MO 201: Materials Science

Magnetic Materials

Dr. Bratindranath Mukherjee

 M = Magnetisation

H= Magnetic Field Strength

χ = Magnetic Susceptibility

magnetic flux density and magnetic field strength within the solenoid

B= magnetic flux density or Magnetic induction

µ = permeability
Paramagnetic material

Ferromagnetic material
A spinning electron has a magnetic dipole moment, the Bohr magneton
The effect of an applied magnetic flux density, B, on a solid: (a, b), a diamagnetic solid; (c, d) a
paramagnetic solid; (e) a spin glass, similar to (c), but below a temperature Tf the orientation
of the dipoles changes slowly; (f), a cluster glass with oriented dipoles in small volumes below
a temperature Tf; (g) a ferromagnetic solid; (h) an antiferromagnetic solid; (i) a canted
magnetic solid; (j) a ferrimagnetic solid.
The Bethe–Slater curve for the magnitude
of the exchange integral as a function of D/d.
D is the separation of the atoms in a crystal and
d the diameter of the 3d orbital.
How does this chemical bonding viewpoint link with the band approach? The 3d band is narrow
and is overlapped by broad outer bands from the 4s and 4p orbitals. Both the s and d
electrons will be allocated to this composite band. As electrons are added to the band from the
elements K, Ca, Sc, and so on, they occupy the broad, mainly s–p low-energy part. The number of
spin-up and spin-down electrons would be identical, and there is a low density of states at the
Fermi level, so that relatively small numbers of electrons are promoted in a magnetic field,
exchange energy is low, and Pauli paramagnetism results. As more electrons are added, moving
from one transition metal to the next, (Ti, V, Cr, Mn), the electrons now occupy the narrow d
portion of the band. The density of states at the Fermi level starts to rise. Large numbers of
electrons can now be promoted and if energetically favourable, reverse spin, leading
to greater exchange energy. The tipping point comes with iron. In this case the density of states
at the Fermi level is high enough for the exchange energy to dominate and ferromagnetic
ordering occurs. When the density of states at the Fermi surface is calculated with a high
precision, it is found that only the three metals iron, cobalt and nickel will have sufficient
exchange energy to retain a ferromagnetic state.
E= Eex + ED + E λ + EK + E H
Superexchange (electron coupling) between Ni2þ and O2 (schematic) leading to
antiferromagnetic alignment of spins on cations.
Ferrimagnetic materials
Double exchange (electron transfer) between Fe2+ and Fe3+ (schematic) is possible
only with parallel alignment of spins on cations and always leads to a ferromagnetic
alignment of dipoles.
Many crystalline structures potentially fulfil these requirements, including the ion
pairs (Mn4+ , Mn3+ ) and (Co2+ , Co3+)