Flow Block Diagram” should contain a name of the person or an
organization, which created this diagram, a date, showing when this diagram was created, a
unique number of the function, which is diagrammed, and also a unique function name of that
function, which is being diagrammed.

There are so many other block diagrams as well as “flow” ones, apart from the
Functional Flow Block Diagram and you can always make any wanted with the help of
ConceptDraw DIAGRAM as this software allows you to make the needed chart, flowchart,
scheme, plan, schematics, drawing, diagram, including any of the existing “flow diagrams” and
“block diagrams” within only a very short period of time as the Block Diagrams solution from the
"Diagrams" area for ConceptDraw Solution Park, which can be found on this site and so
downloaded for using, provides the necessary tools, including the examples of Functional Flow
Block Diagrams of any complexity which can be used for making your own great looking
diagram in ConceptDraw DIAGRAM

45
 Having ConceptDraw DIAGRAM software as well as the needed solutions can simplify
your work with making any needed drawing as well as save your time as it is well known that
“time is money”, so getting the convenient and very useful application can save both — your
time and your money. Try it as well as solutions and see the difference with any other
applications you ever used.

You need to draw a Functional Flow Block Diagram? You are an artist? Now it doesn't
matter. With Block Diagrams solution from the "Diagrams" area for ConceptDraw Solution Park
you don't need more to be an artist to design the Functional Flow Block Diagram of any
complexity.

46
Example 1. Functional Flow Block Diagram - Total Solution Process

Block Diagrams Solution includes 5 libraries with 190 vector objects which will allow to draw any
Functional Flow Block Diagram:

 Block Diagrams
 Raised Blocks
 Blocks with Perspective
 Callouts
 Connectors

47
Example 2. Block Diagrams Library Design Elements

Don't forget to use the colors, to make color accents — they help to make your diagram
bright, beautiful, attractive, and certainly successful on various conferences, in publications, etc.

48
Example 3. Functional Flow Block Diagram — Six Markets Model

The Functional Flow Block Diagrams you see on this page were created in ConceptDraw
DIAGRAM using the tools of Block Diagrams Solution. They are included in Block Diagrams
Solution and available from ConceptDraw STORE. An experienced user spent 5-10 minutes
creating every of them.

Example 4. Block Diagrams Solution

Use the Block Diagrams Solution for ConceptDraw DIAGRAM software to create your
own professional looking Functional Flow Block Diagram fast and easy, and then successfully
use it in your work activity.

All source documents are vector graphic documents. They are available for reviewing,
modifying, or converting to a variety of formats (PDF file, MS PowerPoint, MS Visio, and many
other graphic formats) from the ConceptDraw STORE. The Block Diagrams Solution is available
for all ConceptDraw DIAGRAM or later users.

49
Assessment/Activity No.2: BLOCK DIAGRAM AND FLOWCHARTING OF CPU PROCESS

Objectives: The activity aims to design a block diagrams and flow chart using AutoCAD
software. This activity also provides student’s knowledge and skills on designing the process of
CPU.

Intended Learning Outcomes:

1. Create a block diagram and flow chart using AutoCAD software.

Materials: AutoCAD software

Activity Process:

1. Create the diagram process of CPU.

2. Students should pass their individual Diagram Drawings on how a CPU work does when
it turn – on with its components.

50
 Lesson III:

Electrical, Electronic and Logic Components

This standard contains definitions and general information applicable to most of the
commonly used Electrical and Electronics Diagrams. It also includes detailed recommendations
on preferred practices for use in the preparation of Electrical and Electronics Diagrams. The
recommended practices covered by this standard are ground rules designed to eliminate
divergent Electrical and Electronics Diagram drafting techniques. The illustrations shown
represent good drafting practices. They are not intended as engineering design guides.

Integrated Circuit

Every electronic appliance we use in our day-to-day life, such as mobile phones,
laptops, refrigerators, computers, televisions and all other electrical and electronic devices are
manufactured with some simple or complex circuits. Electronic circuits are realized using
multiple electrical and electronic components connected with each other by connecting wires or
conducting wires for the flow of electric current through the multiple components of the circuit,
such as resistors, capacitors, inductors, diodes, transistors, and so on.
Circuits can be classified into different types based on different criteria, such as, based on
connections: series circuits and parallel circuits; based on the size and manufacturing process
of circuit: integrated circuits and discrete circuits; and, based on signal used in circuit: ana0log
circuits and digital circuits.

Integrated circuit or IC or microchip or chip is a microscopic electronic circuit array

formed by the fabrication of various electrical and electronic components (resistors, capacitors,
transistors, and so on) on a semiconductor material (silicon) wafer, which can perform
operations similar to the large discrete electronic circuits made of discrete electronic
components.

51
 Integrated Circuits

As all these arrays of components, microscopic circuits and semiconductor wafer

material base are integrated together to form a single chip, hence, it is called as integrated
circuit or integrated chip or microchip.

Electronic circuits are developed using individual or discrete electronic components with
different sizes, such that the cost and size of these discrete circuits increase with the number of
components used in the circuit. To conquer this negative aspect, the integrated circuit
technology was developed – Jack Kilby of Texas Instruments developed the first IC or
integrated circuit in the 1950s and thereafter, Robert Noyce of Fairchild Semiconductor solved
some practical problems of this integrated circuit.

Different Types of Integrated Circuits

There are different types of ICs; classification of Integrated Circuits is done based on
various criteria. A few types of ICs in a system are shown in the below figure with their names in
a tree format.

52
 Different Types of ICs

Based on the intended application, the IC are classified as analog integrated circuits,
digital integrated circuits and mixed integrated circuits.

Digital Integrated Circuits

The integrated circuits that operate only at a few defined levels instead of operating over
all levels of signal amplitude are called as Digital ICs and these are designed by using multiple
number of digital logic gates, multiplexers, flip flops and other electronic components of circuits.
These logic gates work with binary input data or digital input data, such as 0 (low or false or
logic 0) and 1 (high or true or logic 1)

53
Digital Integrated Circuits

The above figure shows the steps involved in designing a typical digital integrated
circuits. These digital ICs are frequently used in the computers, microprocessors, digital signal
processors, computer networks and frequency counters. There are different types of digital ICs
or types of digital integrated circuits, such as programmable ICs, memory chips, logic ICs,
power management ICs and interface ICs.

Analog Integrated Circuits

The integrated circuits that operate over a continuous range of signal are called as
Analog ICs. These are subdivided as linear Integrated Circuits (Linear ICs) and Radio
Frequency Integrated Circuits (RF ICs). In fact, the relationship between the voltage and current
maybe nonlinear in some cases over a long range of the continuous analog signal.

Analog Integrated Circuits

The frequently used analog IC is an operational amplifier or simply called as an op-amp,

similar to the differential amplifier, but possesses a very high voltage gain. It consists of very
less number of transistors compared to the digital ICs, and, for developing analog application
specific integrated circuits (analog ASICs), computerized simulation tools are used.

Mixed Integrated Circuits

The integrated circuits that are obtained by the combination of analog and digital ICs on
a single chip are called as Mixed ICs. These ICs functions as Digital to Analog

54
converters, Analog to Digital converters (D/A and A/D converters) and clock/timing ICs. The
circuit depicted in the above figure is an example of mixed integrated circuit which is a
photograph of the 8 to 18 GHz self-healing radar receiver.

Mixed Integrated Circuits

This mixed-signal Systems-on-a-chip is a result of advances in the integration

technology, which enabled to integrate digital, multiple analog and RF functions on a single
chip.

General types of integrated circuits (ICs) include the following:

Logic Circuits

Logic Circuits

55
 These ICs are designed using logic gates-that work with binary input and output (0 or 1).
These are mostly used as decision makers. Based on the logic or truth table of the logic gates,
all the logic gates connected in the IC give an output based on the circuit connected inside the
IC- such that this output is used for performing a specific intended task. A few logic ICs are
shown above.

Comparators

Comparators

The comparator ICs are used as comparators for comparing the inputs and then to
produce an output based on the ICs’ comparison.

Switching ICs

Switching ICs

Switches or Switching ICs are designed by using the transistors and are used for
performing the switching operations. The above figure is an example showing an SPDT IC
switch.

56
Audio amplifiers

Audio amplifiers

The audio amplifiers are one of the many types of ICs, which are used for the
amplification of the audio. These are generally used in the audio speakers, television circuits,
and so on. The above circuit shows the low- voltage audio amplifier IC.

Operational amplifiers

Operational amplifiers

The operational amplifiers are frequently used ICs, similar to the audio amplifiers which
are used for the audio amplification. These op-amps are used for the amplification purpose, and
these ICs work similar to the transistor amplifier circuits. The pin configuration of the 741 op-
amp IC is shown in the above figure.

57
Timer ICs

Timer ICs

Timers are special purpose integrated circuits used for the purpose of counting and to
keep a track of time in intended applications. The block diagram of the internal circuit of
the LM555 timer IC is shown in the above circuit.
Based on the number of components used (typically based on the number of transistors used),
they are as follows

 Small-scale integration consists of only a few transistors (tens of transistors on a chip),

these ICs played a critical role in early aerospace projects.
 Medium-scale integration consists of some hundreds of transistors on the IC chip
developed in the 1960s and achieved better economy and advantages compared to the SSI
ICs.
 Large-scale integration consists of thousands of transistors on the chip with almost the
same economy as medium scale integration ICs. The first microprocessor, calculator chips and
RAMs of 1Kbit developed in the 1970s had below four thousand transistors.
 Very large-scale integration consists of transistors from hundreds to several billions in
number.(Development period: from 1980s to 2009)
 Ultra-large-scale integration consists of transistors in excess of more than one million,
and later wafer-scale integration (WSI), system on a chip (SoC) and three dimensional
integrated circuit (3D-IC) were developed.
All these can be treated as generations of integrated technology. ICs are also classified
based on the fabrication process and packing technology. There are numerous types of ICs

58
among which, an IC will function as timer, counter, register, amplifier, oscillator, logic gate,
adder, microprocessor, and so on.

The conventional Integrated circuits are reduced in practical usage, because of the
invention of the nano-electronics and the miniaturization of ICs being continued by this Nano-
electronics technology. However, the conventional ICs are not yet replaced by nano-electronics
but the usage of the conventional ICs is getting diminished partially. For improving this article
technically, please post your queries, ideas and suggestions as your comments in the below
section.

Transmitters

A transmitter consists of a precise oscillating circuit or oscillator that creates an AC

carrier wave frequency. This is combined with amplification circuits or amplifiers. The distance a
carrier wave travels is directly related to the amplification of the signal sent to the antenna.

Other circuits are used in a transmitter to accept the input information signal and process
it for loading onto the carrier wave. Modulator circuits modify the carrier wave with the
processed information signal. Essentially, this is all there is to a radio transmitter.

NOTE: Modern transmitters are highly refined devices with extremely precise frequency
oscillation and modulation. The circuitry for controlling, filtering, amplifying, modulating, and
oscillating electronic signals can be complex.

A transmitter prepares and sends signals to an antenna that, in the process described
above, radiates the waves out into the atmosphere. A transmitter with multiple channel
(frequency) capability contains tuning circuitry that enables the user to select the frequency
upon which to broadcast. This adjusts the oscillator output to the precise frequency desired. It is
the oscillator frequency that is being tuned. [Figure 11-84] As shown in Figure 11-84, most radio
transmitters generate a stable oscillating frequency and then use a frequency multiplier to raise
the AC to the transmitting frequency. This allows oscillation to occur at frequencies that are
controllable and within the physical working limits of the crystal in crystal-controlled oscillators.

59
 Figure 11-84. Block diagram of a basic radio transmitter.

Receivers

Antennas are simply conductors of lengths proportional to the wavelength of the

oscillated frequency put out by the transmitter. An antenna captures the desired carrier wave as
well as many other radio waves that are present in the atmosphere. A receiver is needed to
isolate the desired carrier wave with its information. The receiver also has circuitry to separate
the information signal from the carrier wave. It prepares it for output to a device, such as
speakers or a display screen. The output is the information signal originally introduced into the
transmitter.

A common receiver is the super heterodyne receiver. As with any receiver, it must
amplify the desired radio frequency captured by the antenna since it is weak from traveling
through the atmosphere. An oscillator in the receiver is used to compare and select the desired
frequency out of all of the frequencies picked up by the antenna. The undesired frequencies are
sent to ground.

A local oscillator in the receiver produces a frequency that is different than the radio
frequency of the carrier wave. These two frequencies are mixed in the mixer. Four frequencies
result from this mixing. They are the radio frequency, the local oscillator frequency, and the sum
and difference of these two frequencies. The sum and difference frequencies contain the
information signal.

60
 The frequency that is the difference between the local oscillator frequency and the radio
frequency carrier wave frequency is used during the remaining processing. In VHF aircraft
communication radios, this frequency is 10.8 MHz called the intermediate frequency, it is
amplified before it is sent to the detector. The detector, or demodulator, is where the information
signal is separated from the carrier wave portion of the signal. In AM, since both sidebands
contain the useful information, the signal is rectified leaving just one sideband with a weak
version of the original transmitter input signal. In FM receivers, the varying frequency is changed
to a varying amplitude signal at this point. Finally, amplification occurs for the output device.
[Figure 11-85]

Figure 11-85. The basic stages used in a receiver to produce an output from a radio wave.

Over the years, with the development of transistors, micro transistors, and integrated
circuits, radio transmitters and receivers have become smaller. Electronic bays were
established on older aircraft as remote locations to mount radio devices simply because they
would not fit in the flight deck. Today, many avionics devices are small enough to be mounted in
the instrument panel, which is customary on most light aircraft. Because of the number of
communication and navigation aids, as well as the need to present an uncluttered interface to
the pilot, most complicated aircraft retain an area away from the flight deck for the mounting of
avionics. The control heads of these units remain on the flight deck.

Transceivers

A transceiver is a communication radio that transmits and receives. The same

frequency is used for both. When transmitting, the receiver does not function. The push to talk
(PTT) switch blocks the receiving circuitry and allows the transmitter circuitry to be active. In a

61
transceiver, some of the circuitry is shared by the transmitting and receiving functions of the
device. So is the antenna. This saves space and the number of components used. Transceivers
are half duplex systems where communication can occur in both directions but only one party
can speak while the other must listen. VHF aircraft communication radios are usually
transceivers. [Figure 11-86]

Figure 11-86. VHF aircraft communication transceivers.

Basic Components Used in Electronics & Electrical

In any electronic circuit, we come across two types of electronic component: One which
response to the flow of electrical energy and either store or dissipate energy. These are the
Passive Components. They can be linear components with a linear response to the electrical
energy or nonlinear components with a nonlinear response to the electrical energy.
One which supplies energy or controls the flow of energy. These are the Active components.
They require an external power source to be triggered and are generally used to amplify an
electrical signal. Let us see every component in detail.

3 Passive Linear Components:

Resistor: A resistor is an electronic component that is used to resist the flow of current
and cause a reduction in potential. It consists of a low conductive component joined by
conducting wires at both ends. When current flows through the resistor, the electrical energy is
absorbed by the resistor and dissipated in the form of heat. The resistor thus offers a resistance
or opposition to the flow of current. The resistance is given as
R = V/I, where V is the voltage drop across the resistance and I is the current flowing through
the resistor. The power dissipated is given by:

62
P = VI.

Laws of Resistance:

The Resistance ‘R’ offered by a material depends on various factors:

1. Varies directly on its length, l

2. Varies inversely on its cross-section area, A
3. Depends on the nature of the material specified by its Resistivity or
Specific Resistance, ρ.
4. Also depends on the temperature
5. Assuming that the temperature is constant, the Resistance (R) can be expressed as R =
ρl / A, Where R is resistance in ohms ( Ω ), l is the length in meters, A is an area in square
meters and ρ is Specific Resistance in Ω-mts
A resistor’s value is calculated in terms of its resistance. Resistance is the opposition to the
flow of current.

Two methods to measure resistance values:

 Using color code: Each resistor consists of a 4 or 5 color band on its surface. The first
three (two) colors represent the resistor value, whereas the 4th (third) color represents the
multiplier value and the last one represents the tolerance.
 Using Multimeter: A simple way to measure resistance is by using a Multimeter to
measure the resistance value in ohms.

63
2 Types of Resistors:

 Fixed Resistors: Resistors whose resistance value is fixed and are used to provide an
opposition to the flow of current.
 They can be carbon composition resistors which are made up of a mixture of
carbon and ceramic.
 They can be carbon film resistors which consist of carbon film deposited on an
insulating substrate.

64
A Carbon Resistor

 They can be metal film resistor which consists of small ceramic rod coated with metal or
metal oxide, with the resistance value being controlled by the thickness of the coating.

Metal Resistors

 They can be a wire-wound resistor which consists of an alloy wrapped around a

ceramic rod and insulated.
 They can be surface mount resistors which consists of resistive material like
tin oxide deposited on a ceramic chip.

Variable Resistors: They provide a variation in their resistance value. They are generally used
in voltage division. They can be potentiometers or presets. The resistance can be varied by
controlling the wiper movement. The variable resistor or variable resistance, which consists
three connections. Generally used as an adjustable voltage divider. It is a resistor with a
movable element positioned by a manual knob or lever. The movable element is also called as
wiper; it creates a contact with a resistive strip at any point which is selected by the manual
control.

65
Potentiometer

The potentiometer divides the voltage into different proportions depending on its
movable positions. It is used in different circuits where we require less voltage than the source
voltage.

Practical Application of Variable Resistors:

Sometimes it is necessary to design a variable dc bias circuit that should be able to very
precisely get some specific voltage to say 1.5 volts. Thus a potential divider with a variable
resistor is so chosen that one can vary the voltage from 1 volt to 2 volts from a 12 volt DC
battery. Not from 0 to 2 volt but 1 to 2 volt for a specific reason one can use a 10k pot across a
12-volt dc and can get that voltage but it becomes very difficult to adjust the pot as the full arc
angle of about 300 degrees. But if one follows a circuit below he can get easily that voltage
because the entire 300 degree is available for just 1volt to 2 volts to be adjusted. Shown in the
circuit below 1.52 volts. This how we get a better resolution. These onetime set variable
resistors are called preset.

66
 Capacitors: A capacitor is a linear passive component that is used to store an electrical
charge. A capacitor generally provides reactance to the flow of current. A capacitor consists of a
pair of electrodes between which there is an insulating dielectric material.

The stored charge is given by

Q = CV where C is the capacitive reactance and V is the applied voltage. Since current is the
rate of flow of charge. Therefore, the current through a capacitor is:

I = C dV/dt.

When a capacitor is connected in a DC circuit, or when a constant current flows through

it, which is constant with time (zero frequency), the capacitor simply stores the whole charge
and opposes the flow of current. Thus a capacitor blocks DC.

When a capacitor is connected in an AC circuit, or a time-varying signal flows through it

(with non-zero frequency), the capacitor initially stores the charge and later offers a resistance
to the flow of charge. It can thus be used as a voltage limiter in the AC circuit. The resistance
offered is proportional to the frequency of the signal.

2 Types of Capacitors

 Fixed Capacitors: They offer a fixed reactance to the flow of current. They can be the
Mica capacitor which consists of mica as the insulating material. They can be nonpolarized

67
ceramic capacitors which consist of ceramic plates coated with silver. They can be electrolyte
capacitors that are polarized and used where a high value of capacitance is required.

Fixed Capacitors

 Variable Capacitors: They offer capacitance which can be varied by varying the distance
between the plates. They can be air gap capacitors or vacuum capacitors.
Capacitance value can be either read directly on the capacitor or can be decoded using
the given code. For ceramic capacitors, the 1st two letters denote the capacitance value. The
third letter denotes the number of zeros and the unit is in Pico Farad and the letter denotes the
tolerance value.
 Inductors: An inductor is a passive electronic component that stores energy in the form
of a magnetic field. It generally consists of a conductor coil, which offers a resistance to the
applied voltage. It works on the basic principle of Faraday’s law of inductance, according to
which a magnetic field is created when current flows through the wire and the electromotive
force developed opposes the applied voltage. The stored energy is given by:

E = LI^2. Where L is the inductance measured in Henries and I is the current flowing
through it.

68
Inductor Coils

It can be used as a choke to offer resistance to the applied voltage and store the energy
or used in combination with a capacitor to form a tuned circuit, used for oscillations. In AC
circuits, the voltage leads the current as imposed voltage takes some time to build up the
current in the coil due to opposition.

2 Passive Non-Linear Components:

Diodes: A diode is a device that restricts current flow in only one direction. A diode is generally
a combination of two differently doped regions forming a junction at the intersection such that
the junction controls the flow of charge through the device.
6 Types of Diodes:

 PN Junction Diode: A simple PN junction diode consists of a p-type semiconductor

mounted on an n-type semiconductor such that a junction is formed between the p and n types.
It can be used as a rectifier that allows current flow in one direction through proper connection.

A PN Junction Diode

69
 Zener Diode: It is a diode made up of heavily doped p region compared to the n-region,
such that it not only allows current flow in one direction but also allows current flow in the
opposite direction, on the application of sufficient voltage. It is generally used as a voltage
regulator.

A Zener diode

 Tunnel Diode: It is a heavily doped PN junction diode where the current decreases with
increasing forward voltage. The junction width is reduced with increasing impurity concentration.
It is made from germanium or Gallium Arsenide.

A Tunnel Diode

 Light Emitting Diode: It is a special type of PN junction diode made from semiconductors
like Gallium Arsenide, which emits light when a suitable voltage is applied. The light emitted by
the LED is monochromatic, i.e. of a single color, corresponding to a particular frequency in the
visible band of the electromagnetic spectrum.

70
 A LED

 Photo Diode: It is a special type of PN junction diode whose resistance decreases when
light falls on it. It consists of a PN junction diode placed inside a plastic.

A Photodiode

 Switches: Switches are devices that allow the flow of current to the active devices. They
are binary devices, which when completely on, allows the flow of current and when completely
off, block the flow of current. It can be a simple toggle switch which can be a 2-contact or a 3
contact switch or a push-button switch.

2 Active Electronic Components:

Transistors: Transistors are devices which generally transform resistance from one part of the
circuit to another. They can be voltage controlled or current controlled. A transistor can work as
an amplifier or as a switch.

71
2 Types of Transistor:

BJT or Bipolar Junction Transistor: A BJT is a current controlled device that consists of a
layer of n-type semiconductor material sandwiched between two layers of p-type
semiconductor material. It consists of three terminals – The emitter, base, and collector. The
collector-base junction is less doped compared to the emitter-base junction. The emitter-base
junction is forward biased whereas the collector-base junction is reverse biased in normal
transistor operation.

A Bipolar Junction Transistor

 FET or Field Effect Transistor: A FET is a voltage-controlled device. The ohmic contacts
are taken from the two sides of the n-type bar. It consists of three terminals – Gate, Drain, and
Source. The voltage applied across the Gate-Source and the Drain-Source terminal controls
the flow of current through the device. It is generally a high resistance device. It can be JFET
(junction Field effect transistor) which consists of an n-type substrate, on the side of which a bar
of the opposite type is deposited or a MOSFET (Metal Oxide Semiconductor FET) which
consists of an insulating layer of silicon oxide between the metallic Gate contact and the
substrate.

72
 MOSFET

TRIACS or SCR: An SCR or Silicon Controlled Rectifier is a three-terminal device which

is generally used as a switch in power electronics. It is a combination of two back to back
diodes having 3 junctions. The current through the SCR flows because of the voltage applied
across anode and cathode and is controlled by the voltage applied across the Gate terminal. It
is also used as a rectifier in AC circuits.

An SCR

So these are some of the important components in any electronic circuit. Apart from
these active and passive components, there is one more component, which is of vital use in the
circuit. That is the Integrated Circuit.

73
What is an Integrated Circuit?

A DIP IC

An Integrated Circuit is a chip or a microchip on which thousands of transistors,

capacitors, resistors are fabricated. It can be an Amplifier IC, a timer IC, a waveform generator
IC, a memory IC or a Microcontroller IC. It can be an analog IC with a continuous variable
output or a Digital IC operating at a few defined layers. The fundamental building blocks of
Digital ICs are the logic gates.

It can be available in different packages like Dual in Line Package (DIP) or Small Outline
Package (SOP) etc.

A Practical application of resistors – Potential Dividers

Potential dividers are frequently used in electronic circuits. Therefore it is desired that a
thorough understanding of the same would greatly help in designing electronic circuits. Instead
of deriving the voltages mathematically by applying Ohm’s law, the following example by
assessing in ratio way, one would be able to quickly get the approximate voltage while attending
to the R&D nature of work.

When two resistors of equal value (e.g. 6K both for R1 & R2) are connected across a
supply, the same current will flow through them. If a meter is placed across the supply shown in
the diagram it will register 12v concerning ground. If the meter is then placed between the
ground (0v) and the middle of the two resistors it will read 6v. The battery voltage is then divided
in half. Thus voltage across R2 for ground =6v

74
Similarly
1. If the resistor values are changed to 4K (R1) and 8K (R2) the voltage at the center will be 8v
for ground.

2. If the resistor values are changed to 8K (R1) and 4K (R2) the voltage at the center will be 4v
for ground.

75
 The voltage at the center is better determined by the ratio of the two resistor values,
though one can go by Ohms law to calculate to arrive at the same value. Case-1 the ratio was
6K: 6K = 1:1=6v:6v , Case-2 ratio 4k:8k= 1:2 =4v:8v and Case-3 ratio 8k:4k= 2:1=8v:4v

Conclusion:-In a potential divider, if the upper resistor value is lowered then the voltage at the
center goes up (concerning ground). If the lower resistor value is lowered then the voltage at the
center falls.
Mathematically but the voltage at the center can always be determined by the ratio of the two
resistor values which is time-consuming and is given by the famous Ohms law formula V=IR
Let us see the example-2

V = {supply voltage / (R1+R2)} X R2

V= {12v / (4K+8K)} R2

=(12/12000) x 8000

V = 8v

76
Assessment/Activity: LED LIGHTS CIRCUIT DRAWING

Objectives: The activity aims to design a LED Circuit using AutoCAD Software. This
experiment also provides students’ knowledge and skills on Electrical and Electronic system.

Intended Learning Outcomes: The students shall be able to create a LED circuits using
AutoCAD Software.

Discussions:

The LED (Light Emitting Diodes) is a semiconductor diode that emits visible lights or
near infra-red radiation when it is forward. Inside the LED is a semiconductor which is encased
in a transparent epoxy resin which could be either diffused or clear lens. The LED, unlike a
normal bulb, has a limited viewing angle between of 30 degree to 90 degrees.

Procedures: Make a LED Light Circuit in a AutoCAD and in an circuit board showing the
Electrical and electronics parts.

Assessment/Data Results: Output must be submitted in terms words. They expressed their
learnings in this activity into words definition and explanation.

77
 Lesson IV:

Designation, Standards and Abbreviations

INTRODUCTION

This drawing standards manual establishes the conventions to be adhered to by

engineering and drafting personnel in the preparation, revision, and completion of engineering
drawings. This manual sets forth the minimum requirements acceptable at GSFC for the
preparation of engineering drawings for flight hardware and ground support systems. The
requirements specified herein are essential to the standardization of practices and to a uniform
interpretation of drawings.

A system, payload, or component assembly shall be completely defined by means of

drawings, including lists, schematics, wiring diagrams, and specifications, to ensure that
components fabricated are in accordance with the design. The documentation information shall
serve as a permanent record.

78
Engineering drawings are defined as those drawings that communicate the requirements for
the manufacture of the end-product items, their assembly, and their installation in the end
product.

DRAWING ELEMENTS

 Drawing Sizes – The following table defines the standard drawing sizes, and their letter
designations to be used at GSFC:

Notes:

(a) Lengths for “J” roll size to be in ll-inch increments.

(b) Not inclusive of added protective margins of at least 2 inches on both ends of roll
size drawings.

Multi-sheet Drawings – Multi-sheet drawings are permitted in all sizes.

a. The first sheet of a multi-sheet drawing shall always contain the complete Title block, List
of Material, Revision Block, and general notes.
b. All sheets of multi-sheet drawings shall be of the same letter size. Use of multi-sheet
drawings shall be found to be advantageous for certain types of schematics and
diagrams.
c. The sheets of “J” size drawings may be any of the above-noted lengths and may be
intermixed in different lengths.
d. Sheet numbering for all first sheets shall include the total number of sheets, as “SHEET
1 OF 1,” “SHEET 1 OF 2,” etc. Numbering of continuation sheets shall be limited to

79
 stating the specific sheet number (e.g., “SHEET 2,” “SHEET 3”) without specifying the
total number of sheets.

Zoning Vertical and horizontal zoning – may be used if necessary to provide orientation to
the field of drawings.

Zoning is mandatory for multisheet drawings “D” size and larger and single-sheet
drawings “E” size and larger. Zones shall be identified by alphabetical (uppercase) and
numerical entries in the margin spaces as indicated in Figure 1. Zone sizes shall be 8½ inches
(width) by 11 inches (length) for “E” and “J” size, 7 inches (width) by 10 inches (length) for “F”
size, and 5½ inches (width) by 8½ inches (length) for “D” size.

Title Block and Revision Block Title blocks and revision blocks – shall be prepared and
completed as follows: The Title block of single-sheet drawings, first sheets of multisheet
drawings, and revision blocks shall appear as shown in either Figure 2a on page 5 (dimensional
system/inches) or Figure 2b on page 6 (dimensional system/millimeters). The information
required in the Title block shall be as specified or referenced by items 1 through 28, below.

The Title block of continuation sheets for multisheet drawings shall contain information listed in
items 1, 2, and 4 through 11.

80
DRAWING NO. : See page 60.

SH OF : Enter sheet number as applicable. Indicate total sheets only on

sheet 1.

WT : Enter unit weight calculated at time of design if required.

TITLE : For selection and arrangement of drawing title.
SCALE : Enter scale.

CODE : For drawings prepared by the Goddard Space Flight Center

(GSFC) with an official GSFC drawing number, enter the three-
digit GSFC code identifying the group responsible for the drawing.
For drawings prepared by a contractor with a contractor drawing
number and format, the contractor's code number from the
Commercial and Government Entity (CAGE) Publication H4/H8
(formerly Federal Supply Code for Manufacturers (FSCM) H4 and
Federal Supply Codes for Non-Manufacturers (FSCNM) H8) shall
appear.

DATE : Enter date of initials.

DESIGNER : Enter designer's printed name and initials.

DRAWN : Enter draftsmen printed name or if drawn by the designer, the

designer’s printed name may be repeated.

CHECKED : Enter design analyst's printed name. This name shall be an

independent name from all other names on the drawing. It
represents that the drawing has been checked against the
parameters of this drawing manual and, where possible, to form,
fit, function, and feasibility. The checker must have a thorough
understanding of the methods and practices of geometric
tolerance and be able to specify such practices in accordance with
ANSI Standard Y14.5M-1982, Dimensioning and Tolerancing.

APPROVED : Enter the printed names of GSFC personnel assigned to approve

the drawing. Project requirements for drawing names shall vary
from program to program, but each name shall be identified. For

81
 example, after each approval name, note the following: “ENG” for
engineer, “STRESS” for stress engineer, “QA” for quality
assurance engineer, “MATL” for materials engineer, “ELEC” for
electrical engineer, etc. All names in line items 8 through 11 must
be legible. The hand-written initials on the paper original are the
official approval of that document.
USED ON : Enter acronym name of program and acronym name of subsystem
or experiment where applicable. X-673-64-1F REV 001 DEC. ‘94
GODDARD SPACE FLIGHT CENTER, Greenbelt, Maryland 8
ENGINEERING DRAWING STANDARDS MANUAL.
NEXT ASSY : Enter drawing number on which the part is next utilized, modified,
or assembled. In the case of tooling drawings, in the Next
Assembly block refer to a general note that states “This drawing is
used to fabricate (drawing number).” Installation drawings should
reflect a top configuration drawing number as the next assembly.
When a configuration drawing is not being produced, the
installation drawing shall indicate by note “The installation forms a
part of the configuration for program (project name).”
EXAMINATION : The appropriate “Non-Destructive Examination (NDE) required”
block shall be checked off, and the addition of the applicable code
or “see note XX” shall be added where required. Refer to Testing
and Inspection Notes of the general notes section paragraph
2.4.4.6 on page 20.

FLIGHT HARDWARE and HARDNESS TESTING

: The Flight Hardware block must be checked off when the part is
used in actual flight configurations. The appropriate Hardness
Testing block shall be checked off regardless of whether the part
is flight hardware or not.
On CAD-produced drawings, add a 3.5-inch-long by 0.88-inch-high block as follows
: THIS DRAWING WAS PRODUCED USING: SOFTWARE:
(a) VERSION:
(b) FILENAME:
(c) Notes:

82
 (a) Software used (example: “AUTOCAD”)
(b) Version of software (example: “10c7”)
(c) Filename (example: “GSFC1234”)
METRIC/HYBRID METRIC-INCH
: Add “X” to type of drawing block.
ITEM NO. : Enter item numbers when more than one type of material or part is
required, and coordinate drawing callouts on the drawing field.
Parts made of the same material, condition, and specification shall
be assigned only one item number, even though the part may be
required in various sizes and thicknesses. The quantity for such
items in the List of Material (L/M) shall be stated as “A/R” with the
specific sizes spelled out in the field of the drawing. Refer to
Figure 3 on page 10, Figure 34 on page 80, and Section 8.6, Find
or Item Number System of Identification, on page 79. Do not skip
item numbers on new drawings.
REQD : Enter quantity of parts required only for the parts of an inseparable
assembly or assembly drawing.
PART NO. : Enter identifying part numbers when required (Government,
contractor, vendor, or other). On new drawings, group like items
together. X-673-64-1F REV 001 DEC. ‘94 GODDARD SPACE
FLIGHT CENTER, Greenbelt, Maryland ENGINEERING
DRAWING STANDARDS MANUAL 9
DESCRIPTION : Enter material description (plate, etc.) or a part name title if it is
another drawing. Enclose reference information such as fastener
sizes in brackets.
MATERIAL : Enter the material from which the part is fabricated. Examples: “AL
ALY”; “CRES”; “BE CU.”

MATERIAL SPEC. : Enter the applicable material specifications, number, and final
condition. Examples: “QQ-A-250/11 6061-T6” for AL ALY plate;
“ASTM A582 303 COND A” for CRES bar. The information required
in the revision block shall be as specified or referenced by items 24
through 28, below, and in accordance with “Drawing Revisions,”
paragraph 7, page 68.

83
REVISIONS – SYM : Enter revision symbol.

REVISIONS – ZONE : Enter zone (where used).

REVISIONS – DESCRIPTION

: Enter description of the revision (refer to Section 7, “Drawing

Revisions”).

REVISIONS – DATE : Enter date approved by authorized signer(s) in block.

REVISIONS – APPROVAL

: Enter signature of GSFC person assigned to approve. If change

was by approved EO, drawing only needs approval of the
draftsman or person incorporating the change, and the checker. If
changes made are not covered by an EO, then approval must
include the engineer.

Drawing Format – The drawing format for the drawing sizes listed on page 3, including zoning,
drawing numbers, security classification, etc.

1. NOMENCLATURE

Drawing Title General – Information for the selection or development of a drawing title is as
follows:
a. The title should be as brief as possible but should contain sufficient information to
categorize the part properly and to distinguish it from other similar parts.
b. The drawing title shall consist of the following:
1. Identifying noun or noun phrase.
2. the most significant modifier or modifying phrase.
3. The next most significant modifier or modifying phrase.
The noun or noun phrase establishes a basic concept of an item. The modifiers serve to
narrow the area of concept established by the basic name. A modifier is separated from the
noun or noun phrase by a comma and from any preceding modifier by a comma. The type
designator and/or any additional modifiers required to further identify an item are separated from
the first part of the title by a dash. Where applicable, the word “ASSEMBLY” shall be used as
the last word of the noun phrase.

84
EXAMPLES:
“Beam, Hoisting, Guided Missile”
“Cover, Protective, Rocket Motor—Forward Section”
“Cabinet, Electrical Equipment—CY-147” “Transportation—Dolly Assembly, Earth
Satellite”
c. The noun, or noun phrase, is never abbreviated. Abbreviations are used in the
modifiers only when space is limited. When used, abbreviations shall conform to
Abbreviations, paragraph 2.2 on page 12.
d. When one drawing supersedes another, the new drawing, when practical, has
the same title.
e. Parentheses are not used to enclose any portion of the drawing title.
f. Program names (or abbreviations) should be added to the “Used On” block and
not the Title block; exceptions are on the final or top assembly drawing.

Abbreviations
The purpose of this section is to provide a list of authorized abbreviations for use on
drawings and associated documents. When used, abbreviations and acronyms shall be in
accordance with GSFC STD-256-WE-1 and MIL-STD-12 (in that order of precedence).
a. Uppercase Gothic letters shall be used.
b. Abbreviations for word combinations (e.g., MMC—Maximum Material Condition) shall
be used as such and shall not be separated for use singly. Single abbreviations may
be combined when necessary.
c. The same abbreviation shall be used for all tenses, the possessive case and the
singular and plural forms of a given word.
d. Abbreviations should be used only to save space or time, but never at the expense of
clarity.
e. Periods shall be used with abbreviations that spell entire words to provide clarity and
to avoid misinterpretation.

The following abbreviations are acceptable to use and are “industry-related” associations not
found in GSFC STD-256-WE-1 or MIL-STD-12.

AFBMA Anti-Friction Bearing Manufacturers Association, Inc.

1101 Connecticut Avenue,

85
NW Suite 700 Washington,
DC 20036

AGMA American Gear Manufacturers Association, Inc.

1500 King Street Suite 201
Arlington, VA 22314
ANSI American National Standard Institute
1430 Broadway
New York, NY 10018
ASME American Society of Mechanical Engineers
345 E. 47th Street
New York, NY 10017
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
1916 Race Street
Philadelphia, PA 19103
AWS American Welding Society, Inc.
550 N.W. Ledeune Road
P.O. Box 351040
Miami, FL 33135
IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers, Inc.
445 Hose Lane
P.O. Box 1331
Piscataway, NJ 08855-1331
ISO International Organization for Standardization/
(Organization International de Normalization)
1, rue de Varembé
1211 Geneve 20
Switzerland/Suisse
NEMA National Electrical Manufacturers Association
2101 L Street, NW
Washington, DC 20037
NSA National Standards Association, Inc.
1200 Quince Orchard Blvd
Gaithersburg, MD 20878
NAS Aerospace Industries Association of America, Inc.

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1250 I Street, NW
Washington, DC 20005
SAE Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc.
400 Commonwealth Drive
Warren dale, PA 15096
List of Material
a. Requirements on the Body of the Drawing
Each part listed in the List of Material (Parts List) must be identified at least once by an
Item (Find) Number on the body of the drawing (except single item drawings and shown
and opposite item drawings).
Note: Parts shall be bracketed, indicating reference, when they are identified by number and
are not noted in the List of Material. Such parts are shown in phantom. Repeated item numbers
shall be indicated as reference either within brackets or by the word “REF.”
b. Requirements in the List of Material
a. The List of Material is a list of all parts and materials called out on the drawing.
b. The quantity of parts noted in the List of Material is the number required to
complete the noted assembly.
c. When a new drawing is made, all parts in the List of Material should be
grouped as to type, such as dash number (for shown and opposite
assemblies), GSFC drawings (for detailed parts), MS parts, NAS parts, etc.,
and listed in this sequence.
d. Quantities of Bulk Items and placement:
Refer to notes
(a) Through (e) on Figure 3 on page 10.
e. Preferred parts lists for parts, materials, and processes can be found in an
unofficial publication available for viewing in the Mechanical Engineering
Branch. The “Design Selection Guide” contains a wide range of hardware,
materials, design standards, and processes. It shall be noted that not all of the
items in this reference guide are rated for space flight use.
Note: All fasteners used in flight hardware and critical nuts and bolts used on ground support
equipment, including all flight/GSE interfaces, must meet the specification GSFC Fastener
Integrity Requirements, GSFC S-313-100, Materials Branch, Office of Flight Assurance.

Notes on Drawings

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 Information other than pictorial views and dimensions necessary for completing a
drawing is classified as “notes.” The two types of note forms are General Notes and Local
Character Notes. Notes on a drawing take precedence over specification requirements; hence,
notes conflicting with referenced specifications shall not be placed on a drawing unless they are
necessary for deviations from certain provisions of the specification.

a. Security Classification
The security classification “Top Secret,” “Secret,” or “Confidential” shall be located on
the drawing as noted in Figure 1 on page 4.
Each sheet of a multisheet drawing shall be individually classified as to its contents. The
security stamp on each sheet shall be that of the highest classification for any item shown on
that individual sheet, not the general overall classification of the entire set of drawings or the
end item. On roll-size drawings, the security classification shall be shown on the reverse side at
both ends of the drawings next to the drawing number to enable the classification to be seen
without unrolling the drawing.
A warning note shall be included adjacent to the security classification located above the
Title block and shall read as follows:
THIS MATERIAL CONTAINS INFORMATION AFFECTING THE NATIONAL DEFENSE
OF THE UNITED STATES WITHIN THE MEANING OF THE ESPIONAGE LAWS, TITLE 18
U.S.C., SECTIONS 793 AND 794. THE TRANSMISSION OR REVELATION OF WHICH IN
ANY MANNER TO AN UNAUTHORIZED PERSON IS PROHIBITED BY LAW.

b. Note Location
Notes of general character that do not require leaders to indicate where they apply, and
for which provision has not been made in the supplementary blocks of the drawing format, shall
be located in the following order of preference:
a. Adjacent to the upper left border and to the left of all views.
b. Immediately to the left of the revision block.
c. Adjacent to the lower left border or below the revision block, space being left for
extending the revision block downward. This location should be avoided whenever
practical because the space required for revisions cannot be anticipated.

c. Numbering of Notes

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 General notes are numbered consecutively downward. Note numbers may be identified
on the field of the drawing by placing the note number in a pennant-shaped flag at the general
note location and in the field of the drawing, or in the List of Material (Material Specification
column), whichever location is more appropriate.

d. Note Examples
The following notes are listed as representative examples and should be used on Engineering
Drawings when applicable.

Significant information is to be inserted where blank(s) are indicated and, for most
cases, the notations in parentheses are for information only. (When not applicable, do not use in
note).

Before using the referenced specifications, check the Department of Defense Index of
Specifications and Standards Publications to ensure that the specification has not been
cancelled or superseded.

Use either of the following statements as main heading for notes: “Except as noted” or
“Unless otherwise specified.”

e. Dimension Notes
ALL DIMENSIONS APPLY AFTER SURFACE TREATMENT. DIMENSIONAL LIMITS
AND SURFACE ROUGHNESS DESIGNATIONS APPLY (state “BEFORE” or “AFTER”)
PLATING.

f. Local Character Notes

Notes of local character, such as drill notes, thread notes, etc., that require leaders to
indicate the features to which they apply, shall be located in the field of the drawing in positions
adjacent to such features. Each note shall state the number of features to which it applies
unless a leader is drawn to each feature.

g. General Dimensional Tolerance Notes

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 The general tolerances entered in the supplementary portion of the Title block shall
control all dimensions applied to the drawing, except those specifically labeled “Max,” “Min,”
“Ref,” “Datum,” or “Basic,” or dimensions having tolerances applied directly thereto, or
dimensions controlled by notes or documents invoked on the drawing. General tolerances may
be changed to the prevalent tolerances that are required by the drawing type. This is done by
striking through the tolerance and inserting the new tolerance beneath the old. In the case
where metric tolerancing is required, see Section 10.2, subparagraph i, for general tolerances.
Specification Callouts

Normally, only the basic document number of a specification should be shown on the
drawing, in which case, the latest issue in effect at the time of invitation to bid shall be imposed
in all procurement actions. Changes to the specification occurring subsequent to the time of
invitation to bid shall not be imposed in current procurement actions unless the drawing is
revised to show the new issue by basic document number, revisions, amendment, and/or date
and current procurement actions amended to specify the new drawing revision or Engineering
Order (EO).

If the basic document number, revision, amendment, and/or date of a specification are
shown on a drawing, only that particular issue shall be imposed in all procurement actions.
Changes to the specification occurring subsequent to the time of invitation to bid shall not be
imposed in either current or future procurement actions unless the drawing is revised to show
the new issue by basic document number, revision, amendment, and/or date and current
procurement actions amended to specify the new drawing revision or EO.

Regardless of whether a specification is shown on the drawing by basic document

number only or by a particular issue, superseding specifications (new number) shall not be
imposed in either current or future procurement actions unless the drawing is revised to show
the new basic document number and, if applicable, issue and current procurement actions
amended to specify the new drawing revision or EO.

2. DRAFTING PRACTICES

General

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 These drafting practices are to be employed in the preparation of drawings by GSFC
personnel to achieve commonality throughout and result in legible reproductions at the least
cost from original drawings.

Drawings must be complete and unambiguous in interpretation. Complete drawings

contain or make reference to all data necessary for fabricating and installing the part and, when
applicable, the necessary test requirements, procurement requirements, and source.
Third-angle orthographic projection shall be used for mechanical engineering drawings.
(Certain diagrams, schematics, etc., are accepted). Although other types of projection, such as
isometric, perspective, etc., are not prohibited, their use must be confined to an auxiliary view
on a drawing of a complex part when such a view shall aid in visualizing the part.

Drawings need not have three views, (i.e., one or two views are permissible for objects
that can be completely defined). Complementary notes or dimensions are acceptable in place of
the additional views. The rule shall be that only those views shall be drawn that are necessary
to convey the required characteristics of the part. Views, dimensions, etc., shall not extend into
the margins of the drawing.

A. Lines
Acceptable quality of reproductions is dependent on the density and uniformity of line
work (and lettering). Types of lines described herein are merely line conventions, but in every
case, each type of line shall be opaque and of uniform width and shall be used on all drawings
other than diagrams, such as schematics, etc.

Ink Lines and Plotted Lines

o Lines, whether hand-drawn or plotted, shall be opaque and of uniform width for each
type of line. Two widths of lines, i.e., thin and thick, with their widths in the proportions of 1:2,
shall be used. The actual width of each type of line shall be governed by the size and style of
the drawing; the relative widths of the lines shall approximate those shown in Figure 4 on page
26.

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o Pencil Lines
Pencil lines shall be opaque and of uniform width throughout their length.
The line widths which are specified for ink lines do not apply to pencil lines. Cutting and viewing
plane lines are the thickest lines on the drawing. However, the thick lines used for outlines and
other visible lines shall be sufficiently prominent to immediately differentiate them from lines

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used for other purposes. Hidden, sectioning, center, phantom, extension, dimension, and leader
lines shall be thinner than outlines. In selecting the widths of pencil lines, consideration shall be
given to the medium of reproduction involved to ensure proper reproduction and reduction of the
thinner lines.
 Types of Lines
1. Center Lines
Center lines shall be composed of long and short dashes, alternately and evenly
spaced, with a long dash at each end. Center lines shall cross without voids. See Figure 5,
below, and Figure 6, page 28.

Very short center lines may be unbroken if there is no confusion with other lines. Center lines
shall also be used to indicate the travel of a center. See Figure 6 on page 28.

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2. Dimension Lines
Dimension lines shall terminate in arrowheads at each end. They shall be unbroken
except where space is required for the dimension. The proper method of showing
dimensions and tolerances is explained in Section 1.7 of ANSI Y14.5M-1982.
3. Leaders
Leaders shall be used to indicate a part or portion to which a number, note, or other
reference applies and shall be an unbroken line terminating in an arrowhead, dot, or wavy
line. Arrowheads should always terminate at a line; dots should be within the outline of an
object.
4. Break Lines
Short breaks shall be indicated by solid freehand lines. For long breaks, full ruled
lines with freehand zigzags shall be used. Shafts, rods, tubes, etc., which have a portion of
their length broken out, shall have the ends of the break drawn as indicated in Figure 7 on
page 29.

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5. Phantom Lines
Phantom lines shall be used to indicate the alternate position of parts of the item
delineated, repeated detail, or the relative position of an absent part and shall be
composed of alternating one long and two short dashes, evenly spaced, with a long
dash at each end. See Figure 5 on page 27, Figure 6 on page 28, and Figure 8, below.

6. Sectioning Lines
Sectioning lines shall be used to indicate the exposed surfaces of an object in a
sectional view. They are generally thin full lines, but may vary with the kind of material
shown in section.

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7. Extension Lines
Extension lines are used to indicate the extension of a surface or to point to a
location outside the part outline. They start with a short, visible gap from the outline of the
part and are usually perpendicular to their associated dimension lines.
8. Hidden Lines
Hidden lines shall consist of short dashes, evenly spaced. These lines are used to
show the hidden features of a part. They shall always begin with a dash in contact with the
line from which they begin, except when such a dash would form a continuation of a full
line. Dashes shall touch at corners, and arcs shall begin with dashes on the tangent points.
See Figure 5 on page 27 and Figure 8 on page 29.
9. Stitch Lines
Stitch lines shall be used to indicate the stitching or sewing lines on an article and
shall consist of a series of very short dashes, approximately half the length of dash or
hidden lines, evenly spaced. Long lines of stitching may be indicated by a series of stitch
lines connected by phantom lines.
10. Outlines or Visible Lines
The outline or visible line shall be used for all lines on the drawing representing
visible lines on the object; see Figure 5 on page 27.
11. Datum Lines
Datum lines shall be used to indicate the position of a datum plane and shall consist
of one long dash and two short dashes, evenly spaced.
12. Cutting-Plane/Viewing-Plane Lines
The cutting-plane lines shall be used to indicate a plane or planes in which a section
is taken. The viewing-plane lines shall be used to indicate the plane or planes from which a
surface or surfaces are viewed. On simple views, the cutting planes shall be indicated as
shown in Figure 9 on page 31. View shall be shown in back of the cutting plane (3rd angle).

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3. Lettering and Numerals
All lettering shall be uppercase (capital letters). Numbers shall be Arabic
numerals. The lettering and numerals shall always be placed in a horizontal reading
position as far as practicable. Other than this, lettering shall be in a horizontal reading
position when the drawing is rotated 90° clockwise. Legible lettering is essential for
reproductions. Letters and/or numerals shall not run together.
When typewritten letters or digits are used on drawings or related data, nothing
smaller than pica type is permitted.

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1. Style
Other than being uppercase Roman and placed in a horizontal reading position,
the lettering is that of the individual's style.
2. Heights Lettering
heights shall be as follows:

3. Scale Drawings
Shall be made to full scale unless the parts (or assembly) are too large to permit it
or so small and complex that drawing to an enlarged scale is essential for clarity. When
the main views of large parts are drawn to a reduced scale, the detail views “taken” to
clarify detail should be made to full scale whenever possible. When the part has been
drawn to an enlarged scale for clarity, it is not necessary to make an actual-size view.
a. The scales preferred for engineering drawings are full size 1/1, reduced 1/2,
1/4, 1/10, 1/20, and enlarged 2/1, 4/1, 10/1, 20/1. The computer data base for
the format size shall be 1/1 at all times.
EXCEPTION: Certain drawings or figures, by their very nature, cannot be
drawn to a specific scale (for example, wiring and schematic diagram
drawings.) The scale designation for these cases is “NONE.” See “b,” below.
b. The scale, as noted above, or the word “NONE” must be entered in the Title
block. Do not use the word “SIZE” following the ratio. The notations “1/4 &
NOTED” or “1/2 & NOTED,” etc., apply to those drawings on which the main
views are to a reduced scale and auxiliary views are to some other scale.

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 c. To maintain consistency with title block callout for scale, detail views shall be
noted thus: DETAIL - A SCALE 1/1 Note: The scale of the view shall be
stated only when it differs from that noted in the Title block, which represents
the majority of views and sections.
d. Original pencil drawings should be to scale within 0.03 inch. When changes to
an existing drawing take place, it is required to indicate that a particular
feature is not to scale by underlining the dimensions with a straight line.
e. The geometry of CAD-produced drawings shall be entered into the electronic
database at one-to-one (full) scale.

4. Positioning the Part on the Drawing

Installations shall usually be positioned on the drawing as they would be seen when
viewed from the left side or top side of the equipment with its forward end pointing to the left.

If clarity can be greatly improved by a position that results in fewer hidden lines and
foreshortened projections, then that position should be used, and the above rule should be
disregarded. Such instances would be a door or door jamb which installs on the right side being
drawn with the forward portion to the right, or a number of items installed on the forward side of
a panel being drawn looking at the forward side.

Parts and minor assemblies are not necessarily drawn in the position they assume in the
equipment. They may be drawn with some surface, side, or reference line parallel or
perpendicular to the lower border of the drawing. Lathe-turned parts are usually drawn with the
larger diameters to the left.
5. Picturization
i. Unnecessary detail shall be omitted from all views and sections if clarity is
not sacrificed and if drafting time is reduced. See Figure 11 on page 34.

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6. Sections
a. A sectional view shall be made through an outside view and not through another
sectional view. See Figure 12 on page 35.
b. The location of a section is indicated by a cutting plane with reference letters and
arrowheads showing the direction in which the section is viewed.
c. Sectional views shall not project directly ahead of the cutting plane arrowheads
and should be as near as practicable to the portions of the drawing that they
clarify.
d. The axes of sectional views should not be rotated; however, the cutting plane
may vary in direction (see Figure 12). If views have to be rotated, the angle and
direction of rotation must be given.

100
e. Visible and invisible outlines beyond the cutting plane should not be shown
unless necessary for clarification.
f. Shafts, bolts, nuts, etc., which are in a cutting plane should not be cross-hatched.

g. The cross-hatching symbol for cast iron should be used regardless of material as
shown in Figure 13. If essential for clarity, material from which the parts are
made should be indicated by the conventions given in ANSI Y14.2M-1979.

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 h. When sections are remotely located, zone information shall be added to both
locations (i.e., from where the section is taken and to the location where the
section is shown).
Views
a. A view is used to enlarge or clarify a portion of the drawing. See Figure 14.

b. Projected views which are shown along common center lines to their origin need not be
identified. Views located directly ahead of viewing plane arrowheads are absolutely
prohibited.
c. “Transported” views or sections are those which are not direct projections. They must be
identified where shown, by letters, and at their origin by the cutting plane lines and
letters.
d. Views should not be rotated; however, if views have to be rotated for a legitimate
reason, the angle and direction of rotation must be given.

Details
A detail is a partial view which shows a portion of another view in the same plane and
will usually depict greater detail. Details should not be rotated. See Figure 15.

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Identification of Sections, Views, and Details
a. Identifying letters for sections, views, and details are assigned in alphabetical
sequence as follows: For sections and such views as “A-A” in Figure 14 on page 36,
use hyphenated letters. After “Z-Z,” begin: “AA-AA,” “AB-AB,” etc.
b. For encircled details such as detail “A” in Figure 15, use single letters. After “Z,”
begin: “AA,” “AB,” etc.
c. The letters “I,” “O,” “Q,” and “X,” either as a single letter or as double-letter entries,
shall not be used. A designated letter or combination of letters on a released drawing
shall not be used for another section, view, or detail on the same drawing.
Locating Sections, Views, and Details
On zoned and/or multisheet drawings, a view, section, or detail and the portion of the
drawing it clarifies shall be cross-referenced as follows:

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TYPES OF DRAWINGS
1. Altered or Selected Vendor Part Drawing
Altered vendor part or selected vendor part drawings shall be prepared on GSFC
format when an existing vendor part cannot be used as is and it is desired to document and
control the alteration or selection of the part. Preparation shall not be initiated until the
vendor has been requested to make the alteration or selection, supply his number, and
supply documentation. When the drawing is prepared by GSFC, it shall specify the part to
be altered or selected by vendor number, name, and address and shall completely delineate
the alteration or selection. In addition, the drawing shall specify reidentification of the part by
the GSFC part number. An altered or selected vendor part drawing shall be identified by the
words “Altered Vendor Part Drawing” immediately above the Title block.
2. An assembly drawing
Shows two or more separable parts joined to form a stockable item, or a group of
assemblies required to form an assembly of higher order.
3. Detail Drawing
A detail drawing shows all the information necessary for fabricating an item, including
the material from which it is made and those finishes, protective coatings, and processes
required to fabricate the end product. Only one item (detail part) shall be presented per
drawing.
4. Drawing Tree
A drawing tree is used to control the development of drawings and their place in the
overall scheme of the project. Although this type drawing is not a requirement for each
project, when used properly and kept up to date, it can be a valuable management aid and
can be contained in a configuration management database.

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5. Electrical/Electronic Drawings
Electrical/electronic drawings – are prepared to depict schematics, wiring
diagrams, cable interconnections, and detailed cable assembly drawings.
Electrical and Electronic Symbols Application:
Symbols shall be in accordance with ANSI Y32.2- 1975, Graphic Symbols for
Electrical and Electronic Diagrams (or later revisions), unless otherwise noted.
Graphic electrical wiring symbols for architectural and electrical layout drawings
shall conform to ANSI Y32.9-1972, Graphic Symbols for Electrical Wiring and Layout
Diagrams Used in Architecture and Building Construction (or later revisions).
Electrical and Electronic Diagrams Application:
Diagrams shall be in accordance with ANSI Y14.15- 1966 (R-73) Electrical and
Electronic Diagrams (or later revisions); ANSI Y14.15a-1971, Interconnection
Diagrams, subsection 15-11; ANSI Y14.15b-1973, Electrical and Electronics
Diagrams, subsections 15-1 through 15-10, and 15-12.
6. Inseparable Assembly Drawing
An inseparable assembly drawing delineates items (pieces) which are separately
fabricated and are permanently joined together (e.g., welded, brazed, riveted, nailed,
bonded, etc.) to form an integral unit (part) not capable of being readily disassembled.
An inseparable assembly drawing may be prepared in lieu of individual monodetail
drawings for inseparable assemblies intended to be procured and replaced as a unit,
where (except for standard hardware) the separate parts are of similar or compatible
materials.
An inseparable assembly drawing shall fully define the end product or detail
assembly as assembled. Pieces of the inseparable assembly may be detailed either on
separate detail drawings or on the inseparable assembly drawing itself. In the case of
weldments, the parts shall not be individually detailed on separate drawings (due to the
consumable material allowances that would have to be shown on detail drawings),
except in cases where extensive machining might be necessary.
7. Installation Assembly Drawing
An installation assembly drawing shows where and how parts and/or assemblies
are installed relative to supporting structure or associated items. It shows locating
dimensions, tolerancing, specifies attaching parts (such as rivets, bolts, or screws) and
specific adjustments, assembly instructions, and processes required for completing and
inspecting the installation.

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 a. That portion of the structure into which the installation is being installed shall be
shown in phantom and identified by its part number. Such identifications shall be
indicated as reference information by enclosure of the part number in parentheses or
by use of the symbol “REF.”
b. Applicable datum points or planes, such as center lines of structure, plane of
symmetry, station planes, etc., shall be shown and identified.
c. Parts may be detailed in place on installation drawings when convenient.

Interface Control Drawing

An interface control drawing shall be used to maintain compatibility of all physical

and functional designs between different engineering design activities. The drawing shall
communicate design criteria such as dimensions, hole and/or bolt sizes, hardware, and
ultimate changes relative to cofunctioning systems. “Interface Control Drawing” shall be added
directly above the Title block. No list of materials is permitted on this type of drawing; it is not to
be used to manufacture parts.
Matched-Set Drawing

A matched-set drawing depicts parts that are machine-matched or otherwise mated and
for which replacement as a matched set or pair is essential. The operating or mating
characteristics of the matched parts (set) shall be indicated. The parts shall be uniquely
marked with a serial number identification to indicate a matched set.

Mechanical Schematic

A mechanical schematic diagram drawing illustrates the operational sequence or

arrangement of a mechanical device. Dimensions and relative sizes of items may be shown to
indicate mechanical relationship.

Modification Drawing
Modification drawings delineate changes to delivered items, stockable items (e.g.,
Standard Part Drawing of honeycomb panel blanks), assemblies, installations, or systems.
Drawings are prepared to add, remove, or rework items, equipment installations, or systems to
satisfy the using activity's requirements. They also incorporate mandatory changes (e.g., safety,

106
reliability, or application extension) in delivered equipment. A modification drawing shall be
identified by the words “Modification Drawing” immediately above the Title block. This type of
drawing has also been known or referred to as a “Make from Drawing.”

Outline Drawing
An outline drawing is a drawing that defines the external contour of an item, usually by
showing the projected views in two or three perpendicular planes. Two types of outline drawings
are depicted in Figures 25a, below, and 25b on page 52.

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Source Control Drawing

A source control drawing shall be used to limit procurement of a vendor-designed and

manufactured part (or assembly) to that source or sources that exclusively provide the
performance, installation, and interchangeable characteristics of the part selected and tested for
a specific application. In the event the vendor shall not provide drawings as described in
paragraph 4.14.d on page 56, the source control drawing shall include the same description of
the part as required on specification control drawings. If vendor drawings are made available,
the content of the source control drawing shall be limited to vendor's part number, name, and
address. In either case, the following note shall appear on the source control drawing: “Only the
part(s) specified on this drawing and identified by vendor's name(s), address(es), and part
number(s) has (have) been tested and approved by GSFC for use in name of item. A substitute
part shall not be used without prior testing and approval by GSFC.”
a. The source control drawing number is not a part number. The vendor part itself
shall be identified by the vendor's identifying number.
b. The assembly (or installation) drawing shall call out the part by source control
drawing number. In the List of Material (parts list) of the drawing, the source control

108
 drawing number shall be accompanied by the following note: “Vendor Part—see
source control drawing.” A source control drawing shall be identified by the words
“Source Control Drawing” immediately above the Title block.
c. A source control drawing shall not upgrade a vendor's part beyond the vendor's
stipulations.

Specification Control Drawing

Specification control drawings are prepared to record the characteristics of a vendor-

designed and manufactured part (or assembly). This type of drawing may also be used to
document GSFC parts that are sent to a unique vendor to perform a specific operation
because of special equipment and/or hardware only available there. Such characteristics are
size, shape, mounting dimensions, and other design requirements, including tests, when
applicable, that could be obtained from the vendor's manufacturing drawings if they were made
available. The vendor's part number, name, and address shall be included, either in note or
table form.

Standard Part Drawing

Standard parts shall be selected from government and industry standards in that order of
precedence. If neither of these contain a part satisfactory for the design needs, a drawing shall
be prepared. Before preparation, it must be determined that the part shall be a GSFC standard
part, in which case it shall be drafted on GSFC standard manual format.

Tabulated drawing

A tabulated drawing depicts similar items with differences in characteristics such as

dimensions, material, finish, and other requirements. These differences are tabulated on the
drawing, the fixed characteristics depicted once. Pictorial differences that are not clear should
be shown in views or details and should be properly labeled. A tabulated drawing precludes the
preparation of an individual drawing for each item.

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Tooling Drawing

Tooling fixtures and templates are production aids. The templates are not intended as
engineering documentation of the final end item configuration.

Composite Material Drawing

A composite material drawing is an engineering representation of two or more materials
in combination (reinforcing fibers and resin binder). The fiber and resin differ in form or
composition, and are tailored to meet specific engineering properties. The drawing shall specify
the multi-ply laminate configuration that defines the number of plies, the stacking sequence,
the ply angle orientation, the prepare fiber-resin materials, and the physical dimensions.
For the following requirements, refer to Figure 29 as an example of a composite material
drawing.
a. A coordinate reference and angle direction shall be shown for both the part and the
stacked detail.
b. Each ply shall be identified by Item No., angle, and thickness, as shown in Table 1 of
Figure 29.
c. Dash numbers may be used to show variations, such as length and material, as
shown in Table 2 of Figure 29. d. Stacking sequence code (+30/0/-30/90) 2 S, as
shown in Table 1 in Figure 29 defines the following features:

Ply 1 +30-degree orientation

Ply 2 0-degree orientation
Ply 3 -30-degree orientation
Ply 4 +90-degree orientation
Subscript “2” indicates repeat sequence (plies 1–4) two times, for buildup of plies 5–8.
Subscript “S” indicates symmetry, i.e., plies 1–8 repeated in reverse order for buildup of plies 9–
16.

The code is read (+30/0/-30/90/+30/0/-30/90/90/-30/0/+30/90/-30/0/+30).

Examples of other variations to the code are (03 /902 /45/-453) S. This code is read
(0/0/0/90/90/+45/-45/-45/-45/-45/-45/-45/+45/90/90/0/0/0).

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 In the same example, the subscript “T” can be used in lieu of “S” to designate the total
laminate. For example, (03 /902 /45/-456 /45/902 /03) T. However, in this example, using the “S”
to denote symmetry is the preferred method. “T” is generally reserved for laminates where
symmetry is not specified, as in (0/30/60/90).

NUMBERING SYSTEM FOR DRAWINGS AND SUPPORTING DOCUMENTATION

The GSFC numbering system for identifying engineering drawings and associated lists is
based on the “unit number” principle, whereby the same basic number assigned to an
assembly drawing is also applied to index, usage, data, and parts lists.
a. Drawing numbers shall consist of assigned basic seven-digit numbers, prefixed by the
letter “G” (signifying GSFC) and a second letter signifying the drawing size (B, C, D,
E, F, or J).
b. Associated list numbers shall be the basic seven-digit drawing number prefix with PL
or IL as applicable. Refer to Definitions paragraph 8.1 on page 71.
c. All GSFC organizations using drawing numbers shall make their request to the
Mechanical Systems Division, Mechanical Engineering Branch (designated custodian)
for blocks of numbers for their flight hardware and ground support equipment.
d. The management of drawing numbers becomes the responsibility of the engineering
design group to whom they are assigned. Reassignment of the numbers to group
subsections or individuals, other contractors or subcontractors, or other programs or
projects must be controlled, recorded, and maintained by the Configuration
Management Officer.
e. Engineering documentation (drawings, engineering change orders, and configuration
change requests) shall be retained by the Configuration Manager in the responsible
engineering organization until otherwise directed by the Project.
f. When it is necessary to identify a drawing as a sketch, the number shall be assigned
by the originator. The sketch shall be maintained by the originator to prevent the
necessity of a central control. Sketches shall not be prepared in place of engineering
drawings for procurement of mockups, models, preproduction hardware or flight
hardware, and associated equipment.
g. GSFC numbers for specifications, processes, and standards shall be issued by the
specific organization for which such documents are being developed. Procedures
governing the preparation of GSFC specifications, processes, and standards shall be
in accordance with GSFC-S-250-3, Guide for the Preparation of Specifications. The

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 Library Services Branch of the GSFC Information Management Division shall receive
two copies of final, approved documents that are of general interest and use. A list of
existing specifications is maintained by the Library Services Branch.
h. In the absence of a project-directed document numbering plan, the following system
shall be used:

Part Numbering
Each detail part, subassembly, etc., shall be identified by a part number as follows:
a. An item covered by an approved standard and used without alteration or
selection shall be identified by the proper standard number (such as MS number
for military standard), which shall include any dash number or code necessary for
complete identity.
b. Each nonstandard item shall be identified by a part number that shall be, or shall
include, the drawing number.
c. Vendor-designed and manufactured parts or assemblies shall be identified by the
vendor's part number. See “Specification Control Drawing,” paragraph 4.14 on
page 54, and “Source Control Drawing,” paragraph 4.13 on page 53.
d. Altered or selected parts shall be identified as required. See “Altered or Selected
Vendor Part Drawing,” paragraph 4.1 on page 39.
e. Symmetrically opposite parts shall be designated by -1 (shown) and -2 (opposite)
carrying the odd/even relationship to higher numbers as necessary. The part
shown shall always be an odd number, and its opposite, the next higher number.
Parts shall be identified on the field of drawing by showing both the identifying part
number and find number where cross-referenced on a separate Engineering Parts List. See
“Sample Assembly Drawing,” Figure 17 on page 40. When the parts appear in the List of
Material on the drawing, only the item number is called out on the field of the drawing. See
Figure 34, “Sample Assembly Drawing with List of Material,” on page 80.

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 A detail drawing depicts a single detail part, and the part shall be designated by the
drawing number. See “Detail Drawing,” paragraph 4.3 on page 41.

An inseparable assembly drawing depicts parts permanently fastened together, and the
assembly shall be designated by the drawing number. The individual parts shall be designated
by part number as described per “Inseparable Assembly Drawing,” paragraph 4.6 on page 44.

Each of the parts shown on a tabulated drawing shall be identified by the drawing
number suffixed with a dash number. The basic drawing number alone shall not be used to
identify a part. See “Tabulated Drawing,” paragraph 4.16 on page 56.

Parts that must be mated, and for which replacement as a matched set or pair is
required, shall be assigned a single number to designate each matched set or pair. Component
parts shown in matched-set drawings instead of separate detail drawings shall be identified by
the identifying part number and find number.

Find or Item Numbering

Under the find or item numbering system, a number is assigned to a part or detail
assembly for the purpose of locating it in the field of the assembly drawing. The find or item
number is also shown in the Engineering Parts List for an assembly drawing, cross-referenced
to the part number used for procurement purposes.

Order of Precedence of Specifications and Standards When identical parts or

assemblies of equal quality are identified by more than one document, the item shall be
referenced on drawings in the following order:
Group I
Group I covers government specifications and standards listed for use by GSFC and
industry documents coordinated to the extent indicated as follows in (c) and (e).
a. Coordinated federal specifications and standards.
b. Coordinated military specifications and standards (including JANs, ANs, and ANDs).
c. Industry specifications and standards (e.g., those promulgated by nationally
recognized associations, committees, and technical societies) having coordinated

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 status established under policies and procedures of other government agencies and
approved for GSFC use.
d. Limited coordination military and interim federal specifications and standards issued
by other government agencies and approved for GSFC use.
e. Industry specifications and standards having limited coordination status established
under policies and procedures of other government agencies and approved for
GSFC use.
Group II
Group II covers industry specifications and standards (e.g., those promulgated by
nationally recognized associations, committees, and technical societies) approved for use by
GSFC, for which status equivalent to military documents has not been established.
Group III
Group III covers Government specifications and standards not previously listed by
GSFC.
Group IV
Group IV covers industry specifications and standards not previously listed for use by
GSFC. Company specifications and standards are not to be considered as a part of this group.
Copies of industry specifications and standards should be obtained from the association
concerned.
Group V
Group V covers company specifications and standards. Reference to a company
specification or standard for new applications or designs shall be discontinued upon the
issuance of a specification or standard in Group I, II, III, or IV covering an interchangeable item
of equivalent quality.

Note (applicable to Groups I, II, IV, and V above):

When industry specifications and standards are specified on GSFC drawings and documents,
such specifications and standards shall be available to GSFC personnel.

ENGINEERING ORDER
General Requirements

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 The use of Engineering Order (EO) for the purpose of revising released drawings is the
preferred method of changing drawings, although the method of direct change to the drawing
may be chosen by the project engineer.

After an EO system is elected, it is the responsibility of that project design activity to

assign numbering and maintain the documentation system. The approved EO is considered an
official part of the original drawing and shall always be available to others, even after
incorporation. With this system, reference to EOs in the revision block of drawings is permitted
in place of the usual detailed listing of changes.

Format Sample

The following minimum information should be included on an EO form. See Figure 30a
on page 66.
1. DRAWING & REV. LEVEL: The number of the drawing to be changed and the
revision level affected. Where the change is exactly the same
on more than one drawing, add an asterisk to the drawing
and revision level block; then add the drawing numbers along
with the next applicable EO number to the asterisk table on
the field of change on EO page 1. If more than one EO page
is required, the additional EO pages will only note that those
pages affect the list of drawings the EO is written against.
2. INC. REV.: The revision letter to be provided by the
Configuration Manager (CM) at the time of drawing change
incorporation. Outstanding EO numbers may be incorporated
under one revision letter.
3. TITLE: Title of the drawing to be revised.
4. NEXT ASSEMBLY: Next assembly number of the drawings affected by
the change.
5. USED ON: The type of equipment such as Ground-Support
Equipment (GSE) or Flight (FLT).
6. PROGRAM : Name of program.
7. REASON: Reason why the change is necessary rather than
description of the change. A Configuration Change Request

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 (CCR) number and class to be provided by the project
engineer where applicable or when required by the CM.
8. TYPE OF EO: Advance Notice of Change : A change to the
drawing that shall take place at some future date. Several
EOs may be incorporated under the same revision letter.
Deviation : A record of a change to a
manufactured part. The change is to accept a discrepancy
correction in a part. The EO would be assigned a back
slash (\) instead of an EO revision letter and identified as a
“Deviation for serial number” in the revision block. No
physical change to the field of the drawing will occur.
Other : A record of special tests or
circumstances that might not be required of all parts.
9. DESCRIPTION: Description of the change to be made shall be
shown using the words “Was” and “Now” or “Remove” and
“Add.” The words “Delete,” “Cancelled” or “Superseded”
may also be used. In the situation of superseding a
previous EO, a “Was” and “Now” current condition must
also be shown, just as if the previous EO had been
incorporated. If the current EO format is insufficient in size,
a sheet 2 or more may be added). If a larger page is
required a supplemental sheet shall be prepared on a
regular drawing-size sheet reproducible vellum and shall
state “This supplemental sheet is page of EO number of
drawing number.” Enter in the description area of page 1 of
the EO to “see supplemental sheet page of this EO.” The
EO must be on an approved EO form. No paste ons or line
strikeouts are permitted. All lettering must be .12 inch or
larger and uniform in size.
10. “SHEET OF”: Indicate number 1 and the total number of EO
sheets. On remaining sheets, enter the number of that
particular sheet of the EO only.
11. Disposition: Actions to be taken as a result of the change.

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12. EFFECTIVE: If the change affects only a limited number of a
series of like parts, fill in the serial number(s) and date. If
THE CHANGE
13. DRAWN BY: Signature, date, and GSFC CODE.
14. ISSUED BY: Signature, date, and GSFC code of CM official.
15. CHECKED: Signatures, date, and GSFC codes. When
practicable, signatures should be those of persons who
approved the original drawing.
16. APPROVED: SIGNATURES, DATE, AND Signature, date, and
GSFC CODE.
17. ENGINEER: Signature, date, and GSFC CODE of project
responsible engineer.
18. CCB APPROVAL: Configuration control board signature.
19. JOB ORDER NO: Fabrication number to be assigned by the
cognizant engineer. Code
20. EO NO: To be assigned by the configuration management
office or the designated representative for the program for
which the EO is being written. EO numbers are issued in
numerical sequence against a particular drawing number
when the EO is sent for checking.
DRAWING REVISIONS

Revision Methods

Revisions in the field of drawings are made by deletion, either by erasure or crossing
out (a series of parallel lines placed on the face of drawing over the deleted portions of
drawing), by addition, or by redrawing (all delineations shall be made to scale).

Revision Identification

Revisions shall be identified by symbols in the field of the drawing (see paragraph 7.4)
cross-referenced to the revision description. Revision symbols shall be entered in the revision
block (see Figures 31a, 31b, and 31c, page 69). Revisions shall be by alphabetical letter and

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order, except that letters I, O, Q, S, X, and Z shall not be used as revision symbols. Following
letter Y, use AA, AB, etc.; after AY, use BA, BB, etc.

Revision of Multisheet

Drawings There is only one acceptable method of recording changes to multisheet

drawings. Revisions to any sheet(s) shall be recorded in the revision description block on sheet
1, and reference shall be made to sheet(s) affected. Level of revision shall be changed on each
drawing sheet whether or not that particular sheet is affected. The revision description block on
all sheets other than sheet 1 shall state “See sheet 1 for revisions.”

Revision Recording
A symbol (e.g., “A3”) enclosed in a circle shall appear in the field of drawing at the point
of revision. The letter “A” refers to any revisions completed at a given time. The number
following refers to the number of the revision made. Figure 31a shows examples of this. The
same symbol may appear more than once if, in the revision description column, more than one
action took place per line (see Figure 31a under symbol “A3,” line 2).

When changes are made to a drawing through a direct incorporation, revision symbols
are required on the field of the drawing, and abbreviated descriptions of the changes must be
recorded in the revision block.

When changes are made to a drawing through an EO or Revision Notice system,

revision symbols are not required on the field of the drawing, but the Revision Block must state
“See EO number for changes” or “See Revision Notice number” in the revision description
column.

For either method of incorporation, the person incorporating the revision, the person
assigned to check the incorporation, and the cognizant engineer responsible for the revision all
shall date and initial the revision block in the approved column.

Redrawn or Replaced Drawings

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 The next revision letter in sequence shall be entered in the revision block of the new
drawing. To the revision block shall be added “Replaces Revision (old revision letter) With
Change” and a description of the change or reference to an Engineering Order (EO) document
number shall be recorded in the description column. All previous revisions shall be omitted from
the superseding drawing. The statement “Replaced with Change by Revision (new revision
letter)” shall be added to the superseded drawing's revision block and “Superseded” shall be
placed in 1/4-inch-high lettering directly above the Title block. When a drawing is redrawn
without changes, the phrase “Replaces Revision (old revision letter) Without Change” shall be
added to revision block and revision letter shall remain unchanged.

PARTS LIST AND INDEX LIST

This section establishes minimum requirements for the preparation and submission of
Parts Lists (PL) and Index Lists (IL) used with engineering drawings.
Parts Lists may be prepared for each assembly drawing in accordance with this section.
For parts lists on drawings, see Figure 34 on page 80 or Figure 3 on page 10.
Index Lists may be prepared for each Payload, Engineering Model, Major Assembly,
Complex Assembly of assemblies, as directed by Project Manager.

Definitions

Cover Sheet: This refers to the first sheet of each Parts List or Index List and is a record of the
revisions.
Parts List (PL): This is a tabulation of the items necessary for fabricating or assembling the end
item(s) to which the list applies.
Index List (IL): This is a list of the one principal and all subordinate PLs applicable to a major
assembly.
Bulk Materials: These are items that are necessary constituents of an assembly or
subassembly, for which the quantity required is not readily predeterminable. Examples are oil,
wax, solder, cement, ink, damping fluid, grease, powdered graphite, flux, welding rod, thread,
twine, and chain. If the quantity is known, but the physical nature of the material is such that it is
not adaptable to depiction on a drawing, or the material can be cut to finished size by the use of
such hand or bench tools as shears, pliers, knives, etc. without further machining operations,
then the material's configuration shall be fully described in writing without the necessity of
pictorial presentation.

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Special Handling Equipment and Packaging: This term applies to items such as boxes,
shipping containers, cradles, crane attachments, and other special items needed for storing and
transporting.
Special Test Equipment: This term applies to items of special test equipment that are required
for government inspection or service maintenance, such as test stands, indicators, etc.
Applicable Standards, Specifications, and Publications: This term applies to documents
referenced on or invoked by the drawings.
Requirements
List Preparation: The PL and IL may be prepared manually or by typewriter or computer word
processor.
List Formats Lists:
Shall use preprinted 8 1/2- by 11-inch size format.
The preparation requirements are provided herein. When more than a single sheet is
required to prepare or revise a list, the list title is required on the first sheet only.
Revision Identification
A revision letter and the date of revision shall be applied to each list when any change
is made. The letters I, O, Q, and X shall not be used as revision letters. List shall be revised
independently of the associated drawings.
Deleting Items
Items to be deleted may be either lined out, erased, or omitted.
Adding Items
New or superseding items may be added at the end of a list or inserted in the list in
proper sequence.
Cover Sheet
The Cover Sheet shall be the first sheet for each PL or IL and shall be prepared as
indicated herein.
Format
The Cover Sheet shall be prepared on Form 670-36 (1/65).
Entries
Shall be made in the blocks and columns of the Cover Sheet as directed on the
following page:
1. CODE IDENT: Enter Code Identification number as assigned by
Federal Supply CAGE Publication H4/H8 for using

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 activity. Number is located in title block of design
activity.
2. LIST NO.: Enter the number of the PL or IL for which the
cover sheet is being prepared.
3. SHEET OF: Enter the total number of sheets used.
4. REV: Enter revision letter of the latest revision to the PL.
Changes to this block shall be made by erasure.
5. ITEM NOMENCLATURE: Enter the same nomenclature that appears in the
Title block of the assembly for which the list is
being prepared. The item nomenclature shall
always be a noun.
6. VENDOR: If prepared by contractor for GSFC, enter
contractor name and Federal Supply CAGE Code
Numbers.
7. PREPARED: Enter name of person preparing list.
8. APPROVED: Enter signature of person approving for accuracy
and completeness.
9. ENG APPROVAL: Enter signature of Assistant Project Engineer
(optional).
10. ENG APPROVAL: Enter signature of Project Engineer (mandatory for
all procurement).
11. AUTHENTICATION: Enter name of person designated to sign for design
activity or division.
12. CONTRACT NO: When prepared by contractor for GSFC, enter the
contract number.
13. LTR: Enter revision letter of current revision.
14. DESCRIPTION: Enter a complete and concise description of the
revision that applies to the PL.
15. DATE: Enter date of revision. 1
6. APP (Approval): Enter initials of person completing revision review.
17. RECORD OF REVISION: Enter revision status of individual PL sheets.

Parts List Continuation Sheet

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 The PL continuation sheet shall be prepared as indicated herein. Circled numbers have
been assigned to each column or block for identification only. The PL shall contain a cover
sheet and as many PL continuation sheets as necessary to completely list all the information.

Format
The PL continuation sheet shall be prepared on Form 670-37 (1/65).
Entries
Shall be made in the blocks and columns as directed below:
1. PARTS LIST NO.: On each sheet of the PL, enter the number of the corresponding
drawing.
2. SHEET NO.: On each sheet, enter the appropriate sheet number.
3. ITEM FIND NOS.: Enter number taken from assembly drawing.
4. DWG. DOCUMENT PART OR STOCK NO.: Enter the part number or other identifying
number of each item in the list.
5. QTY REQD PER ASSY.: Enter the quantity required for each assembly.
6. CODE IDENT NO. (Code identification number) :
Enter appropriate number assigned to the design activity per
CAGE Publication H4/H8. When a government or industry
standard part or specification number appears in Column 4, no
entry shall be made in Column 6. When the Code Identification
Number for an item is identical to that entered in Block 1 of the
Cover Sheet, do not repeat the number in Column 6 of the PL
continuation sheet.
7. DRAWING TITLE OR ITEM DESCRIPTION (Item description or nomenclature):
Enter the noun or noun phrase describing the item whose part or
identifying number appears on assembly drawing.
8. REMARKS: Enter information that could be useful for reference [i.e.,
specification, control drawings, designations (e.g., R10, J14, etc.),
vendor's items, etc.].
Index List Continuation Sheet
The IL continuation sheet shall be prepared as indicated herein. Circled numbers have
been assigned to each column or block for identification only. The IL shall contain a cover sheet
and as many IL.
Format

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 The IL continuation sheet shall be prepared on Form 670-39 (1/65).
Entries
Shall be made in the blocks and columns as directed below:
1. INDEX LIST NUMBER: On each sheet, enter the number of first assembly level (top or
main assembly).
2. SHEET NO.: On each sheet, enter the appropriate sheet number.
3. CODE IDENT: Enter code identification taken from PL.
4. LIST NO.: Enter number of the PL.
5. LIST NOMENCLATURE: Enter nomenclature as it appears on the PL.
6. ASSY LEVEL: Enter the next assembly level number of the list number.

DESIGN REFERENCES, STANDARDS, AND SPECIFICATIONS

Dimensioning and Tolerancing

Dimensioning and Tolerancing Practices
The dimensioning and tolerancing for all types of drawings shall be in
accordance with ANSI Y14.5M-1982 (or later revisions).
Statements on Dimensioning
a. Dimensions shall be chosen and placed on drawings based on the parts
interrelationships with mating parts, not to insignificant theoretical center lines.
b. Primary, secondary, and tertiary datum features shall be labeled in alphabetical order
when creating a new drawing.
c. Drawings of parts requiring templates in the fabrication process and their template
drawings must be dimensioned alike. Refer to tooling required notes in “Dimension
Notes,” paragraph 2.4.4.1 on page 16.
d. Use a minimum of reference dimensions on drawings.
e. When using true position dimensioning*, the dimension from the feature to other
edges and its perpendicularity relationship to a surface must be identified with datum
letters. Implied datum (when no datum letter(s) are specified) are no longer
acceptable.

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Metric Dimensioning
SI Units and Symbols
SI base units are seven well-defined units that are regarded as dimensionally
independent. They are as follows:

Dimensioning and tolerancing shall be in SI units and decimal fractions of the unit. All
linear dimensions shall be in millimeters and decimal fractions of millimeters. Although the SI
unit for the plane angle is the radian, angles stated in degrees, minutes, and seconds, or in

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degrees and decimal of a degree (preferred), shall be used when dimensioning parts. The
number of decimal places in the dimension shall be the same as the number of places in the
required tolerance. The rounding of dimensions and tolerancing shall be in accordance with
section 10.2.2.2 on page 89. Drawings shall be dimensioned and tolerance in accordance with
ANSI Y14.5M-1982.
Surface texture values shall be noted in micrometers (µm). See the following table:

Forces, such as tensile and shear loads, shall be shown in newtons (N). e. Stresses shall be
shown in mega pascals (MPa = Pa x 106).

The following table gives examples:

 Pressure values for liquid and gas shall be shown in kilopascals (kPa = Pa x 103).
 Mass values shall be shown in kilograms (kg).
 Preferred diameter/pitch combinations for threaded fasteners are shown in the following
table, in accordance with ISO/TC20/SC4 Resolutions 169 and 220.

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 The tolerance block on the GSFC drawing format shall be in accordance with the format
example in Figure 2b on page 6. Tolerances given in the format may be adjusted to reflect
the requirements of the design.
 Preferred Metric Limits & Fits (ANSI B4.2-1978) encompasses tolerance required
designations, preferred limits, basic sizes, and symbols. k.
 General Tolerances for Metric Dimensioned Products (ANSI B4.3-1978) is used for metric
dimensions without tolerance designations.

Unit Conversions

Conversion of Dimensions
Following is a table of selected conversion factors. If further conversion factors are
needed, the references outlined in paragraph 10.2 on page 86 are very useful.

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Assignments: Designations, Standards and Abbreviation

Objectives: To ensure the knowledge of the students in designation, standards and

abbreviation in Computer Engineering Drafting and Designs.

Procedures:

1. Print/Write all the Designations, Standards and Abbreviations

2. Compile it like a book then use as a tools for performing AutoCAD.
3. It will consider as Project No. 2.

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 LESSON V:
Hand – Sketched Schematic Diagrams

Technical drawing, drafting or drawing – is the act and discipline of

composing drawings that visually communicate how something functions or is constructed.

Technical drawing is essential for communicating ideas in industry and engineering. To

make the drawings easier to understand, people use familiar symbols, perspectives, units of
measurement, notation systems, visual styles, and page layout. Together,
such conventions constitute a visual language and help to ensure that the drawing
is unambiguous and relatively easy to understand. Many of the symbols and principles of
technical drawing are codified in an international standard called ISO 128.

The need for precise communication in the preparation of a functional document

distinguishes technical drawing from the expressive drawing of the visual arts. Artistic drawings
are subjectively interpreted; their meanings are multiply determined. Technical drawings are
understood to have one intended meaning.

A drafter, draftsperson, or draughtsman is a person who makes a drawing (technical or

expressive). A professional drafter who makes technical drawings is sometimes called a drafting
technician.

Technical drawings are graphic and technical communication tools. Early humans felt a need
to represent the world (hunting scenes) to their peers. The appearance of technology gradually
led humans to develop another use for drawing. It became a way to convey technical thought
(Archimedes, Leonardo da Vinci).

The industrial revolution gave rise to graphic and communication tools, which facilitated
the exchange of technical information between individuals. An international organization codified
some of these graphic tools so that everyone could understand them.

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There are two types of drawings. The first is a drawing done without instruments, known as a
sketch. The second is a drawing done with instruments, known as a final drawing.

Technical drawings are the common language of those who work in technology. Engineers,
architects, designers, technologists, technicians and specialized workers use them to
communicate with each other.

This universal language varies little from one country to another. Unlike spoken languages,
it ensures unequivocal understanding of the definition and construction of technical objects. This
means that two engineers who do not speak the same language can understand most of a
technical drawing, with the exception of annotations written in a specific language.

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There are many types of technical drawings, including:

• 3D drawings (isometric, perspective)

• Exploded-view 3D drawings

• Complete working drawings

• Detail drawings (2D orthogonal projections)

•Diagrams are another form of technical drawing with looser, less universal standards.

Technical drawing is an essential tool for young people learning about technology. They
need to learn the basics through the tasks assigned to them.

SCALES

Scale is a geometric concept used mainly to represent an object that is too big or bulky
to be drawn to size on a sheet of paper. Drawing to scale means copying an object
proportionally. For example, the 5-cm broken straight line AB below has been reduced by 5
using a reduction constant of 1/5.

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131
132
133
Sketching

Sketch for a government building

A sketch is a quickly executed, freehand drawing that is usually not intended as a finished
work. In general, sketching is a quick way to record an idea for later use. Architect's sketches

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primarily serve as a way to try out different ideas and establish a composition before a more
finished work, especially when the finished work is expensive and time-consuming.

Architectural sketches, for example, are a kind of diagrams. These sketches,

like metaphors, are used by architects as a means of communication in aiding design
collaboration. This tool helps architects to abstract attributes of hypothetical provisional design
solutions and summarize their complex patterns, hereby enhancing the design process.

The basic drafting procedure is to place a piece of paper (or other material) on a smooth
surface with right-angle corners and straight sides—typically a drawing board. A
sliding straightedge known as a T-square is then placed on one of the sides, allowing it to be
slid across the side of the table, and over the surface of the paper.

"Parallel lines" can be drawn simply by moving the T-square and running a pencil
or technical pen along the T-square's edge. The T-square is used to hold other devices such
as set squares or triangles. In this case, the drafter places one or more triangles of known
angles on the T-square—which is itself at right angles to the edge of the table—and can then
draw lines at any chosen angle to others on the page. Modern drafting tables come equipped
with a drafting machine that is supported on both sides of the table to slide over a large piece of
paper. Because it is secured on both sides, lines drawn along the edge are guaranteed to be
parallel

In addition, the drafter uses several technical drawing tools to draw curves and circles.
Primary among these are the compasses, used for drawing simple arcs and circles, and
the French curve, for drawing curves. A spline is a rubber coated articulated metal that can be
manually bent to most curves.

Drafting templates assist the drafter with creating recurring objects in a drawing without
having to reproduce the object from scratch every time. This is especially useful when using
common symbols; i.e. in the context of stagecraft, a lighting designer will draw from
the USITT standard library of lighting fixture symbols to indicate the position of a common fixture
across multiple positions. Templates are sold commercially by a number of vendors, usually
customized to a specific task, but it is also not uncommon for a drafter to create his own
templates.

This basic drafting system requires an accurate table and constant attention to the
positioning of the tools. A common error is to allow the triangles to push the top of the T-square
down slightly, thereby throwing off all angles. Even tasks as simple as drawing two angled lines

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meeting at a point require a number of moves of the T-square and triangles, and in general,
drafting can be a time-consuming process.

A solution to these problems was the introduction of the mechanical "drafting machine", an
application of the pantograph (sometimes referred to incorrectly as a "pentagraph" in these
situations) which allowed the drafter to have an accurate right angle at any point on the page
quite quickly. These machines often included the ability to change the angle, thereby removing
the need for the triangles as well.

In addition to the mastery of the mechanics of drawing lines, arcs and circles (and text)
onto a piece of paper—with respect to the detailing of physical objects—the drafting effort
requires a thorough understanding of geometry, trigonometry and spatial comprehension, and in
all cases demands precision and accuracy, and attention to detail of high order.

Although drafting is sometimes accomplished by a project engineer, architect, or shop

personnel (such as a machinist), skilled drafters (and/or designers) usually accomplish the task,
and are always in demand to some degree.

An example of a drawing drafted in AutoCAD

2D CAD systems such as AutoCAD or Micro Station replace the paper drawing discipline.
The lines, circles, arcs, and curves are created within the software. It is down to the technical
drawing skill of the user to produce the drawing. There is still much scope for error in the
drawing when producing first and third angle orthographic projections, auxiliary projections
and cross-section views. A 2D CAD system is merely an electronic drawing board. Its greatest
strength over direct to paper technical drawing is in the making of revisions. Whereas in a
conventional hand drawn technical drawing, if a mistake is found, or a modification is required, a
new drawing must be made from scratch, the 2D CAD system allows a copy of the original to be
modified, saving considerable time. 2D CAD systems can be used to create plans for large
projects such as buildings and aircraft but provide no way to check the various components will
fit together.

A 3D CAD system (such as Key Creator, Autodesk Inventor, or SolidWorks) first produces
the geometry of the part; the technical drawing comes from user defined views of that geometry.
Any orthographic, projected or sectioned view is created by the software. There is no scope for
error in the production of these views. The main scope for error comes in setting the parameter
of first or third angle projection and displaying the relevant symbol on the technical drawing. 3D
CAD allows individual parts to be assembled together to represent the final product. Buildings,

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aircraft, ships, and cars are modeled, assembled, and checked in 3D before technical drawings
are released for manufacture.

Both 2D and 3D CAD systems can be used to produce technical drawings for any
discipline. The various disciplines (electrical, electronic, pneumatic, hydraulic, etc.) have
industry recognized symbols to represent common components.

BS and ISO produce standards to show recommended practices but it is up to individuals

to produce the drawings to a standard. There is no definitive standard for layout or style. The
only standard across engineering workshop drawings is in the creation of orthographic
projections and cross-section views.

In representing complex, three-dimensional objects in two-dimensional drawings, the

objects can be described by at least one view plus material thickness note, 2, 3 or as many
views and sections that are required to show all features of object.

Assessment/Activity: Hand – Sketch Schematic Drawing: Information Graphical

Communication

Objective: in this activity, students will experience the true meaning of drawing by performing a
drawing using Hand-Sketch and Schematic Drawing (Technical) thru information graphical
communication.

Intended Learning Outcomes: The students will practice the importance of being able to
quickly prepare sketches to communicate a concept to a client or to quickly gather and transmit
information from field observations.

Process:

1. Students must choose their partner to perform this activity.

2. The two of us prepare their own graphical information then the other will interpret it by
drawing (sketch) and vise - versa.
3. After that they create the final drawing in AutoCAD.

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 LESSON VI:

Circuit Layout Simulation Tools

Analog Devices’ Design Tools simplify your design and product selection process
through ease of use and by simulating results that are optimized and tested for accuracy.
Analog Devices Circuit Design tools are web based or downloadable but always free to use.

 Reduce your testing time and get to the finished product faster
 Overcome engineering challenges and simplify calculations
 Use industry leading products to create the best design
 Be confident in the results and your solution

A circuit diagram (electrical diagram, elementary diagram, electronic schematic) is a graphical

representation of an electrical circuit.

A pictorial circuit diagram uses simple images of components, while a schematic

diagram shows the components and interconnections of the circuit using standardized symbolic
representations. The presentation of the interconnections between circuit components in the
schematic diagram does not necessarily correspond to the physical arrangements in the
finished device.

Unlike a block diagram or layout diagram, a circuit diagram shows the actual electrical
connections. A drawing meant to depict the physical arrangement of the wires and the
components they connect is called artwork or layout, physical design, or wiring diagram.

Circuit diagrams are used for the design (circuit design), construction (such as PCB layout), and
maintenance of electrical and electronic equipment.

Symbols

Circuit diagrams are pictures with symbols that have differed from country to country and
have changed over time, but are now to a large extent internationally standardized. Simple
components often had symbols intended to represent some feature of the physical construction
of the device. For example, the symbol for a resistor shown here dates back to the days when
that component was made from a long piece of wire wrapped in such a manner as to not

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produce inductance, which would have made it a coil. These wire wound resistors are now used
only in high-power applications, smaller resistors being cast from carbon composition (a mixture
of carbon and filler) or fabricated as an insulating tube or chip coated with a metal film. The
internationally standardized symbol for a resistor is therefore now simplified to an oblong,
sometimes with the value in ohms written inside, instead of the zig-zag symbol. A less common
symbol is simply a series of peaks on one side of the line representing the conductor, rather
than back-and-forth as shown here.

Wire Crossover Symbols for Circuit Diagrams. The CAD symbol for insulated crossing
wires is the same as the older, non-CAD symbol for non-insulated crossing wires. To avoid
confusion, the wire "jump" (semi-circle) symbol for insulated wires in non-CAD schematics is
recommended (as opposed to using the CAD-style symbol for no connection), so as to avoid
confusion with the original, older style symbol, which means the exact opposite. The newer,
recommended style for 4-way wire connections in both CAD and non-CAD schematics is to
stagger the joining wires into T-junctions.

The linkages between leads were once simple crossings of lines. With the arrival of
computerized drafting, the connection of two intersecting wires was shown by a crossing of
wires with a "dot" or "blob" to indicate a connection. At the same time, the crossover was
simplified to be the same crossing, but without a "dot". However, there was a danger of
confusing the wires that were connected and not connected in this manner, if the dot was drawn
too small or accidentally omitted (e.g. the "dot" could disappear after several passes through a
copy machine).[4] As such, the modern practice for representing a 4-way wire connection is to
draw a straight wire and then to draw the other wires staggered along it with "dots" as

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connections (see diagram), so as to form two separate T-junctions that brook no confusion and
are clearly not a crossover.

For crossing wires that are insulated from one another, a small semi-circle symbol is
commonly used to show one wire "jumping over" the other wire (similar to how jumper wires are
used).

A common, hybrid style of drawing combines the T-junction crossovers with "dot"
connections and the wire "jump" semi-circle symbols for insulated crossings. In this manner, a
"dot" that is too small to see or that has accidentally disappeared can still be clearly
differentiated from a "jump".

On a circuit diagram, the symbols for components are labelled with a descriptor
or reference designator matching that on the list of parts. For example, C1 is the first capacitor,
L1 is the first inductor, Q1 is the first transistor, and R1 is the first resistor. Often the value or
type designation of the component is given on the diagram beside the part, but detailed
specifications would go on the parts list.

Detailed rules for reference designations are provided in the International standard IEC
61346.

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Comparison of pictorial and schematic styles of circuit diagrams. Common schematic diagram
symbols (US symbols)

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 The circuit diagram for a four-bit TTL counter, a type of state machine

Organization

It is a usual although not universal convention that schematic drawings are organized on
the page from left to right and top to bottom in the same sequence as the flow of the main signal
or power path. For example, a schematic for a radio receiver might start with the antenna input
at the left of the page and end with the loudspeaker at the right. Positive power supply
connections for each stage would be shown towards the top of the page, with grounds, negative
supplies, or other return paths towards the bottom. Schematic drawings intended for
maintenance may have the principal signal paths highlighted to assist in understanding the
signal flow through the circuit. More complex devices have multi-page schematics and must rely
on cross-reference symbols to show the flow of signals between the different sheets of the
drawing.

Detailed rules for the preparation of circuit diagrams, and other document types used in
electro technology, are provided in the international standard IEC 61082-1.

Relay logic line diagrams, also called ladder logic diagrams, use another common standardized
convention for organizing schematic drawings, with a vertical power supply rail on the left and
another on the right, and components strung between them like the rungs of a ladder.

Artwork

Once the schematic has been made, it is converted into a layout that can be fabricated
onto a printed circuit board (PCB). Schematic-driven layout starts with the process of schematic
capture. The result is what is known as a rat's nest. The rat's nest is a jumble of wires (lines)
crisscrossing each other to their destination nodes. These wires are routed either manually or
automatically by the use of electronic design automation (EDA) tools. The EDA tools arrange
and rearrange the placement of components and find paths for tracks to connect various nodes.
This results in the final layout artwork for the integrated circuit or printed circuit board.[9]

A generalized design flow may be as follows:

Schematic → schematic capture → netlist → rat's nest → routing → artwork → PCB

development and etching → component mounting → testing

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 A rat's nest

Activity/Assessment: Circuit Layout Simulation Tools

Objective: Students must learn other software that use in design and creating a circuit diagram.

Intended Learning Outcomes: Aside form AutoCAD, Student may use some tools that will
help them perform design of circuit diagram.

Procedure: Install a tools or software that will make as create circuit very easy. (Students will
choose their want software as they will be more comfortable while doing their activity.)

Recommended:
1. Circuit Maker 7. QSapecNG Circuit Design Software
2. Open Circuit Design Software 8. Simulide
3. KiCAD EDA 9. SuperSim Circuit Design Software
4. ADS Circuit Design Software
5. nagaEDA Circuit Design Software
6. OpenSce Circuit Design Software

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 LESSON VII:

Wiring and Cabling Diagrams Electronic Packaging

Electronic packaging

Is the design and production of enclosures for electronic devices ranging from individual
semiconductor devices up to complete systems such as a mainframe computer. Packaging of
an electronic system must consider protection from mechanical damage, cooling, radio
frequency noise emission and electrostatic discharge. Product safety standards may dictate
particular features of a consumer product, for example, external case temperature or grounding
of exposed metal parts. Prototypes and industrial equipment made in small quantities may use
standardized commercially available enclosures such as card cages or prefabricated boxes.
Mass-market consumer devices may have highly specialized packaging to increase consumer
appeal. Electronic packaging is a major discipline within the field of mechanical engineering.

Design

Electronic packaging can be organized by levels:

Level 0 - "Chip", protecting a bare semiconductor die from contamination and damage.

Level 1 - Component, such as semiconductor package design and the packaging of

other discrete components.

Level 2 - Etched wiring board (printed circuit board).

Level 3 - Assembly, one or more wiring boards and associated components.

Level 4 - Module, assemblies integrated in an overall enclosure.

Level 5 - System, a set of modules combined for some purpose.

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 The same electronic system may be packaged as a portable device or adapted for fixed
mounting in an instrument rack or permanent installation. Packaging for aerospace, marine, or
military systems imposes different types of design criteria.

Electronic packaging relies on mechanical engineering principles such as dynamics,

stress analysis, heat transfer and fluid mechanics. High-reliability equipment often must survive
drop tests, loose cargo vibration, secured cargo vibration, extreme temperatures, humidity,
water immersion or spray, rain, sunlight (UV, IR and visible light), salt spray, explosive shock,
and many more. These requirements extend beyond and interact with the electrical design.

An electronics assembly consists of component devices, circuit card assemblies (CCAs),

connectors, cables and components such as transformers, power supplies, relays, switches,
etc. that may not mount on the circuit card.

Many electrical products require the manufacturing of high-volume, low-cost parts such
as enclosures or covers by techniques such as injection molding, die casting, investment
casting, and so on. The design of these products depends on the production method and
require careful consideration of dimensions and tolerances and tooling design. Some parts may
be manufactured by specialized processes such as plaster- and sand-casting of metal
enclosures.

In the design of electronic products, electronic packaging engineers perform analyses to

estimate such things as maximum temperatures for components, structural resonant
frequencies, and dynamic stresses and deflections under worst-case environments. Such
knowledge is important to prevent immediate or premature electronic product failures.

Design considerations

A designer must balance many objectives and practical considerations when selecting
packaging methods.

1. Hazards to be protected against: mechanical damage, exposure to weather and dirt,

electromagnetic interference, etc.
2. Heat dissipation requirements
3. Tradeoffs between tooling capital cost and per-unit cost
4. Tradeoffs between time to first delivery and production rate
5. Availability and capability of suppliers
6. User interface design and convenience

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 7. Ease of access to internal parts when required for maintenance
8. Product safety, and compliance with regulatory standards
9. Aesthetics, and other marketing considerations
10. Service life and reliability

Packaging materials

Sheet Metal

Punched and formed sheet metal is one of the oldest types of electronic packaging. It
can be mechanically strong, provides electromagnetic shielding when the product requires that
feature, and is easily made for prototypes and small production runs with little custom tooling
expense.

Cast Metal

Gasketed metal castings are sometimes used to package electronic equipment for
exceptionally severe environments, such as in heavy industry, aboard ship, or deep under
water. Aluminum die castings are more common than iron or steel sand castings.

Machined Metal

Electronic packages are sometimes made by machining solid blocks of metal, usually
aluminum, into complex shapes. They are fairly common in microwave assemblies for
aerospace use, where precision transmission lines require complex metal shapes, in
combination with hermetically sealed housings. Quantities tend to be small; sometimes only one
unit of a custom design is required. Piece part costs are high, but there is little or no cost for
custom tooling, and first-piece deliveries can take as little as half a day. The tool of choice is a
numerically controlled vertical milling machine, with automatic translation of computer-aided
design (CAD) files to toolpath command files.

Molded Plastic

Molded plastic cases and structural parts can be made by a variety of methods, offering
tradeoffs in piece part cost, tooling cost, mechanical and electrical properties, and ease of

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assembly. Examples are injection molding, transfer molding, vacuum forming, and die cutting. Pl
can be post-processed to provide conductive surfaces.

Potting
Also called "encapsulation", potting consists of immersing the part or assembly in a
liquid resin, then curing it. Another method puts the part or assembly in a mold, and potting
compound is poured in it, and after curing, the mold is not removed, becoming part of the part or
assembly. Potting can be done in a pre-molded potting shell, or directly in a mold. Today it is
most widely used to protect semiconductor components from moisture and mechanical damage,
and to serve as a mechanical structure holding the lead frame and the chip together. In earlier
times it was often used to discourage reverse engineering of proprietary products built as
printed circuit modules. It is also commonly used in high voltage products to allow live parts to
be placed closer together (eliminating corona discharges due to the potting compound's high
dielectric strength), so that the product can be smaller. This also excludes dirt and conductive
contaminants (such as impure water) from sensitive areas. Another use is to protect deep-
submergence items such as sonar transducers from collapsing under extreme pressure, by
filling all voids. Potting can be rigid or soft. When void-free potting is required, it is common
practice to place the product in a vacuum chamber while the resin is still liquid, hold a vacuum
for several minutes to draw the air out of internal cavities and the resin itself, then release the
vacuum. Atmospheric pressure collapses the voids and forces the liquid resin into all internal
spaces. Vacuum potting works best with resins that cure by polymerization, rather than solvent
evaporation.

Porosity Sealing or Impregnation

Porosity Sealing or Resin Impregnation is similar to potting, but doesn't use a shell or a
mold. Parts are submerged in a polymerizable monomer or solvent-based low viscosity plastic
solution. The pressure above the fluid is lowered to a full vacuum. After the vacuum is released,
the fluid flows into the part. When the part is withdrawn from the resin bath, it is drained and/or
cleaned and then cured. Curing can consist of polymerizing the internal resin or evaporating the
solvent, which leaves an insulating dielectric material between different voltage components.
Porosity sealing (Resin Impregnation) fills all interior spaces, and may or may not leave a thin
coating on the surface, depending on the wash/rinse performance. The main application of
vacuum impregnation porosity sealing is in boosting the dielectric strength of transformers,

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solenoids, lamination stacks or coils, and some high voltage components. It prevents ionization
from forming between closely spaced live surfaces and initiating failure.

Liquid Filling

Liquid filling is sometimes used as an alternative to potting or impregnation. It's usually a

dielectric fluid, chosen for chemical compatibility with the other materials present. This method
is used mostly in very large electrical equipment such as utility transformers, to increase
breakdown voltage. It can also be used to improve heat transfer, especially if allowed to
circulate by natural convection or forced convection through a heat exchanger. Liquid filling can
be removed for repair much more easily than potting.

Conformal coating
Further information: Conformal coating and Parylene.
Conformal coating is a thin insulating coating applied by various methods. It provides
mechanical and chemical protection of delicate components. It's widely used on mass-produced
items such as axial-lead resistors, and sometimes on printed circuit boards. It can be very
economical, but somewhat difficult to achieve consistent process quality.

Glop-top

A chip-on-board (COB) covered with dark epoxy

Glop-top is a variant of conformal coating used in chip-on-board assembly (COB). It

consists of a drop of specially formulated epoxy or resin deposited over a semiconductor chip
and its wire bonds, to provide mechanical support and exclude contaminants such as fingerprint
residues which could disrupt circuit operation. It is most commonly used in electronic toys and
low-end devices.

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Chip on board

Surface-mounted LEDs are frequently sold in chip-on-board (COB) configurations. In

these, the individual diodes are mounted in an array that allows the device to produce a greater
amount of luminous flux with greater ability to dissipate the resulting heat in an overall smaller
package than can be accomplished by mounting LEDs, even surface mount types, individually
on a circuit board.

Hermetic Metal/Glass Cases

Hermetic metal packaging began life in the vacuum tube industry, where a totally leak-
proof housing was essential to operation. This industry developed the glass-seal electrical
feedthrough, using alloys such as Kovar to match the coefficient of expansion of the sealing
glass so as to minimize mechanical stress on the critical metal-glass bond as the tube warmed
up. Some later tubes used metal cases and feedthroughs, and only the insulation around the
individual feedthroughs used glass. Today, glass-seal packages are used mostly in critical
components and assemblies for aerospace use, where leakage must be prevented even under
extreme changes in temperature, pressure, and humidity.

Hermetic Ceramic Packages

Packages consisting of a lead frame embedded in a vitreous paste layer between flat
ceramic top and bottom covers are more convenient than metal/glass packages for some
products, but give equivalent performance. Examples are integrated circuit chips in ceramic
Dual In-line Package form, or complex hybrid assemblies of chip components on a ceramic
base plate. This type of packaging can also be divided into two main types: multilayer ceramic
packages (like LTCC and HTCC) and pressed ceramic packages.

Printed Circuit Assemblies

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 Printed circuits are primarily a technology for connecting components together, but they
also provide mechanical structure. In some products, such as computer accessory boards,
they're all the structure there is. This makes them part of the universe of electronic packaging.

Assessment/Activity: Wiring and Cabling, Electronic Packaging Activity

Objective: Students will have been introduced to electrical equipment and terminology. In
addition, they will understand: • Basic electrical circuits and theory • Branch circuit wiring • A
basic top view floor plan

Intended Learning Outcomes: The student will be able to: • Know the difference between
a circuit drawing and a wiring diagram • Understand some basic symbols for schematic
drawings and wiring diagrams • Produce a wiring diagram • Understand the difference between
different types of diagrams • Know how to draw a basic floor plan with electrical symbols

Materials: Two Storey Residential/Commercial Building

Procedures:
1. Create a two storey residential/commercial building.
2. Draw Wiring and Cabling Diagram

Assessment/Data Results: Submit the drawing showing the wiring and cabling diagram of the
preferred building plan.

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 LESSON VIII:

PCB Design Process

What is a Printed Circuit Board?

Electronic circuits in engineering and industry are normally manufactured by using
printed circuit boards (PCBs). These boards are made up of special materials that do not
conduct electricity such as fiber and glass. The circuits are designed on the boards with copper
tracks instead of wires for the conduction of electricity between the electronic components.
The electronic components are fixed in their respective positions by drilling holes on
the board, placing the components and then soldering them in appropriate positions so that the
copper tracks and components together form a circuit. The printed circuit boards used in all
electronic products such as automotive, wireless devices, Robotic applications, etc., offer quick
functioning, access, control, monitoring, and precise and exact results when compared to other
wiring methods based devices The below figure shows how the circuit is arranged on a PCB
with the copper layer.

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 555 mer PCB Circuit

555 Timer Printed Circuit Board

Designing Process of a PCB

Depend on the printed circuit board manufacturer, there are numerous ways available
for designing PCBs. This circuit board design can be manufactured as bulk using several
machines in PCB fabrication industries including drilling, punching, plating and final fabrication
processes that are performed through highly automated machines. Laser drilling with CNC

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machines, automatic plating machines, strip etching machines, and use of optical inspection
equipment, flying probe testers for electrical testing of printed circuit board processes result in
high-quality PCBs (with a greater production yield).
For a reader to understand this concept at the basic level of printed circuit board
design, the following step-by-step procedures of designing a PCB board at various levels will
help and guide diligently.

Design the PCB Circuit with a Software

Draw the schematic circuit diagram with the PCB layout software such as CAD software,
Eagle and Multisim software. This type of PCB design software contains a library of components
that can be used to build the circuit. It is also possible to change the circuit design’s position and
then to modify it according to your convenience and requirement. Here we have selected Eagle
software to design the circuit and its procedure is as follows:
 Open the Eagle circuit board design software.
 A window with a menu bar appears.
 Click on the file menu.
 Select ‘new design’ from the drop-down menu.
 Click on the library menu.
 Select ‘pick devices/symbol’ from the drop-down menu.
 Select a relevant comment by double-clicking on it, so that the component appears on
the window.
 Add all the components and draw the circuit with proper connections as shown in the
figure.

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 Enter the rating of each component according to the requirement.
 Go to Command Toolbar and click Text editor varriages, click on the Varriages, and then
close the window.
 Next, a black screen appears which is of the layout or the film diagram of the circuit as
shown in the below figure, and save this as an image format.

Printed circuit Layout

Film generation

The film is generated from the finalized circuit board diagram of the PCB layout
software which is sent to the manufacturing unit where the negative image or mask is printed
out on a plastic sheet.

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 Film of Circuit
Select Raw Material

The bulk of the printed circuit board is made with an unbreakable glass or
fiberglass having copper foil bonded unto one or both the sides of the board. Thus, the PCBs
made from unbreakable paper phenolic with a bonded copper foil are less expensive and are
often used in household electrical devices.
Mostly 0.059 industry-standard thick, copper clad laminate, either single or double-sided board
is required. Panels may be sheared to contain May boards of different sizes.

Copper clad laminated boards

Preparing Drill Holes

Machines and carbide drills are used to put holes on the printed circuit board.
There are two types of machines available to drill the PCBs; they include hand machines and
CNC machines. The hand machines require human intervention or effort to drill the holes,

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whereas CNC machines are computer-based machines that work-based on the machine
timetables or programs that run both automatic as well as manually. The drilled pattern is stored
in the computer like drill bit sizes, the number of holes per panel, drilled stack, drilled time per
load, etc. The PCB boards are placed into the CNC machine and the holes are drilled according
to the determined pattern to place printed circuit board components.

Preparing Drill Holes

Apply Image

The printed circuit layout can be printed in different ways on PCBs like a manual
pen, dry transfers, pen plotters, and printers. The laser printers are a better way to print the
layouts on printed circuit boards. The following steps are used to print the PCB layout through a
laser printer:

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 Apply Image
Take a clean and neat copper paper and place it on the laser printer.
Next, store the designed layout film on the computer.
A laser printer prints the designed circuit layout on a copper paper whenever it gets
a print command from the computer.

Stripping and Etching

This process involves removing the unwired copper on the PCBs by using different
types of chemicals like ferric chloride, ammonium per-sulfate, etc. Make the solvent by mixing
1% of sodium hydroxide and 10 grams of sodium hydroxide pellets to one liter of water and mix
it until everything is dissolved. Next, the PCB is put on a chemical bowl and cleaned up with a
brush. during this process, if the PCB is still greasy, due to applied sunflower or seed oil, the
developing process may take about 1 minute.

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 Stripping and Etching
Testing

After finishing the manufacturing process of the Printed Circuit Board, the Board
undergoes a testing process to check whether the PCB is working properly. Nowadays many
automatic testing equipments are available for the high volume testing of the PCBs.
The two different types of testing equipment available today that test your circuit
boards include ATG test machines that are flying probe, fixtureless testers and in addition to a
universal grid testing capability as well.

Testing
This is all about the PCB assembly process with relevant images. In worldwide, there
are so many organizations that have been conducting design contests for beginners or
enthusiasts. I hope that you might have got some basic ideas of this topic by following it from
step one and then covering the step-by-step designing process. Furthermore, for any doubts on
this topic or any technical assistance in the field of electronics, you can contact us by
commenting below.

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Different Types of Printed Circuit Boards

The acronym of the printed circuit board is PCB, it is a self-contained board with
interconnected electrical and electronic components found in various devices ranges from
beepers to pagers, radios, radar, and computer systems. The circuits are produced by a slight
layer of conducting material deposited on the outside of an insulating board called the substrate.
Separate components are located on the surface of the substrate & soldered to the connected
circuits. The construction of the PCB can be done in three ways, namely single-sided, double-
sided, and multi-layered. The components on a PCB are connected electrically to the circuits by
two different methods such as hole technology and surface mount. In hole technology, every
component consists of thin leads, which are pressed through tiny holes in the substrate &
soldered to connection boards in the circuits on the reverse side. In surface-mount technology,
J-shaped or L-shaped terminals on every component get in touch with the PCB directly. A
solder paste includes a glue, solder and flux are applied at the contact point to grip the
components in position until the solder is liquefied. This article discusses an overview of printed
circuit boards.
PCBs have copper tracks to connect the holes where the various components are
located They are specially designed for each and every circuit and build construction very easy.
Though, making the PCB necessitates special tools. The different types of printed circuit boards
mainly include the following

 Single-Sided PCBs
 Double-Sided PCBs
 Multilayer PCBs
 Rigid PCBs
 Flex PCBs
 Rigid-Flex PCBs

Single-Sided Printed Circuit Boards

This single-sided printed circuit board includes just one layer of base material or
substrate. One end of the substrate is coated with a thin layer of metal, usually copper because
it is a good electrical conductor. Generally, a protecting solder mask is seated on the peak of

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the copper layer, and the last silkscreen coat may be applied to the top to mark elements of the
board.
This PCB consists of various circuits and electronic components on the only single
side. This kind of module works most excellent for easy electronics, and beginners often design
and build this type of board first. These boards tend to cost less to mass-produce than other
types of boards. But although this low cost, they’re used rarely because of their intrinsic design
limitations.

Single Sided Printed Circuit Boards

Double-Sided PCBs

This type of PCBs is much more familiar than single-sided boards. Both sides of the
board’s substrate include metal conductive layers, and elements attach to both sides as well.
Holes in the PCB let circuits on a single side to attach to circuits on the other side.

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 This kind of circuit board used to connect the circuits on every side using one of two
techniques: through-hole & surface mount technology. Through-hole technology engages
feeding small wires, called leads through the holes & soldering every end to the suitable
component.

Surface mount technology is different from through-hole technology, it does not utilize
wires. In its place, many little leads get soldered straight onto the board. Surface mount
technology permits many circuits to be completed in a lesser space on board, meaning the
board can execute more functions, typically at a lesser weight and at faster speeds than
through-hole boards let.

Multilayer PCBs
These PCBs further enlarges the density and complexity of PCB designs by adding
extra layers beyond the top & bottom layers seen in a configuration of double-sided. With the
accessibility of over many layers in a multilayer printed circuit board configurations, multilayer
PCBs let designers make very thick and highly compound designs.

Multilayer PCBs
The extra layers used in this design are power planes, which both provide the supply to
the circuit with power and also decrease the levels of electromagnetic interference which are
emitted by designs. Lower EMI levels are attained by placing signal levels in the middle of
power planes.

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Rigid PCBs

In addition to having different numbers of layers & sides, Printed circuit boards can also
come in changing inflexibilities. Most customers usually think of inflexible PCBs when they
image a circuit board. Rigid printed circuit boards use a solid, rigid substrate material like
fiberglass that remains the board from twisting. A motherboard within the tower of a computer is
the best example of an inflexible PCB.

Rigid PCBs

Flex PCBs
Generally, the substrate is a flexible board is a flexible plastic. This fundamental
material permits the board to fit into forms that inflexible boards cannot & to turn or shift during
use without harmful the circuits on the printed circuit board. Though flex boards tend to charge
more to intend and create than rigid PCBs, they come with a number of advantages. For
instance, they can restore heavy or bulky wiring in superior gear like satellites, where weight &
space matter. Flex boards can also come in three formats, namely single-sided, double-sided or
multilayer formats.

Flex PCBs

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Rigid-Flex Printed Circuit Boards

Rigid-flex boards merge technology from both flexible and rigid circuit boards. An easy
rigid-flex board comprises of a rigid circuit board that joints to a flex circuit board. These boards
can be more compound if design requests demand.

Rigid-Flex Printed Circuit Boards

Thus, this is all about different types of printed circuit boards with PCB prototyping and
manufacturing, which include Sided PCBs, Double Sided PCBs, Multilayer PCBs, Rigid PCBs,
Flex PCBs, Rigid-Flex PCBs, etc. We hope that you have got a better understanding of this
concept Single. We hope that you have got a better understanding of this concept or to
implement breadboard projects, please give your valuable suggestions by commenting in the
comment section below.

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Assessment/Activity: PCB Design: How to Create a Printed Circuit Board

Objective: From simple design process of PCB Design, students learn how to create PCB
Circuit Diagram and perform it into real one.

Intended Learning Outcomes: The students shall be able to create a PCB circuits
diagram using AutoCAD Software and other software.

Sample Design:

Pro
cedures:
3. Create or Find A Circuit Diagram
4. Draw Your Schematics
5. Design Your Board Layout
6. Get Your PCB Made
7. PCB Assembly – Soldering the Components to the Board
Assessment/Data Results: Output must be submitted in a way how they create their own
circuit diagram. They expressed their learnings in this activity into words definition and
explanation.

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 LESSON IX:

PCB Design Issues

Four Technical Issues to Avoid in PCB Design

When the necessary precautions are ignored, printed circuit board hardware design and
manufacturing processes are prone to fail. Design oversights such as inaccurate measurements
and insufficient clearances can lead to printed circuit board (PCB) problems that impact final
product performance. Catastrophic failures may result from over-etching and errors in drilling, as
well as quality concerns in the manufacturing process.

With Freedom CAD Services’ knowledge and experience of PCB manufacturing, we’ll
prevent these common errors by identifying issues throughout the process to create an efficient
end design.

Common Technical Issues in Printed Circuit Board Hardware Design

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 Technical problems lead to poorly performing PCBs. We’ve identified four key technical
issues affecting printed circuit board hardware design and work to avoid them to produce high-
functioning end products.

Long High-Speed Traces

For efficient transmission, high-speed signals must follow the most direct available
path. Because of this, these designs should be focused on high-frequency crystal routing.
While most microcontroller printed circuit board hardware designs rarely need numerous
high-speed signals, trace paths are critical in products using high-speed microprocessors
with an external data and address bus.

Optimizing Power Supply Layout

Electronic designs utilize two types of voltage regulators: linear regulators and switching
regulators.

o Linear regulators offer lower energy efficiency, but in specific PCB designs, their low
cost and simple layout makes their use attractive. Linear regulators are more critical in
applications involving low noise or high power.
o Switching regulators are far more complex compared to linear regulators. While they are
more energy-efficient, switching regulators demand more detailed PCB design attention.
In this case, it’s critical to stick closely to datasheet guidelines.

Improper Use of Decoupling Capacitors

PCB electrical components require a stable and reliable source of voltage. To facilitate
stable currents, printed circuit board hardware design incorporates decoupling capacitors on the
power supply rail. Placing decoupling capacitors as near to the pin as possible maximizes
efficiency, so current can cycle through the decoupling capacitor before reaching the pin.

High Current Traces Too Thin

If a PCB trace is required to process current higher than a few hundred milliamps, minimum
trace width is not sufficient to perform this function. Freedom CAD Services’ engineers ensure
accurate calculations using a trace width calculator. Acceptable temperature rise is also

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specified for particular traces, allowing engineers to calculate the trace’s current carrying
capacity to select the proper copper weight.

Our Engineers Will Assist with Your PCB Design Requirements

Printed circuit board hardware design is complex, and these aren’t the only technical
problems that need to be monitored. Download our eBook “How to Avoid PCB Design Project
Pitfalls” to learn more about what else to look out for, including common mistakes and non-
technical issues, to achieve a problem-free project.
Printed Circuit Board (PCB) Design Issues

Printed circuit boards (PCBs) are by far the most common method of assembling
modern electronic circuits. Comprised of a sandwich of one or more insulating layers and one or
more copper layers which contain the signal traces and the powers and grounds, the design of
the layout of printed circuit boards can be as demanding as the design of the electrical circuit.
Most modern systems consist of multilayer boards of anywhere up to eight layers (or
sometimes even more). Traditionally, components were mounted on the top layer in holes which
extended through all layers. These are referred as through whole components. More recently,
with the near universal adoption of surface mount components, you commonly find components
mounted on both the top and the bottom layers. The design of the printed circuit board can be
as important as the circuit design to the overall performance of the final system.
We shall discuss in this chapter the partitioning of the circuitry, the problem of interconnecting
traces, parasitic components, grounding schemes, and decoupling. All of these are important in
the success of a total design. PCB effects that are harmful to precision circuit performance
include leakage resistances, IR voltage drops in trace foils, vias, and ground planes, the
influence of stray capacitance, and dielectric absorption (DA). In addition, the tendency of PCBs
to absorb atmospheric moisture (hygroscopicity) means that changes in humidity often cause
the contributions of some parasitic effects to vary from day to day.
In general, PCB effects can be divided into two broad categories—those that most
noticeably affect the static or dc operation of the circuit, and those that most noticeably affect
dynamic or ac circuit operation, especially at high frequencies.
Another very broad area of PCB design is the topic of grounding. Grounding is a
problem area in itself for all analog and mixed signal designs, and it can be said that simply

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implementing a PCB based circuit doesn’t change the fact that proper techniques are required.
Fortunately, certain principles of quality grounding, namely the use of ground planes, are
intrinsic to the PCB environment. This factor is one of the more significant advantages to PCB
based analog designs, and appreciable discussion of this section is focused on this issue.
Some other aspects of grounding that must be managed include the control of spurious
ground and signal return voltages that can degrade performance. These voltages can be due to
external signal coupling, common currents, or simply excessive IR drops in
ground conductors. Proper conductor routing and sizing, as well as differential signal handling
and ground isolation techniques enables control of such parasitic voltages.
One final area of grounding to be discussed is grounding appropriate for a mixed-signal,
analog/digital environment. Indeed, the single issue of quality grounding can influence the entire
layout philosophy of a high performance mixed signal PCB design—as it well should.

SECTION 1: PARTITIONING

Any subsystem or circuit layout operating at high frequency and/or high precision with
both analog and digital signals should like to have those signals physically separated as much
as possible to prevent crosstalk. This is typically difficult to accomplish in practice. Crosstalk can
be minimized by paying attention to the system layout and preventing different signals from
interfering with each other. High level analog signals should be separated from low level analog
signals, and both should be kept away from digital signals. TTL and CMOS digital signals have
high edge rates, implying frequency components starting with the system clock and going up
from there. And most logic families are saturation logic, which has uneven current flow (high
transient currents) which can modulate the ground. We have seen elsewhere that in waveform
sampling and reconstruction systems the sampling clock (which is a digital signal) is as
vulnerable to noise as any analog signal. Noise on the sampling clock manifests itself as phase
jitter, which as we have seen in a previous section, translates directly to reduce SNR of the
sampled signal. If clock driver packages are used in clock distribution, only one frequency clock
should be passed through a single package. Sharing drivers between clocks of different
frequencies in the same package will produce excess jitter and crosstalk and degrade
performance.
The ground plane can act as a shield where sensitive signals cross. Figure 12.1 shows a
good layout for a data acquisition board where all sensitive areas are isolated from each other
and signal paths are kept as short as possible. While real life is rarely as simple as this, the

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principle remains a valid one.
There are a number of important points to be considered when making signal and power
connections. First of all a connector is one of the few places in the system where all signal
conductors must run in parallel—it is therefore imperative to separate them with ground pins
(creating a Faraday shield) to reduce coupling between them.
Multiple ground pins are important for another reason: they keep down the ground
impedance at the junction between the board and the backplane. The contact resistance of a
single pin of a PCB connector is quite low (typically on the order of 10 mΩ) when the board is
new—as the board gets older the contact resistance is likely to rise, and the board's
performance may be compromised. It is therefore well worthwhile to allocate extra PCB
connector pins so that there are many ground connections (perhaps 30% to 40% of all the pins
on the PCB connector should be ground pins).
For similar reasons there should be several pins for each power connection. Manufacturers of
high performance mixed-signal ICs, like Analog Devices, often offer evaluation boards to assist
customers in their initial evaluations and layout. ADC evaluation boards generally contain an on-
board low jitter sampling clock oscillator, output registers, and appropriate power and signal
connectors. They also may have additional support circuitry such as the ADC input buffer
amplifier and external reference.

BASIC LINEAR DESIGN

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 The layout of the evaluation board is optimized in terms of grounding,
decoupling, and signal routing and can be used as a model when laying out the
ADC section of the PC board in a system. The actual evaluation board layout is
usually available from the ADC manufacturer in the form of computer CAD files
(Gerber files). In many cases, the layout of the various layers appears on the
data sheet for the device. It should be pointed out, though, that an evaluation
board is an extremely simple system. While some guidelines can be inferred from
inspection of the evaluation board layout, the system that you are designing is
undoubtedly more complicated. Therefore, direct use of the layout may not be
optimum in larger systems.

SECTION 2: TRACES

Resistance of Conductors

Every engineer is familiar with resistors. But far too few engineers consider that all the
wires and PCB traces with which their systems and circuits are assembled are also resistors (as
well as inductors as well, as will be discussed later). In higher precision systems, even these

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trace resistances and simple wire interconnections can have degrading effects. Copper is not a
superconductor—and too many engineers appear to think it is!
Figure 12.2 illustrates a method of calculating the sheet resistance R of a copper square,
given the length Z, the width X, and the thickness Y.

At 25°C the resistivity of pure copper is 1.724X10-6 Ω/cm. The thickness of standard 1
ounce PCB copper foil is 0.036 mm (0.0014"). Using the relations shown, the resistance of such
a standard copper element is therefore 0.48 mΩ/square. One can readily calculate the
resistance of a linear trace, by effectively "stacking" a series of such squares end to end, to
make up the line’s length. The line length is Z and the width is X, so the line resistance R is
simply a product of Z/X and the resistance of a single square, as noted in the figure. For a given
copper weight and trace width, a resistance/length calculation can be made.
For example, the 0.25 mm (10 mil) wide traces frequently used in PCB designs equates to a
resistance/length of about 19 mΩ/cm (48 mΩ /inch), which is quite large. Moreover, the
temperature coefficient of resistance for copper is about 0.4%/°C around room temperature.
This is a factor that shouldn’t be ignored, in particular within low impedance precision circuits,
where the TC can shift the net impedance over temperature.
As shown in Figure 12.3, PCB trace resistance can be a serious error when conditions
aren’t favorable. Consider a 16-bit ADC with a 5 kΩ input resistance, driven through 5 cm of

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0.25 mm wide 1 oz. PCB track between it and its signal source. The track resistance of nearly
0.1 Ω forms a divider with the 5 kΩ load, creating an error. The resulting voltage drop is a gain
error of 0.1/5 k (~0.0019%), well over 1 LSB (0.0015% for 16 bits). And this ignores the issue of
the return path! It also ignores inductance, which could make the situation worse at high
frequencies.

So, when dealing with precision circuits, the point is made that even simple design items
such as PCB trace resistance cannot be dealt with casually. There are various solutions
that can address this issue, such as wider traces (which may take up excessive space),
and may not be a viable solution with the smallest packages and with packages with
multiple rows of pins, such as a ball grid array (BGA), the use of heavier copper (which
may be too expensive) or simply choosing a high input impedance converter. But, the
most important thing is to think it all through, avoiding any tendency to overlook items
appearing innocuous on the surface.

Voltage Drop in Signal Leads—Kelvin Feedback

The gain error resulting from resistive voltage drop in PCB signal leads is important only
with high precision and/or at high resolutions (the Figure 12.3 example), or where large signal
currents flow. Where load impedance is constant and resistive, adjusting overall system gain
can compensate for the error. In other circumstances, it may often be removed by the use of
"Kelvin" or "voltage sensing" feedback, as shown in Figure 12.4.

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 In this modification to the case of Figure 12.3 a long resistive PCB trace is still used to
drive the input of a high resolution ADC, with low input impedance. In this case however, the
voltage drop in the signal lead does not give rise to an error, as feedback is taken directly from
the input pin of the ADC, and returned to the driving source. This scheme allows full accuracy to
be achieved in the signal presented to the ADC, despite any voltage drop across the signal
trace.

The use of separate force (F) and sense (S) connections (often referred to as a Kelvin
connection) at the load removes any errors resulting from voltage drops in the force
lead, but, of course, may only be used in systems where there is negative feedback.
It is also impossible to use such an arrangement to drive two or more loads with equal
accuracy, since feedback may only be taken from one point. Also, in this much-simplified
system, errors in the common lead source/load path are ignored, the assumption being
that ground path voltages are negligible. In many systems this may not necessarily be
the case, and additional steps may be needed, as noted below.

Signal Return Currents

Kirchhoff’s Law tells us that at any point in a circuit the algebraic sum of the currents is
zero. This tells us that all currents flow in circles and, particularly, that the return current must
always be considered when analyzing a circuit, as is illustrated in Figure 12.5.

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In dealing with grounding issues, common human tendencies provide some insight into how the
correct thinking about the circuit can be helpful towards analysis. Most engineers readily
consider the ground return current "I," only when they are considering a fully differential circuit.
However, when considering the more usual circuit case, where a single-ended signal is
referred to "ground," it is common to assume that all the points on the circuit diagram where
ground symbols are found are at the same potential. Unfortunately, this happy circumstance just
ain’t necessarily so! This overly optimistic approach is illustrated in Figure 12.6 where, if it really
should exist, "infinite ground conductivity" would lead to zero ground voltage difference between
source ground G1 and load ground G2.Unfortunately this approach isn’t a wise practice, and
when dealing with high precision circuits, it can lead to disasters. A more realistic approach to
ground conductor integrity includes analysis of the impedance(s) involved, and careful attention
to minimizing spurious noise voltages.

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Ground Noise and Ground Loops.

A more realistic model of a ground system is shown in Figure 12.7. The signal return
current flows in the complex impedance existing between ground points G1 and G2 as shown,
giving rise to a voltage drop ΔV in this path. But it is important to note that additional external
currents, such as IEXT, may also flow in this same path. It is critical to understand that such
currents may generate uncorrelated noise voltages between G1 and G2 (dependent upon the
current magnitude and relative ground impedance).
Some portion of these undesired voltages may end up being seen at the signal’s load end, and
they can have the potential to corrupt the signal being transmitted. It is evident, of course, that
other currents can only flow in the ground impedance, if there is a current path for them. In this
case, severe problems can be caused by a high current circuit sharing an unlooped ground
return with the signal source.
Figure 12.8 shows just such a common ground path, shared by the signal source and a
high current circuit, which draws a large and varying current from its supply. This current flows
in the common ground return, causing an error voltage ΔV to be developed.

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176
From Figure 12.9, it is also evident that if a ground network contains loops, or circular
ground conductor patterns (with S1 closed), there is an even greater danger of it being
vulnerable to EMFs induced by external magnetic fields. There is also a real danger of
ground-current-related signals "escaping" from the high current areas, and causing noise
in sensitive circuit regions elsewhere in the system.

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 For these reasons ground loops are best avoided, by wiring all return paths within the
circuit by separate paths back to a common point, i.e., the common ground point
towards the mid-right of the diagram. This would be represented by the S1 open
condition.

Ground Isolation Techniques

While the use of ground planes does lower impedance and helps greatly in lowering
ground noise, there may still be situations where a prohibitive level of noise exists. In such
cases, the use of ground error minimization and isolation techniques can be helpful. Another
illustration of a common-ground impedance coupling problem is shown in Figure 12.10. In this
circuit a precision gain-of-100 preamp amplifies a low level signal VIN, using an AD8551
chopper-stabilized amplifier for best dc accuracy. At the load end, the signal VOUT is measured
with respect to G2, the local ground. Because of the small 700 μA ISUPPLY of the AD8551
flowing between G1 and G2, there is a 7 μV ground error—about 7 times the typical input offset
expected from the op amp!

This error can be avoided simply by routing the negative supply pin current of the op amp back
to star ground G2 as opposed to ground G1, by using a separate trace. This step eliminates the
G1-G2 path power supply current, and so minimizes the ground leg voltage error. Note that
there will be little error developed in the "hot" VOUT lead, so long as the current drain at the
load end is small.
In some cases, there may be simply unavoidable ground voltage differences between a
source signal and the load point where it is to be measured. Within the context of this "same-

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board" discussion, this might require rejecting ground error voltages of several tens-of-mV. Or,
should the source signal originate from an "off-board" source, then the magnitude of the
common-mode voltages to be rejected can easily rise into a several volt range (or even tens-of-
volts).
Fortunately, full signal transmission accuracy can still be accomplished in the face of
such high noise voltages, by employing a principle discussed earlier. This is the use of a
differential-input, ground isolation amplifier. The ground isolation amplifier minimizes the effect
of ground error voltages between stages by processing the signal in differential fashion, thereby
rejecting CM voltages by a substantial margin (typically 60 dB or more). Two ground isolation
amplifier solutions are shown in Figure 12.11. This diagram can alternately employ either the
AD629 to handle CM voltages up to ±270 V, or the AMP03, which is suitable for CM voltages up
to ±20V.
In the circuit, input voltage VIN is referred to G1, but must be measured with respect to
G2. With the use of a high CMR unity-gain difference amplifier, the noise voltage ΔV existing
between these two grounds is easily rejected. The AD629 offers a typical CMR of 88 dB, while
the AMP03 typically achieves 100 dB. In the AD629, the high CMV rating is done by a
combination of high CM attenuation, followed by differential gain, realizing a net differential gain
of unity. The AD629 uses the first listed value resistors noted in the figure for R1 to R5. The
AMP03 operates as a precision four-resistor differential amplifier, using the 25 kΩ value R1 to
R4 resistors noted. Both devices are complete, one package solutions to the ground-isolation
amplifier.

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 This scheme allows relative freedom from tightly controlling ground drop voltages, or
running additional and/or larger PCB traces to minimize such error voltages. Note that it can be
implemented either with the fixed gain difference amplifiers shown, or also with a standard in-
amp IC, configured for unity gain. The AD623, for example, also allows single-supply use. In
any case, signal polarity is also controllable, by simple reversal of the difference amplifier inputs.
In general terms, transmitting a signal from one point on a PCB to another for
measurement or further processing can be optimized by two key interrelated techniques. These
are the use of high impedance, differential signal-handling techniques. The high impedance
loading of an in-amp minimizes voltage drops, and differential sensing of the remote voltage
minimizes sensitivity to ground noise.
When the further signal processing is A/D conversion, these transmission criteria can be
implemented without adding a differential ground isolation amplifier stage. Simply select an ADC
which operates differentially. The high input impedance of the ADC minimizes load sensitivity to
the PCB wiring resistance. In addition, the differential input feature allows the output of the
source to be sensed directly at the source output terminals (even if single-ended). The CMR of
the ADC then eliminates sensitivity to noise voltages between the ADC and source grounds.

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 An illustration of this concept using an ADC with high impedance differential inputs is
shown in Figure 12.12. Note that the general concept can be extended to virtually any signal
source, driving any load. All loads, even single-ended ones, become differential input by adding
an appropriate differential input stage. The differential input can be provided by either a fully
developed high Z in-amp, or in many cases it can be a simple subtractor stage op amp, such as
Figure 12.11.

Static PCB Effects

Leakage resistance is the dominant static circuit board effect. Contamination of the PCB
surface by flux residues, deposited salts, and other debris can create leakage paths between
circuit nodes. Even on well-cleaned boards, it is not unusual to find 10 Na or more of leakage to
nearby nodes from 15-volt supply rails. Nano amperes of leakage current into the wrong nodes
often cause volts of error at a circuit's output; for example, 10 Na into a 10 MΩ resistance
causes 0.1 V of error. Unfortunately, the standard op amp pinout places the VS supply pin next
to the + input, which is often hoped to be at high impedance. To help identify nodes sensitive to
the effects of leakage currents ask the simple question: If a spurious current of a few Nano
amperes or more were injected into this node, would it matter?
If the circuit is already built, you can localize moisture sensitivity to a suspect node with a
classic test. While observing circuit operation, blow on potential trouble spots through a simple
soda straw. The straw focuses the breath's moisture, which, with the board's salt content in
susceptible portions of the design, disrupts circuit operation upon contact. There are several
means of eliminating simple surface leakage problems.

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Thorough washing of circuit boards to remove residues helps considerably. A simple procedure
includes vigorously brushing the boards with isopropyl alcohol, followed by thorough washing
with deionized water and an 85°C bake out for a few hours. Be careful when selecting board-
washing solvents, though. When cleaned with certain solvents, some water-soluble fluxes
create salt deposits, exacerbating the leakage problem.
Unfortunately, if a circuit displays sensitivity to leakage, even the most rigorous cleaning
can offer only a temporary solution. Problems soon return upon handling, or exposure to foul
atmospheres, and high humidity. Some additional means must be sought to stabilize circuit
behavior, such as conformal surface coating. Fortunately, there is an answer to this, namely
guarding, which offers a fairly reliable and permanent solution to the problem of surface
leakage. Well-designed guards can eliminate leakage problems, even for circuits exposed to
harsh industrial environments. Two schematics illustrate the basic guarding principle, as applied
to typical inverting and noninverting op amp circuits.
Figure 12.13 illustrates an inverting mode guard application. In this case, the op amp
reference input is grounded, so the guard is a grounded ring surrounding all leads to the
inverting input, as noted by the dotted line.

Guarding basic principles are simple: Completely surround sensitive nodes with
conductors that can readily sink stray currents, and maintain the guard conductors at the
exact potential of the sensitive node (as otherwise the guard will serve as a leakage
source rather than a leakage sink). For example, to keep leakage into a node below 1
pA (assuming 1000-megohm leakage resistance) the guard and guarded node must be

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 within 1 mV. Generally, the low offset of a modern op amp is sufficient to meet this
criterion.

There are important caveats to be noted with implementing a true high quality guard. For
traditional through hole PCB connections, the guard pattern should appear on both sides of the
circuit board, to be most effective. And, it should also be connected along its length by several
vias. Finally, when either justified or required by the system design parameters, do make an
effort to include guards in the PCB design process from the outset—there is little likelihood that
a proper guard can be added as an afterthought.
Figure 12.14 illustrates the case for a noninverting guard. In this instance the op amp
reference input is directly driven by the source, which complicates matters considerably. Again,
the guard ring completely surrounds all of the input nodal connections. In this instance,
however, the guard is driven from the low impedance feedback divider connected to the
inverting input. Usually the guard-to-divider junction will be a direct connection, but in some
cases a unity gain buffer might be used at "X" to drive a cable shield, or also to maintain the
lowest possible impedance at the guard ring.
In lieu of the buffer, another useful step is to use an additional, directly grounded screen ring,
"Y," which surrounds the inner guard and the feedback nodes as shown. This step costs nothing
except some added layout time, and will greatly help buffer leakage effects into the higher
impedance inner guard ring. Of course what hasn’t been addressed to this point is just how the

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op amp itself gets connected into these guarded islands without compromising performance.
The traditional method using a TO-99 metal can package device was to employ double-sided
PCB guard rings, with both op amp inputs terminated within the guarded ring.

Sample MINI-DIP and SOIC op amp PCB guard layouts

Modern assembly practices have favored smaller plastic packages such as eight pin
MINI-DIP and SOIC types. Some suggested partial layouts for guard circuits using these
packages are shown in the next two figures. While guard traces may also be possible with even
more tiny op amp footprints, such as SOT-23 etc., the required trace separations become even
more confining, challenging the layout designer as well as the manufacturing processes.
For the ADI "N" style MINI-DIP package, Figure 12.15 illustrates how guarding can be
accomplished for inverting (left) and noninverting (right) operating modes. This setup would also
be applicable to other op amp devices where relatively high voltages occur at pin 1 or 4. Using a
standard eight pin DIP outline, it can be noted that this package’s 0.1" pin spacing allows a PC
trace (here, the guard trace) to pass between adjacent pins. This is the key to implementing
effective DIP package guarding, as it can adequately prevent a leakage path from the –VS
supply at pin 4, or from similar high potentials at pin 1.

For the left-side inverting mode, note that the Pin 3 connected and grounded guard traces
surround the op amp inverting input (Pin 2), and run parallel to the input trace. This guard would
be continued out to and around the source and feedback connections of Figure 12-36 (or other
similar circuit), including an input pad in the case of a cable. In the right-side noninverting mode,
the guard voltage is the feedback divider voltage to Pin 2.
This corresponds to the inverting input node of the amplifier, from Figure 12.14. Note
that in both of the cases of Figure 12.15, the guard physical connections shown are only partial

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—an actual layout would include all sensitive nodes within the circuit. In both the inverting and
the noninverting modes using the MINI-DIP or other through hole style package, the PCB guard
traces should be located on both sides of the board, with top and bottom traces connected with
several vias. Things become slightly more complicated when using guarding techniques with the
SOIC surface mount ("R") package, as the 0.05" pin spacing doesn’t easily allow routing of PCB
traces between the pins. But, there is still an effective guarding answer, at least for the inverting
case. Figure 12.16 shows guards for the ADI "R" style SOIC package. Note that for many single
op amp devices in this SOIC "R" package, Pins 1, 5, and 8 are "no connect" pins. Historically
these pins were used for offset adjustment and/or frequency compensation. These functions
rarely are used in modern op amps. For such instances, this means that these empty locations
can be employed in the layout to route guard traces. In the case of the inverting mode (left), the
guarding is still completely effective, with the dummy Pin 1 and Pin 3 serving as the grounded
guard trace. This is a fully effective guard without compromise. Also, with SOIC op amps, much
of the circuitry around the device will not use through hole components. So, the guard ring may
only be necessary on the op amp PCB side.

In the case of the follower stage (right), the guard trace must be routed around the negative
supply at Pin 4, and thus Pin 4 to Pin 3 leakage isn’t fully guarded. For this reason, a
precision high impedance follower stage using an SOIC package op amp isn’t generally
recommended, as guarding isn’t possible for dual supply connected devices.
However, an exception to this caveat does apply to the use of a single-supply op amp as a
noninverting stage. For example, if the AD8551 is used, Pin 4 becomes ground, and some
degree of intrinsic guarding is then established by default.

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Dynamic PCB Effects. Although static PCB effects can come and go with changes in humidity
or board contamination, problems that most noticeably affect the dynamic performance of a
circuit usually remain relatively constant. Short of a new design, washing or any other simple
fixes can’t fix them. As such, they can permanently and adversely affect a design's
specifications and performance. The problems of stray capacitance, linked to lead and
component placement, are reasonably well known to most circuit designers. Since lead
placement can be permanently dealt with by correct layout, any remaining difficulty is solved by
training assembly personnel to orient components or bend leads optimally.
Dielectric absorption (DA), on the other hand, represents a more troublesome and still
poorly understood circuit-board phenomenon. Like DA in discrete capacitors, DA in a printed-
circuit board can be modeled by a series resistor and capacitor connecting two closely spaced
nodes. Its effect is inverse with spacing and linear with length. As shown in Figure 12.17, the
RC model for this effective capacitance ranges from 0.1 pF to 2.0 pF, with the resistance
ranging from 50 MΩ to 500 MΩ. Values of 0.5 pF and 100 MΩ are most common.
Consequently, circuit-board DA interacts most strongly with high impedance circuits.

PCB DA most noticeably influences dynamic circuit response, for example, settling time. Unlike
circuit leakage, the effects aren’t usually linked to humidity or other environmental conditions,
but rather, are a function of the board's dielectric properties. The chemistry involved in
producing plated through holes seems to exacerbate the problem. If your circuits don’t meet
expected transient response specs, you should consider PCB DA as a possible cause.
Fortunately, there are solutions. As in the case of capacitor DA, external components
can be used to compensate for the effect. More importantly, surface guards that totally isolate

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sensitive nodes from parasitic coupling often eliminate the problem (note that these guards
should be duplicated on both sides of the board, in cases of through whole components). As
noted previously, low loss PCB dielectrics are also available. PCB "hook," similar if not identical
to DA, is characterized by variation in effective circuit-board capacitance with frequency (see
Reference 1). In general, it affects high impedance circuit transient response where board
capacitance is an appreciable portion of the total in the circuit. Circuits operating at frequencies
below 10 kHz are the most susceptible. As in circuit board DA, the board's chemical makeup
very much influences its effects.
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system. EVERGREEN has grown to become a major PCB manufacturer in Asia to serve in
diverse customer’s base such as electronics appliance, communication, educational electronics,
power supplies, Automationsetc.

Assessment/Activity: PCB Design Issues: How to Create a Printed Circuit Board

Objective: In creating a PCB Design in recent lesson, they will encounter some issues during
their activity. So learn how to engage in the issues while making their own PCB Design.

Intended Learning Outcomes: The students shall be able to take down all the issues they
have experienced during creating the PCB circuit’s diagram.

Process:

1. Students must take down at least 2 problems they encounter and how they make a
solution?

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REFERENCES:

https://www.elprocus.com/different-types-of-electronic-circuit-symbols/

https://www.noao.edu/ets/Mechanical/Policies/ANSI%20Y14.15-1966.pdf

http://mickpeterson.org/2014design/Info/Drawings/NASA%20GSFC-X-673-64-1F.pdf

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technical_drawing

https://www.lifepersona.com/the-importance-of-technical-drawing-as-an-element-of-communication

http://cdpsciencetechno.org/cdp/UserFiles/File/telechargement/technical_drawing.pdf

https://www.analog.com/en/design-center/design-tools-and-calculators.html#

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circuit_diagram

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_packaging

https://www.elprocus.com/what-is-printed-circuit-board-and-designing-process-of-pcb/

https://www.analog.com/media/en/training-seminars/design-handbooks/Basic-Linear-
Design/Chapter12.pdf

https://www.freedomcad.com/2018/12/03/four-technical-issues-to-avoid-in-pcb-design/

https://www.pcbway.com/blog/Engineering_Technical/Printed_Circuit_Board_PCB_Design_Issues.html

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