Book 8 Module 15

CATEGORY B1.1 B1.3

THE JET ENGINE 8
INSTALLATION MODULAR
CONSTRUCTION & HANDLING

Licence By Post

For best examination

results always use latest
issue number.

Licence By Post © Copyright B1.1 B1.3 EASA 66 15.16 15.19 15.21 15.22 ISSUE 04 0611
© Licence By Post
No part of this study book may be re-produced or distributed in any form or by
any means, or stored in a data base or retrieval system in whole or in part without
prior written permission from Licence By Post.

Books in the LBP series are regularly up-dated/re-written to keep pace with the changing
technology, changing examination requirements and changing legal requirements.
AUTHORITY

It is IMPORTANT to note that the information in this book is for study/training

purposes only.

When carrying out a procedure/work on aircraft/aircraft equipment you MUST

always refer to the relevant aircraft maintenance manual or equipment
manufacturer’s handbook.

You should also follow the requirements of your national regulatory authority (the
CAA in the UK) and laid down company policy as regards local procedures, recording,
report writing, documentation etc.

For health and safety in the workplace you should follow the regulations/guidelines
as specified by the equipment manufacturer, your company, national safety
authorities and national governments.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

With special thanks to:

AIRBUS INDUSTRIE
ROLLS ROYCE plc

for permission to reproduce drawings.

CONTENTS

Page

Engine installation configurations 1

Engine mountings 3
The pylon 4
Engine to pylon mountings 11
Engine cowlings 13
The engine drain system 17
Engine control cables 18
Modular engines 22
Ground running and functional checks 24
Example 1 – the CFM56-5B 29
Example 2 – the PW4000 31
Propeller operation 36
Engine trouble shooting 44
Maintenance – general 50
Compressor cleaning 51
Boroscope inspection 53
Storage and inhibiting 55
HOW TO TACKLE THIS BOOK

Written to the EASA Part 66 licence level for the B1 engineer the book covers
various aspects of the jet engine that are too small to warrant their own
books.

As with all the books in this series you should study the general principles
carefully and commit them to memory. Examples are taken from various
aircraft engines and any specific specifications need not be remembered.

For additional information on control cables (engine controls) you are referred
to modules 6 and 7 (where they are listed in the EASA syllabus) in the LPB
series.
 ENGINE INSTALLATION CONFIGURATIONS

There are many different ways in which an aero-engine could be supplied by a

manufacturer to be fitted to an airframe. The earliest method was to provide a
basic crankcase, cylinders, cylinder heads and gearbox, already assembled,
which would then be mounted onto the airframe. The ancillaries were then
bolted on, until the engine was complete and ready to run.

This operation took time and eventually with the advent of the more
complicated liquid cooled multi-cylinder, supercharged engines, the man-
hours involved in building up the engine ‘on the wing’ became so great that
operators had to develop a more efficient system. It is now possible to replace
a complete jet engine and have it running in a matter of hours.

There are basically four engine classifications (methods), which may be

encountered:

* Basic Engine
* Powerplant (PP)
* Engine Change Unit (ECU)
* Quick Engine Change (QEC)

The Basic Engine

This is as built up by the engine manufacturer. A basic engine is a complete

engine consisting of the main rotating assemblies, casings, gearboxes and
those engine accessories and components necessary to convert the air/fuel
mixture into propulsive power, and to provide internal engine lubrication, eg
the engine plus the engine fuel and lubrication systems but less any
ancillaries.

The Power Plant

This is assembled by the aircraft operator. It is the total engine installation

that provides thrust to the aircraft and power to the aircraft systems. The PP
includes the ECU, all connections, controls, cowlings, panels, intakes and
engine mountings. A PP exchange would normally be the simplest and
quickest way to change an engine for any reason.

This example is, however, costly in that all of the ancillaries are supplied
which means for every PP held in the maintenance shop, the operator would
have to provide alternators, starters, cowlings etc.

-1-
Engine Change Unit

This was and probably still is the best compromise in the supply of
replacement engines for operators. This is assembled by the aircraft operator.
It is a basic engine plus those components that make the engine suitable for
installation in a particular aircraft location. It would include engine
mountings but not items such as jet-pipes, starters, hydraulic pumps and
alternators. These, being individually lifed, would have to be swapped over to
the new ECU.

Quick Engine Change

This type of engine is one up from an ECU and may, according to aircraft type,
be of up to four different types. As an example the RB211 fitted to the three
engined Tri-Star can be supplied as a Neutral QEC, a left and right Wing QEC
and a fuselage QEC.

As an example the neutral QEC consists of the following:

* The basic engine, with accessories, firewall diaphragm and oil

cooler ducts.
* Air starter, starter control valve and ducting.
* One hydraulic pump and pipes (number 2 position on the
external gear box).
* Gas generator fairings.
* Cold stream reverser.
* Hoop plate.
* Hot stream collector.
* Air motor, control valve, and flex drive system.
* HP and IP air off-take ducts and associated valves in the inter-
services fairing.

The neutral QEC can be converted to a Wing QEC by the following additions:

* Nose Cowl.
* Hydraulic pipes on right-hand side of the LP compressor case.
* Fuel pipe on the left-hand side of the LP compressor case.
* Anti-ice duct.
* P1 duct.
* Interface fairings (translating and non-translating).
* Correct deflector vanes for engine installation (1 or 3 position).

NOTE: The only difference between the two-wing propulsion system is the
arrangement of the thrust reverser deflectors.

-2-
By adding the following components it is now possible to convert a Neutral
QEC to a fuselage QEC:

* Firewall extension.
* Interface fairing translating and non-translating.
* Deflector vane assemblies.
* Second hydraulic pump and pipelines.

The QEC system is flexible and can be modified and adapted at operator level
to suit particular requirements.

ENGINE MOUNTINGS

The engine is mounted to the aircraft structure by the engine mountings that
transmit all the forces from the engine to the airframe. The engine mountings
must also provide a means of allowing the engine to expand and contract as
its temperature changes during normal operations. They permit the same
basic engine to be fitted to different aircraft by varying the type/spatial
location to suit the aircraft mounting points.

Engines with a high level of vibration such as piston engines usually have
anti-vibration mountings. These are normally made of vulcanised rubber.

The structure which attaches the engine to the airframe is normally of tubular
steel welded construction and bolts directly onto the flame-proof bulkhead of
the airframe. There are normally four rubber blocks on which the engine sits,
one at each corner (except for radial engines). Each rubber mounting is either
bonded into place on the steel frame and the engine is bolted to the mounting,
or a bolt passes right through the rubber mounting, engine lug and the metal
of the mounting frame. In each case the engine vibration (or much of it) is
absorbed by the rubber mounting.

Each mounting will have a bonding lead from the engine to the steel frame.

Gas turbine engines tend to suffer less from vibration and are usually
mounted directly onto metal airframe mounts.

Early types of gas turbine were mounted by two spherical trunnions located
on the compressor outlet/combustion chamber casing. One of the spherical
mounts would be floating to allow for radial expansion of the gas generator,
the other would be fixed. The engine would also be located axially by an
adjustable third link or strut. This strut could be at the exhaust end or at the
front of the compressor casing and would allow the air intake casing of the
engine to be aligned with the aircraft air intake.

-3-
A modern pod mounted fan engine normally has two mountings positioned in
tandem. The engine front mounting is secured to the top of the LP
compressor case and transmits engine thrust, vertical and side loads to the
aircraft structure. The engine rear mounting is secured to the top of the LP
turbine bearing and support casing and transmits torsional, vertical and side
loads to the aircraft structure. Spherical bearings incorporated in the
mountings allow for thermal expansion and malalignment. Fail-safe features
are incorporated into both mountings.

Ground handling points may be fitted to provide attachment points for

transportation of the engine while on the ground. Crane attachment points
provide for lifting the PP, and component mounts may be attached for module
handling. The engine services, consisting of fuel, hydraulics, air and electrics
would be ducted up to the main aircraft structure through a pylon enclosing
both engine mountings. The pylon would be vented to prevent the build up of
any hazardous gases. The pylon would be removable to enable disconnection
of the engine services.

The following is a description of the pylon and engine mounts of the

A320/330. There is no need to remember the specific details but it is typical
of a podded wing mounted engine so you should be familiar with the general
principles.

THE PYLON

The function of the engine pylons installed under each wing is to support the
engine, to transmit the engine thrust to the aircraft, and to enable the routing
and attachment of all the systems connected to the engine (electrical wiring,
hydraulic, bleed air and fuel lines). The pylon structure consists of:

Pylon Box Structure. This is primary structure and supports the engine
through two attachment points and is attached to the wing at two points.

Forward Secondary Structure. This structure provides an aerodynamic profile

between the upper section of the engine air intake cowl and the wing leading
edge. Pressure relief doors are fitted to prevent damage if a pressurised pipe
bursts and panels are fitted to give access to the system routings.

Pylon-to-wing Centre Fillets. Provide an aerodynamic profile between the wing

lower surface and the pylon box. Are fitted with pressure relief doors should a
pressurised pipe break.

Aft secondary structure. Attached to the wing lower surface and improves the
aerodynamic contour.

A fairing located under the pylon box provides an aerodynamic profile between
the pylon box and the engine nozzle.

-4-
 Fig. 1 ENGINE & PYLON – GENERAL LAYOUT

Fig. 2 PYLON STRUCTURE

Pylon Box Structure

The pylon box comprises:

(a) One forward upper spar in steel, protected by aluminium spraying

and primer coating.

(b) One upper spar in steel, protected by cadmium plating.

(c) One aft upper spar in steel protected by cadmium plating, except
the spigot fitting which is in stainless steel.

(d) One lower spar in stainless steel.

(e) Nineteen steel ribs either cadmium plated or aluminium sprayed

followed in each case by a primer paint coat.

-5-
 (f) Two caps are located at the upper spars. They are in steel,
protected by aluminium spraying and primer coating.

(g) Two side panels in steel, protected by aluminium spraying and

primer coating.

Pylon-to-Wing Attach Fitting

The pylon is attached to the wing by means of:

* Four shackles made of high tensile stainless steel and four

sleeve/threaded pin assemblies located at the forward main
attachment point (figure 2).

* A spigot fitting located in the aft upper spar.

* Four aft shackles made of titanium alloy and three sleeve/

threaded pin assemblies.

Bushes are installed on each shackle. The sleeve/threaded pins are made of
Inconel 718 (a nickel based alloy).

Fig. 3 FORWARD PYLON TO WING ATTACHMENT

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Pylon-to-Engine Attachments

The pylon-to-engine attachment is provided by the forward fitting located at

the forward end of the pylon and the aft attachment located towards the back
(figure 2).

Aft Access Doors

These access doors are located on each side of the pylon box and are made of
composite (honeycomb) and secured by four captive screws.

Fig. 4 AFT PYLON TO WING ATTTACHMENT

The pylon contains the following systems:

(1) Electrical
(2) Hydraulic
(3) Fire extinguisher/detection
(4) Ventilation
(5) Fuel
(6) Drain
(7) Air venting system
(8) Sensing lines

-7-
 Fig. 5 ENGINE TO PYLON ATTACHMENT FITTINGS

For safety purposes the pylon is divided into compartments. Each

compartment contains a particular type of equipment. The compartment
layout and cooling air circulation are designed to prevent the contact of any
hydraulic fluid or fluid leakage with an ignition source.

All the panels located under the pylon and adjacent to the nacelle are fire-
walls.

Figures 6 to 11 show the details of the various services as they pass through
the pylon. Figure 6 shows the electrical wiring and figure 7 shows the
hydraulic pipelines for the blue and green hydraulic systems. Figure 8 shows
the (two shot) fire bottle system and figure 9 shows the fuel supply pipelines
(note the double walling and the drain from the outer wall).

Figure 10 shows the pneumatic ducting including the pre-cooler. Note that the
pre-cooler cools the hot bleed air with fan air.

Figure 11 shows the venting system. This helps prevent the build-up of any
(possibly dangerous) fumes and moisture/stale air which helps prevent
crevice corrosion.

-8-
 Fig. 6 ELECTRICAL ROUTES

Fig. 7 HYDRAULIC PIPELINE INSTALLATION

Fig. 8 FIRE BOTTLE SYSTEM

-9-
 Fig. 9 FUEL SUPPLY PIPES

Fig. 10 PNEUMATIC DUCTING

Fig. 11 VENTING SYSTEM

- 10 -
Of course not all engines are pylon mounted under the wings, some are pod
mounted either side of the fuselage and some are mounted within the fuselage
structure (rare).

Those mounted either side of the fuselage (normally towards the rear) are
attached to strengthened fuselage frames. There are normally two and
attached to each frame is a short horizontal spar or box section either side of
the fuselage onto which the engine is bolted. On the end of the box section or
spars may be fitted an engine frame and the engine may be bolted to this
frame. The spars or box section will be suitably streamlined using secondary
or tertiary structure.

Services will be routed through the spar or box structure similar to those
described for the pylon system above.

For buried engines, these will be attached to strengthened members of the

structure and will have segregation of services as previously described. Special
prevision will have to be made for fire-walls and the connection of intakes
which will form part of the airframe structure.

ENGINE TO PYLON MOUNTINGS

These will have to take all the thrust loads (forward thrust and reverse thrust),
support the static mass of the engine (up to high stress levels such as during
a heavy landing), and cope with torsional and side loads. A typical engine to
pylon mounting (based on the Airbus aircraft) is described below.

The engine forward mount attaches the engine to the pylon and transfers
thrust loads, vertical loads and side loads to the pylon. The aft mount
transfers torsional loads, vertical and side loads to the pylon.

The forward mount attaches to the intermediate case rear face at the 12
o’clock position and the aft mount attaches at the exhaust case flange also at
the 12 o’clock position.

The forward mount has a split main beam assembly, which is attached with
bolts to the forward mount pyramid.

The left and right thrust links transfer thrust loads from the engine thrust
brackets to the pylon through the cross beam and the main beams.

A one-piece spherical bearing in the forward support transmits the side and
vertical loads to the pylon. The forward support is a failsafe system should a
thrust link failure occur.

The forward (and aft) mounts are made of a nickel-based alloy.

- 11 -
Fig. 12 FORWARD ENGINE MOUNT

Fig. 13 AFT ENGINE MOUNT

- 12 -
The aft mount has a split main beam assembly which is attached with bolts to
the pylon mount.

The left, right and middle primary links transfer loads from the turbine
exhaust case to the pylon through the split main beam. Loads are transferred
to the secondary failsafe links if a primary link failure should occur.

ENGINE COWLINGS

For aerodynamic reasons external engines are cowled in with panels which are
fitted to brackets attached to the engine. The cowlings may be attached using
screws such as intake cowls or quick release fasteners to allow easy access to
the engine for maintenance purposes. Fan cowlings, side cowlings and thrust
reverser cowlings are usually attached at the top by hinges so after their
fasteners are released they can be hinged up out of the way supported by
stays.

It is important that when the cowlings are closed the following actions are
taken:

* Check the area/engine inside the cowl after completion of work to

ensure that the work has been completed and that all connections
are made and safe and correctly locked.

* Check that all tools etc have been removed from the area and it is
clean and dry.

* After the release of any support stays ensure they are correctly
stowed.

* Ensure cowl closes without any undue force and fits correctly.

* Operate the quick release fasteners to lock the cowl into position
ensuring that they lock correctly and that the ‘correctly locked’
indicator shows.

For larger/heavier cowls provision is made to allow them to be opened using

hydraulic jacks. The hydraulic pressure can be supplied by an external hand
pump or an integral electrically operated pump.

The following is a description based on the CFM56-5B engine.

It is a modular concept engine. Has 17 different modules enclosed within

three major modules and an accessory driven module. The whole engine is
enclosed in cowlings, easily removed for maintenance purposes.

- 13 -
The cowlings (figure 14)

1 to 5 are, in order: the inlet cowl; the fan cowl; the engine cowl; the
thrust reverser cowl and the core cowl.

Fig. 14 THE CFM56-5B ENGINE PANELS

- 14 -
 Fig. 15 THE CFM56-5B INTAKE COWL

With reference to figure 15. Note the services that are fitted to the intake cowl.
Note also that it is usually attached to an engine frame using many
countersunk screws.

The other cowlings on the outside of the engine are usually attached using
special fasteners and the fan/thrust reverser cowling is raised hydraulically.
The components in the system include:

* Ground Connection Manifold.

* Hydraulic Actuator.
* Power-Pack – optional Hydraulic Supply.
* Hydraulic Line.
* Retractable Line.
* Retractable Supports.
* Wiring Harness.

The reverser assemblies are opened by a hydraulic actuator on each thrust

reverser assembly and hydraulic pressure is supplied through ground
maintenance connections installed on the torque box.

Hydraulic fluid pressure is supplied by a ground support equipment pump or

an optional self-powered electro-hydraulic pump installed on each thrust
reverser assembly.

- 15 -
The ground connection manifold is on the torque box on each reverser
assembly and has a quick disconnect self-sealing hydraulic connector for
ground connection to the support equipment hydraulic pump.

Fig. 16 HYDRAULIC COWL OPENING SYSTEM

Fig. 17 HAND PUMP CONNECTED

- 16 -
 THE ENGINE DRAIN SYSTEM

The engine drainage system collects and discharges all unwanted fluids
overboard. Fluid leakage from the pylon or leaking pipelines or engine
component seals on both sides of the engine are carried through lines to a
drain mast. The drain mast allows the fluids overboard. There are capped
fittings (inspection tee’s) in some drain lines which act as fluid traps. These
fluid traps can be used to isolate the source of leakage found at the drain
mast. Leakage limits for engine mounted component seals are listed in the
Table of Limitations found in Chapter 71 of the AMM.

The drain mast is located at the bottom of the engine protruding a short way
into the airflow. It has drains from:

* The engine services – fuel and oil.

* The main gear hose – hydraulic fluid, fuel and oil.
* The pylon – fuel, oil and water.

Fig. 18 DRAIN SYSTEM SCHEMATIC

- 17 -
The Drain Mast

The drain mast seal presses against an opening in the thrust reverser lower
bifurcation latch access door and prevents the leaking fluids from flowing into
the nacelle.

Fluid leakage from the pylon or engine components goes overboard from the
bottom of the mast. Leakage can be measured at the bottom of the drain mast
or at an inspection tee. The following list gives the line number and the source
of any fluid found in that line.

* Line No 1 - Pylon drain (not measured)

* Line No 2* - TCC actuator, stator vane actuator, IDG oil
air/oil cooler valve.
* Line No 3* - Engine oil air/oil cooler valve, 2.5 bleed
actuator.
* Line No 4 - Main accessory gearbox – PMA drive.
* Line No 5* - Fuel/oil cooler, servo fuel heater.
* Line No 6 - Main accessory gearbox – fuel pump drive.
* Line No 7 - Main accessory gearbox – starter drive.
* Line No 8 - Main accessory gearbox – rear hydraulic pump
drive.
* Line No 9 - Main accessory gearbox – front hydraulic pump
drive.
* Line No 10 - Main accessory gearbox – IDG drive.
* Line No 11 - Oil tank scupper (not measured).

* These are multiple source drain ports. Leakage for a specific component
must be measured at the drain inspection tee.

ENGINE CONTROL CABLES

This section has been included here to give the reader a more complete view of
the systems interface between the airframe and the engine. To give a complete
overview the throttle system is shown from the flight deck to the engine, and a
brief description given. For a more detailed description of cables, cable
systems and components you are referred to modules 6 and 7 of the LBP
notes.

With engines that are FADEC (or similar) controlled the only cables going to
the engine are electrical cables. For older engines there will be a cable (rarely a
push/pull rod system) going from the thrust levers in the flight deck, through
the fuselage/wings/pylons/tail fin (if fin mounted) to the engine.

Figure 19 shows the throttle cable control system general layout of the A300
aircraft and figure 20 shows the schematic.

- 18 -
The pilot’s input via the thrust lever is transmitted via push/pull rods and
cables through to the secondary transmission units pulley in the pylon.

From here movement is transferred to the primary transmission unit via

push/pull rods. From there-on the movement is via a Teleflex type push/pull
cable.

Fig. 19 A CABLE THROTTLE CONTROL SYSTEM

- 19 -
 Fig. 20 CONTROL SYSTEM SCHEMATIC

The Teleflex cable goes to the engine throttle control box and there is a
feedback cable (RH and LH) from the reverser actuator to the primary
transmission unit.

- 20 -
When thrust reverse is selected the lever is initially stopped by an interlock
stop. While the reverser is moving towards the deployed position a feedback
cam (operated by the feedback cables from the feedback actuator) is rotated
against a spring. This moves a stop so that the throttles can be put to full
power when the reversers are fully deployed.

The dynamometric rod is spring-loaded and allows the pilot to move the
throttle levers when auto-throttle is selected. A signal from the rod will cause
the auto-throttle to de-clutch at the coupling unit. This allows pilot
intervention with auto-throttle on without disconnecting the system.

Rigging

Rigging must be differentiated into airframe and engine rigging.

In general the rigging procedure is:

1. Refer the AMM and ensure engine system is complete and safe to
work on.
2. Set the rigging pins.
3. Check cable tensions either using a portable tensiometer or the
scale on the system tension regulator (noting the ambient
temperature).
4. Remove pins and re-check tensions.
5. Ensure thrust levers work in the correct sense, that is, levers
forward, throttle control box shows increasing thrust; levers
rearward, throttle control box shows engine decreasing power.
6. Check full and free range of movement. Check that with the
thrust lever set at a particular detent on the throttle quadrant the
throttle link on the throttle control box on the engine is at the
correct angle.
7. Ensure that all locking is complete.
8. Carry out duplicate checks.
9. Carry out an engine run to check for correct operation of the
controls.
10. Record all details of work carried out in the airframe log book (or
associated work cards) and sign (including duplicate inspections).
Record any engine related work (including engine running times)
and sign in the engine log book.

The rigging pin check on the A300 for the airframe system would be to set the
throttle to the idle position and insert rigging pins in:

* The microswitch unit.

* The cable tension regulator.
* The auto-throttle coupling unit.
* The primary unit.

- 21 -
Engine rigging is carried out by setting the thrust lever to a particular angle
(say) 18° with PP 80° power lever position and rig pins inserted in the Primary
unit, Idler Crank and MEC.

After this rigging a check of the complete throttle system must be done.

* Thrust lever in max power position (watch spring back) and rig
pins inserted in the primary unit and the MEC at full forward
thrust stop.

After this rigging a check for reaching the full reverse thrust stop must be
carried out (watch spring back).

MODULAR ENGINES

Until fairly recently, the maintenance policy for most aircraft engines was one
of a fixed life between overhauls. This meant that on introduction to service,
the engine was given a number of hours to run based on previous experience.
Once these hours had been reached, or the engine had developed a defect, it
would be removed and sent to the manufacturer for overhaul. In general
terms, the engine operator was unable to carry out major repairs to their
engines and facilities in engine shops were fairly limited.

To support this maintenance policy it was necessary for operators to invest

money in spare engines to compensate for those being repaired. However with
attention to detail and the provision of closer manufacturing tolerances it
would be possible to make certain components interchangeable allowing items
which required frequent overhaul to be replaced with serviced items without
affecting other main parts of the engine.

One of the first engines to be built using this ‘modular’ concept was the Napier
Eland turbo-prop in the early fifties. It consisted of two main modules, the
compressor and turbine. This philosophy was subsequently adopted (and
expanded on) for most new power plants. As examples the RB211 has seven
modules, the CFM56 has eleven and the IAE-V2500 has four.

A module can be defined as a major self-contained section of a gas turbine

engine consisting of components and ‘sub-assemblies’ which can be:

* Uniquely identified by a serial number.

* Fully interchangeable between the same series engines
(modifications excepted).
* Does not require balancing if containing rotating parts.
* Specifically designed for dismantling and ease of assembly using a
minimum of specialist tooling.
* Capable of separate life development.

- 22 -
 Fig. 21 MODULAR LAYOUT - 1

Fig. 22 MODULAR LAYOUT - 2

Figure 21 shows the break-down of the CFM56-5 and figure 22 shows the
breakdown of an engine as fitted to the A330. Study the drawings and note
modules and the terms used.

- 23 -
Advantages of Modular Construction

* The engine design and construction enables ‘in depth’

maintenance to be carried out in operator’s own engine shops.

* Modules can be replaced quickly with a minimum of disturbance

to the remainder of the engine.

* Similar modules are interchangeable between similar engines.

* Module lives can be developed independently from recorded

information based on operational experience.

* Modules are easy to transport and store.

* Increased participation in engine maintenance by the operator

leads to greater expertise of the company’s employees.

* Decreased ‘on ground’ time of aircraft with engine repairs.

* Individual modules can be maintained ‘on condition’.

* The operator has greater overall control of engine fleets.

* Fewer spare engines are required, leading to lower inventory

costs.

* Dispersed resources and repair facilities.

* Less dependence on industry.

Whilst the modular concept has many advantages there are, however, a few
disadvantages.

* Higher initial capital outlay on equipment facilities and training of

employees.

* Higher numbers of technical and support employees.

* Different modification state of modules and engines may lead to

greater numbers of modules to be held for large fleets.

GROUND RUNNING & FUNCTIONAL CHECKS

The ground running of aero-engines, for many years, was the normal method
of establishing the serviceability of, not only the engine, but of the systems
using engine derived power, for example, electrical, air conditioning and
hydraulic systems.

- 24 -
It is possible, however, to check many parameters and systems without
resorting to starting and running the main engines. By connecting various
test sets to the systems it is possible to find faults and establish running
datum’s and other data. Some systems can be checked out by running the
APU.

The development of built in test equipment (BITE) has virtually eliminated the
need for running both APU’s and main engines, thus saving a considerable
amount of engine life.

On many aircraft, such things as Maintenance Access terminals are available

on the flight deck for engineers to use. A computerised system complete with a
CRT/flat screen display allows for automatic fault recording and BIT testing,
and the carrying out of various functionals on many systems.

With the use of BITE and on-board fault monitoring systems engines will not
be subject to the number of thermal cycles associated with regular ground
running. Engine, starter and component life will be prolonged and of course
fuel will be saved.

There are, however, times when ground running is required and not every fleet
has modern airframe/engine systems with built in electronics.

Some of the occasions when ground runs may be required are:

* After engine replacement.

* After engine adjustments.
* After component changes.
* Assisting in fault diagnosis.
* Confirming reported faults.
* After periods of storage.
* After long periods when the aircraft has not flown.
* When required by the aircraft maintenance manual/aircraft
servicing schedule.
* When required by the CAA/EASA.

There are specific procedures related to ground running and the maintenance
manual/schedule must be consulted in all cases. A typical procedure, not
related to any particular engine, except for the actual start which is bases on
the RB211 as fitted to Tri-star and B747 aircraft, is explained in the following
paragraphs. Before carrying out the practical task of pressing the button and
lighting up the engine there are various actions to be considered, eg:

What are the engine running parameters and limitations?

- 25 -
 Fig. 23 SAFETY ZONES

Fig. 24 WIND SPEEDS AND DIRECTIONS

- 26 -
By reference to the AMM operating procedures the following can be
established:

* Maximum JPT.
* Minimum oil pressure.
* Minimum fuel flow rates.
* EPR range.
* RPM range.
* Minimum air temperature and humidity.
* Maximum wind speeds and direction (figure 24).
* Safety zones (figure 23).

There may also be a requirement to obtain the ambient air temperature, both
wet and dry, and barometric pressure, in order to apply conversion figures to
RPM and JPT readings.

Once all of the limitations and parameters have been studied it will be
necessary to establish whether the aircraft and engine is safe to run and also,
where it is to be run. A visual inspection of the engine, airframe and
associated systems followed by reference to the Log Book and other
maintenance personnel should ensure the former, whilst the airfield authority
can advise on the latter.

The safety precautions to be observed are laid down in the AMM and basically
they should ensure the safety of all personnel, the aircraft and equipment.
Ground crew should be adequately briefed and qualified; be in contact with
Air Traffic Control; wear protective clothing and ear defenders.

Fire extinguishers of the correct type should be available and the aircraft
should be parked on concrete, nose into wind (see figure 24), chocks fitted,
intake guards fitted, all engine blanks removed and cowlings secured.

Ground equipment should be parked in a safe area and the jet efflux/engine
intake danger zones observed. Look-out men/women should be posted.

Once all the relevant precautions have been observed, using a cockpit check
list, set the relevant switches/circuit breakers to their pre-start positions.

These check lists are normally in a sequence –left to right around the cockpit
area and engine panels. Once all the relevant switches/circuit breakers have
been set the engine can be started. A typical start sequence is as follows:

1. If an ignition switch is fitted, select system ‘A’, ‘B’ or ‘Both’ as

required.

2. The ground start switchlight on the pilot’s overhead panel is

pressed and is electrically held in. The ground start release
switchlight will illuminate. At the same time the following actions
occur:

- 27 -
 The Pylon Isolation Valve, in the air duct to the engine pylon,
opens and air flows to the starter duct.

The Starter Valve opens and air flows to the Starter Motor.

The Valve Open legend illuminates.

3. The starter motor drives through the gearbox to rotate the High
Speed Shaft. This rotation pulls air into the engine which rotates
the Intermediate shaft and the fan.

4. As HP speed increases and approaches 25% N3 the pilot

schedules fuel and ignition ON. A shut-off valve opens supplying
fuel to the spray nozzles.

5. The igniters operate and within about 10 seconds light-up takes

place. Light-up produces increased airflow through the engine,
and this added to the power of the starter motor continues to
accelerate the engine.

On the Tri-star for example a speed switch in the N3 Tacho Indicator operates
at 43% N3. It shuts down the starter by causing both the Starter Air and the
Pylon Isolation valves to close.

At 51% N3 a second speed switch operates releasing the Ground Start Switch
and de-energising the Igniters. The engine continues to accelerate towards
ground idle.

On the Boeing 747 the starting sequence is identical except that the Ground
Start Switch controls the sequences of rotation and ignition. It is held engaged
by the pilot. There are no separate speed switches. Selecting and cancelling
ignition and operating the Pylon Isolation and Air Starter Valves are all
controlled by the Start Switch. At 50% N3 the start switch is released and the
engine accelerates to ground idle.

Once the engine has started and the relevant switches and selections are
made to de-select the start, the engine and/or system/s can be tested.

When carrying out an engine test it is important to keep the thermal cycles to
an absolute minimum. The checks required at specific RPM must be done
therefore, in a logical sequence at increasing RPM up to the maximum, and
then at decreasing RPM’s to idle. For example:

Idling RPM - Record RPM, oil pressure, JPT, oil temperature, fuel
flow, EPR, igv setting, bleed valve open.

70% RPM - Record as above, plus alternator on line/output,

hydraulic pressure, bleed valve closed.

- 28 -
 80% RPM - Record as above, plus air conditioning.

90% RPM - Record as above, plus anti-icing ‘on’.

100% RPM - Record as above, plus RPM overswing and top

temperature control.

Once all of the checks have been made it is important to allow the engine to
cool down. This is achieved by allowing the engine to idle for a period of time
before closing the HP cock and closing the engine down completely.

The turbine will now have had time to cool to a minimum temperature thus
relieving the thermal stress encountered when shutting down from a much
higher temperature.

When ‘Shut-down’ is initiated it will be necessary to record the time taken for
the engine spools to come to rest. This ‘run down’ time gives some indication
of the state of the labyrinth seals, the bearings, turbine and compressor tip
clearances, gearing and possible imminent component failure.

During the ‘run down’ period it may also be possible for external crew
members to detect (hear) any extraneous mechanical distress, and for them to
observe the correct operation of relevant fuel drains eg, combustion chamber
drain and fuel manifold drain etc.

The following show typical examples of engine start procedures for large
aircraft. They are self-explanatory and are used by both aircrew and ground
maintenance staff for engine starting.

EXAMPLE 1 - THE CFM56-5B

There are two starting processes:

1. The automatic starting process, under the full authority of the

FADEC system.

2. The manual starting process, with limited authority of the FADEC

system.

Automatic Start

During an automatic start, the ECU includes engine protection and provides
limits for N1, N2 and EGT, with the necessary indications in the cockpit.

The automatic starting procedure is:

- Rotate mode selector to IGN/START. Both ECU’s are powered up.

- 29 -
 - Switch the MASTER LEVER to ‘ON’. The SAV opens and:
at 16% N2 speed, one igniter is energised.
at 22% N2 speed, fuel is delivered to the combustor.
at 50% N2 speed, the SAV is closed and the igniter de-
energised.

In case of no ignition (engine fails to start), the engine is dry motored and a
second starting procedure initiated.

Manual Start

During a manual start, the ECU provides limited engine protection and
limitation only on EGT. The manual starting procedure is:

- Rotate mode selector to IGN/START. Both ECU’s are powered up.

- Press the MAN/START push button. The SAV opens and when N2
speed > 20%, switch the MASTER LEVER to ‘ON’ the two igniters
are energised and fuel is delivered to the combustor. At 50% N2
the SAV is closed and the igniters automatically de-energised.

When the engines are started (manual or automatic), the mode selector must
be switched back to the NORMAL position.

Fig. 25 STARTING PROCEDURE - CFM56-5B

- 30 -
The Starting System

The starting system provides torque to accelerate the engine to a speed such
that it can light up and continue to run unassisted.

The starting system (figure 26), located underneath the engine, consists of one
pneumatic starter and one Starter Air Valve (SAV) and ducting.

Fig. 26 STARTER SYSTEM – CFM56-5B

EXAMPLE 2 - THE PW4000

The following gives the weights and procedures for engine running on the
B777, with PW 4000 series engines.

Power Level Minimum Aircraft Power Level for Max CG (%MAC)

Gross Weight (1) Opposite Engine (2)
85% N1 or less 340,000 lbs 60% N1 36
(154,223 kg)
Take-off 400,000 lbs 60% N1 34
(77k) (181,439 kg)

1) These values are the minimum gross weight that is necessary to operate
the engine at the specified power level. The operating empty weight
(OEW) is 310,000 pounds (140,615 kg). It is necessary to add the
difference between the OEW and the minimum gross weight in fuel or
ballast.

- 31 -
2) It is necessary to operate the opposite engine at this power level with the
brakes applied, the parking brake set, the wheel chocks installed, and
nose gear pointed straight ahead. The wheel chocks must be at least 3
inches away from the tyres. The parking area must be dry and free of
contamination. Make sure the brake pressures are 3,000psi and not de-
activated. The right and centre hydraulic systems must be fully
pressurised and operational.

Procedure to Prepare the Aircraft for Engine Operation

1. Air inlet and exhaust covers – remove.

2. Aircraft into wind.
3. Make sure that all loose objects are removed from the air intakes
and from the ground around the air intakes.
4. Carry out a visual check for damage or ice on the inlet cowl, fan
blades, fan spinner, P2/R2 inlet probe, and external cowl areas.
If ice found remove with hot air.
5. Thrust reverser – stowed. Make sure the latch engagement for the
fan cowl and thrust reverser latches are correct.
6. Carry out visual check of the core exhaust (LPT1), exhaust plug
and primary nozzle for damage and unwanted material.
7. Make sure there is sufficient oil in the engine oil tank.
8. Make sure there is sufficient oil in the starter.
9. Ensure IDG oil level on the EICAS electrical maintenance page 1
is normal.
10. Ensure back-up generator oil level on the EICAS maintenance
page 1 is normal.
11. Check the drain ports for fuel, oil and hydraulic leaks.
12. Ensure fuel drained from engine does not present a fire hazard.
13. Place forward thrust levers to IDLE.
14. Place reverse thrust levers to forward position (down).
15. Attach a DO-NOT-OPERATE tag on the thrust levers.
16. Apply electrical power.
17. Close circuit breakers for APU and engine management panels.
18. Fire handle locked in.
19. Place parking brake lever ON. Brake pressure should be 3000psi
(20680kPa)
20. Place chocks to the front and rear of the main landing gear tyres.
21. Do the same to the nose gear if surface is wet.
22. Ensure there are equal amounts of fuel in the left and right main
fuel tanks. More than 5500 pounds.
23. Pressurise the pneumatic system.

Automatic Start Procedure – General

1. The start procedure can be manually stopped at any time during the
automatic start procedure.

- 32 -
2. Each step of the procedure must be taken in sequence. If the start
procedure is stopped for any reason, the sequence must be gone
through again.
3. During the start, keep the service air bleed inputs and accessory loads
to a minimum.

Automatic Start Checklist

1. Fuel left and right pumps forward and aft switches ON.
2. Place AUTOSTART switch to ON.
3. Place START/IGNITION switch to START.
4. Check SAV duct pressure. Should be 30-45psi (207-310kPa)
5. Set FUEL CONTROL switch to RUN.

Monitor N1, N2, oil pressure, fuel flow and EGT to make sure the
automatic start procedure continues satisfactorily.

Monitor the Engine Operation

1. During the automatic start, the EEC (FADEC) automatically signals to

turn: Ignition ON at approximately 15% N2 speed and fuel flow ON at
approximately 22% of N2 speed.

2. Monitor the EGT for the engine.

The EGT must start to increase in less than 20 seconds from the time
the fuel is ON.

If the EGT does not increase in 20 seconds after the fuel and ignition
are ON, the EEC (FADEC) will automatically signal to turn off the fuel
and ignition and motor the engine for 30 seconds to remove the fuel and
vapours, and try to start the engine again with the two ignition systems.

3. Monitor the N1, N2 and EGT during the start procedure for any signs of
unusual indications.

NOTE: If the starter air pressure is low, the engine starting time will be
slower and the peak EGT will be higher. If the N1 does not turn by the
time the engine reaches idle, stop the engine immediately.

The N1 and N2 rpm must continuously increase to idle speed and the
EGT must increase to the idle EGT limit.

4. During the automatic start, if the EGT is more than the start
temperature limit, stop the engine immediately. Carry out the engine
shutdown procedure.

- 33 -
 Make a record of the length of time and the highest temperature of the
engine during an over-temperature condition.

5. During the automatic start, the EEC (FADEC) automatically signals to

turn the starter air valve and ignition off as the engine becomes stable
at idle.

NOTE: The START/IGNITION switch returns to NORM approximately 3

seconds after SAV closes and ignition off at approximately 41-46% of N2.

6. The EEC (FADEC) will automatically signal to stop the start if one of the
following failure conditions occur:

The EGT does not increase in 20 seconds after fuel is introduced

into the engine.

The N1 rotor does not start to turn by 40% N2 (locked N1 rotor).

The EGT is more than the autostart limits.

If there is an engine surge indication.

7. During a stop in the autostart procedure, the EEC (FADEC) will

automatically signal to engage the start at the maximum starter speed
for 30 seconds to dry motor the engine. Do the dry motor procedure for
30 seconds minimum. This will decrease the EGT and remove unburnt
fuel from the engine.

8. When the engine reaches idle, ensure the START/IGNITION switch is

automatically set to the NORM position.

NOTE: An EICAS autostart switch message will be shown if the

START/IGNITION switch is not in the correct position.

9. Depressurise the pneumatic system.

Manual Start Procedure - General

This is similar to the automatic general start procedure except that EGT has
to be carefully monitored. Engine must not exceed EGT limits.

Manual Start Checklist

1. Place fuel L or R pumps fwd and aft switches ON.

2. Place AUTOSTART switch OFF.
3. Place START/IGNITION switch to START.

- 34 -
4. Check that SAV duct pressure is 30-45psi (207-310kPa)
5. Ensure N1 and engine oil pressure increase.
6. Unsure N2 increases. If the N1 does not increase by the time N2 reaches
idle speed, stop the start. -
7. At 22% of N2 place FUEL CONTROL switch to RUN.

Monitor the Engine

1. Monitor N1, N2 and EGT carefully for signs of any unusual indications.
N1 and N2 must continuously increase to idle speed and EGT must
increase to the idle EGT limit. If N2 accelerates slowly with a fast
increase in EGT to the limit of 535°C, the start must be stopped and
fuel shut-off immediately.

2. During the start procedure, if the EGT is more than the start
temperature limit (535°C), stop the engine immediately. Carry out
engine shutdown procedure. Make a record of the length of time and the
highest temperature of the engine during the over-temperature
condition.

3. During the start, if any of the following conditions occur, carry out
engine shutdown:

The N2 rotor does not start to turn (locked N2 rotor).

The N2 rotor does not turn at the usual speed.

The N1 rotor does not start to turn when the N2 approaches idle
(locked N1 rotor).

The fuel flow or ignition is accidentally stopped.

The EGT does not start to increase in less than 20 seconds after
the FUEL CONTROL switch is set to the RUN position.

The oil pressure does not increase after the FUEL CONTROL
switch is set to the RUN position.

4. During shutdown, dry motor the engine. Do the dry motor procedure for
30 seconds minimum that will decrease the EGT and remove the fuel in
the engine that has not burned.

5. Make sure the START/IGNITION switch goes to the NORM position at

approximately 55% of N2 speed.

6. Depressurise the pneumatic system.

- 35 -
Engine Start Procedure with Manual Override of the Start Air Valve

This is similar to the manual start procedure described above except that the
SAV is operated manually from the ground. It is opened by an engineer on the
ground when signalled to do so by the person in charge of the engine run.

It is signalled during the start sequence after ensuring that SAV duct pressure
is 30 to 45psi. At 50% N2 the ground engineer is signalled to shut the SAV and
stow the handle.

The rest of the sequence and actions are the same as for a manual start.

Engine Shutdown Procedure (Normal Engine Shutdown)

Move the thrust level to minimum idle and run the engine at minimum idle for
5 minutes to allow the engine to decrease in temperature.

CAUTION: Make sure the engine shutdown occurs immediately after the fuel
controls switch is set to the cut-off position. If the engine
continues to operate when the fuel control switch is set to the cut-
off position, a system malfunction has occurred. Maintenance is
necessary before a subsequent start.

Set the FUEL CONTROL switch to the CUT-OFF position. Examine the EGT,
N1, N2 speed and fuel flow for indications of an engine shutdown.

Set the FUEL L(R) PUMPS FWD and AFT switches to the OFF position.

Fit protective covers. Record all running times in the log book.

PROPELLER OPERATION

This section is concerned with the mechanism and handling of engines fitted
with propellers, ie turboprop engines.

Before we can discuss the operation of a turbo-prop engine it is important to

know something about how a propeller works (for more detailed information
you are referred to the books in this series entitled Propellers (module 17).

There are two basic types of propeller, fixed pitch and variable pitch:

Fixed Pitch. The fixed pitch propeller is the simplest type of propeller and has
no moving parts. It is used with low powered piston engines fitted to light
aircraft. The pitch angle chosen is usually that which suits the normal top
speed of the aircraft, therefore avoiding engine overspeed in the maximum
power condition. Changes in power such as take-off and cruise are regulated
by the engine throttle only. In other words by engine rpm only.

- 36 -
Variable Pitch. With variable pitch propellers each blade on the propeller has
the ability to change pitch. This pitch change is automatic and all blades of
the propeller assembly change together to the same pitch.

In general the engine is allowed to run at its selected rpm throughout the
flight range with changes in thrust being accommodated by varying the pitch
angle of the propeller. By increasing the blade pitch angle with increasing
engine power (but not engine rpm), the torque developed also increases. The
torque is measured and displayed in the cockpit where it is used to assess the
performance of the power-plant and used as a feed-back signal to the engine
controls. The engine rpm is maintained at its selected value by means of the
constant speed unit (CSU).

Fig. 27 TORQUE METER & COCKPIT GAUGE

With reference to figure 27, the propeller is driven by the jet engine either
directly coupled to the compressor/turbine assembly (the TPE331 engine for
example) or via a free turbine, sometimes called a power turbine. The engine
could be such that the power turbine is positioned after the jet engine turbine
and its shaft will run inside the engine turbine shaft.

Some engines may be designed so that after the compressor the combustion
process is of the reverse flow type and the hot gases are directed onto both the
power turbine and engine turbine together (PT6 for example).

Note in figure 27 the torque shaft from the engine to the gearbox via the
torquemeter and the tie strut connecting structurally the engine to the
gearbox. Remember all turbo-prop systems have a reduction gearbox between
the engine and the propeller.

- 37 -
The Power Lever

The power lever in the cockpit is connected to the fuel control unit of the
engine and the Constant Speed Unit (CSU). The CSU controls the fluid flow to
the control piston of the propeller thus controlling the blade pitch.

Fig. 28 CSU & PITCH CHANGE MECHANISM

Take a moment to study figure 28 and note the various components and in
particular the CSU pipeline connections to the propeller pitch change cylinder.
For clarity they are shown outside the propeller hub, in reality the two pipes
run concentric with each other (one inside the other effectively) along the
centre line of the propeller assembly and rotate with the propeller. The
connection at the engine end is via transfer bearings and oil seals and both
pipelines run through the centre of the piston shaft.

When the pitch change piston moves (left right in the drawing) it causes the
spigot to move left right and this moves in a slot in the cam block. Spigot
movement causes the cam block to rotate, rotating the drive bevel gear and all
blade bevel gears – thus changing the pitch of all the blades.

Now follow the system operation as described below.

The Constant Speed System

The flyweights in the CSU rotate at a speed related to engine rpm and this
rotation causes the flyweights to move outwards against the controlling
spring. The resultant net force of the spring against the flyweight force
(centrifugal force) means that the control valve will be moved up or down in its
cylinder.

- 38 -
In the On-Speed condition (as shown in figure 28), centrifugal force on the
flyweights balances the force of the control spring and the control valve traps
oil in both sides of the piston in the pitch change cylinder. A hydraulic lock is
therefore formed and the current blade pitch is held.

In the Underspeed condition (figure 29), engine below set rpm, control spring
force is greater than the centrifugal force on the flyweights and the governor
valve is lowered, supplying oil to the rear of the pitch change cylinder and
providing a return for oil from the front of the cylinder.

Fig. 29 ENGINE UNDERSPEED CONDITION

Blade pitch decreases and the engine speeds up until centrifugal force on the
flyweights balances the force of the control spring and the governor valve
returns to the on-speed condition.

In the Overspeed condition (figure 30), engine above set rpm, control spring
force is less than the centrifugal force on the flyweights and the governor valve
is raised, directing oil to the front of the pitch change cylinder and providing a
return for oil in the rear of the cylinder. Blade angle increases and the engine
speed decreases because of the added load, until the flyweights and control
spring are again in balance.

blank

- 39 -
 Fig. 30 ENGINE OVERSPEED CONDITION

Variable Pitch Propeller Control

Variation of the blade pitch angle can be achieved automatically when varying
the power of the engine, or selected manually. On piston engined aircraft, the
engine rpm and power can be altered with different controls; engine rpm by
direct control of the CSU, whilst engine power is adjusted using the throttle.

Once the rpm is selected it is maintained by the CSU regardless of throttle

movement.

Turboprop engines are generally controlled by a power lever and a condition

lever.

Power Lever. The power lever is used to control the power-plant during all
normal flight and ground operations. The control works in two separate
segments, the alpha (α) range the beta (β) range. The alpha range controls the
power-plant during all normal flight conditions by adjusting the engine fuel
flow (engine power), with the CSU adjusting the propeller blade angle to
maintain the selected rpm. In the beta range the pilot controls the propeller
pitch overriding the CSU and a separate governor adjusts engine fuel flow to
maintain engine rpm.

Fig. 31 POWER LEVER POSITIONS

- 40 -
 Fig. 32 TURBOPROP POWER LEVER

Fig. 33 CONDITION LEVER

Condition Lever. The condition lever is an override control and has the
following detent positions:

1. HP shut-off cock position.

2. Normal running position.
3. Air start position.
4. Propeller feathering position.

Various safety systems are fitted to override the control system should a
malfunction occur. If control were lost the propeller would slam into fine pitch
because of the centrifugal turning moment (CTM) of the blade.

- 41 -
The effect of this would be dangerous in two respects:

a) The torque required to turn the blades would be replaced by a

windmilling torque, which would assist the engine. Thus there
would be a danger of engine and propeller overspeed.

b) The propeller would cause a high drag force to be applied to the

aircraft. This would be particularly dangerous in multi-engined
aircraft, as it would give rise to a severe asymmetric condition.

The propeller control system has a number of safety devices to avoid

overspeed and high drag caused by system failure. These are:

Fine Pitch Stop. Figure 34. This is a mechanical stop which limits the degree
of fine pitch that can be achieved in flight. For ground operations such as
engine starting and the use of reverse pitch, the stop is disengaged, but it
automatically re-engages after take-off.

Mechanical Pitch Lock. Figure 34. A pitch lock is incorporated in case of oil
pressure loss or overspeed being sensed. The mechanical stop is a ratchet
lock, which prevents the propeller blades fining off, whilst still allowing them
to move towards the coarse position if required. Dis-engaged during normal
operation.

Hydraulic Pitch Lock. This system operates a valve to trap the oil in the
increase pitch side of the mechanism. It operates earlier than the mechanical
pitch lock thus preventing impact stress when the ratchet is engaged. It acts
when oil pressure loss is sensed, but some are flyweight operated. Often
situated on the end of the pitch change cylinder to close off the line coming
through the centre of the piston. Note that in figure 34 the pipelines are
shown schematically and in fact they run through the centre of the hub and
piston.

Automatic Drag Link. A torque signal is fed to the controller and if this falls
below a certain value it indicates the propeller is at too fine a pitch for the
flight mode. The blades are then moved into the fully coarse or feathered
position. This situation could arise with either a CSU or engine failure.

blank

- 42 -
 Fig. 34 PROPELLER SAFETY DEVICES

As the oil pump for propeller operations is engine driven, a separate

electrically driven pump is incorporated to complete the feathering operation
whilst the engine is slowing down or stopped and to enable the propeller to be
unfeathered prior to engine restart.

Propeller Operations

Feathering. Feathering of the propeller is normally carried out when the

engine is shut down during flight. When feathered the propeller blade is
presented with its leading edge facing into the direction of travel thus reducing
drag.

Reverse Pitch. Reverse pitch can be used for both braking on landing and
ground manoeuvring (providing it is allowed in the Pilot’s notes). When
selected, the fine stops are disengaged and the propeller blades are allowed to
move past the flight fine position and into reverse pitch. This is a pilot elected
manoeuvre with the engine speed being governed by its own fuel system
governor.

Selection in the air is prevented by weight switches.

Ground Fine. This blade angle is adopted during start up to reduce the load
on the engine and starter.

blank

- 43 -
 Fig. 35 RANGE OF MOVEMENT OF A TYPICAL PROPELLER

ENGINE TROUBLESHOOTING

Effective engine troubleshooting depends to a large extent on the ability of the

engineer to make logical and positive decisions in order to identify and rectify
the offending component or system.

The general procedure can be divided into six steps:

1. Evaluate the symptom or symptoms. Take careful note of the

signs.
2. Isolate the possible cause/causes in a logical order. In general list
the simplest cause first with the most complex being the last.
3. Try an authorised ‘quick fix’ – using a BIT system for example.
4. Determine the corrective action required to cure the fault. Check
each possible fault in sequence starting with the ‘easiest’ and
least expensive in terms of spares and manpower and work
through to the more complex.
5. Functional check of the engine/system.
6. Record and sign for all the work done.

During engine troubleshooting, it is usual for the engineer to take the

performance figures obtained with regard to the reported symptom and
compare them to a set of reference parameters laid down in the maintenance
manual and/or on the fault computer in the aircraft.

- 44 -
Condition N1% N2% N3% Max. TGT Time Limit
Degrees C

During starts - - - 550 Momentary

Ground idle 22.0 to 23.5 - - 460 Unrestricted

Max continuous 103.0 102.0 93.7 732 Unrestricted

Max take-off 103.0 106.0 96.5 785 5 minutes

Max reverser 90.0 - - 720 60 seconds

Max overspeed 104.0 107.0 98.3 - 20 seconds

The given ground idle N1 relates to an ambient temperature of plus 15°C. The N1 limit varies
by 1.0% for each 30°C change of ambient temperature. N1 increases above 15°C and
decreases below 15°C ambient temperature.

* Whilst the maximum operating limit is 106% N2 the recommended operating limit is
104.0% N2 and if exceeded refer to N2 Overspeed Inspection Requirements – T211-662.

100% N1 - 3900 LP rpm

100% N2 - 7000 IP rpm
100% N3 - 10611 HP rpm

TABLE OF TYPICAL GROUND OPERATING LIMITATIONS

A typical set of these limitations is shown in the table above. Using these
parameters, and as an example, if the reported symptom is:

With the thrust level at the idle position, N1 is 25% and the tgt is 470°C.

By evaluating the symptom it can be seen that the idle rpm is high possibly
caused by too much fuel. This will normally be cured by an adjustment of the
idle fuel flow. If, however, the reported symptom was:

With the thrust level at the idle position, N1 is 25% and the tgt is 450°C.

In this case it is unlikely that the high-indicated speed of the compressor is as

a result of too much fuel. It would be prudent, therefore, to initially check that
the N1 gauging system and the tgt system is reading accurately.

This could be done by swapping the gauge temporarily with a known

serviceable item (from the adjacent engine if a multi-engined aircraft). If the
substituted gauge is indicating the same as the original one, it may well be
that the transducer is at fault.

Transducers can be checked by removal and testing on a special rig, if the

resources are available, if not, a new transducer will have to be fitted.

- 45 -
In some instances it could be useful to compare the figures obtained from the
suspect engine with those of the other engines as the ambient conditions may
have an effect on the subsequent fault diagnosis.

Some symptoms may be anticipated by close monitoring of engine

performance on a day-by-day or flying hours basis. By noting the various
rpms, temperatures and pressures it will be possible to build up a picture of
the trend of an engine to develop into a major problem.

As an example. An engine, which had gradually developed a higher than

normal tgt was eventually withdrawn from service with a reported symptom of
tgt beyond limits. It was found to be a contaminated compressor assembly. If
the trend had been identified at an earlier stage and a compressor wash
carried out, to restore compressor efficiency, it would have prevented the
aircraft being taken out of service with the disruption of a scheduled flight.

Another example would be if engine oil pressure showed a trend of dropping

over a period of time. The reasons for this could be wear in the oil pump or
relief valve, deterioration or contamination of the oil, blockage of filters, or
problems with the gauging system. As in the first example, identification and
investigation at an early stage may well save time and money in preventing the
withdrawal of the aircraft from service.

Some companies and airlines allow engineers to attempt ‘quick fix’ procedures
to alleviate particular problems and allow the aircraft to fly to its destination
where a permanent repair may be effected.

Typical of a ‘quick fix’ is where an engine fails to start because an air valve is
inoperative. Some valves have a facility to be manually opened. This will allow
a start to be carried out to enable the aircraft to proceed to its destination.

Not specifically a ‘quick fix’ but really a means of getting back to base, some
aircraft systems can be isolated to allow the aircraft to fly with that system
inoperative (but check the MEL).

For example the thrust reverser system on most modern aircraft can be
‘locked out’ for one flight back to a maintenance base. This is normally done
by isolating the air supply, both electrically and mechanically, and preventing
movement of the reverser cowl and blocker doors by the insertion of pins.

The crew will be informed that this procedure has been carried out by a
placard on the flight deck.

If, during the operation of an engine, its parameters are exceeded there will be
a specific set of procedures laid down in the AMM. These procedures must be
followed and the inspections specified carried out.

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Typical procedures are shown as examples in figures 36 to 38. These are
taken straight from maintenance manuals.

Figure 36 shows the procedure to follow if the tgt exceeds the limits during
starting.

Figure 37 shows the temperature limits during normal running and figure 38
shows typical overspeed inspections.

Fig. 36 OVERTEMPERATURE PROCEDURE – STARTING

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Fig. 37 OVERTEMPERATURE PROCEDURE – OTHER THAN STARTING

Fig. 38 OVERSPEED PROCEDURE – OTHER THAN STARTING

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 ENGINE
PARAMETERS PROBABLE CAUSE ACTION REQUIRED REMARKS
MGT Ng
Restricted inlet screen Do an inspection or a repair
Impeller dirty Do a compressor wash
Impeller Foreign Object Do a borescope inspection Remove
Damage or rubs the engine
Damage caused by PT blade Do an inspection or a repair if FOD
⇑ ⇑ tip rubs limits are
PR stator burned or flow area Do a borescope inspection of exceeded
increased the PT stator and PT blades
Oxidation of PT blade tip or
damage caused by rubs
Aircraft/Engine torque Do an inspection or a repair
indicating system
Aircraft/Engine torque Do an inspection or a repair
indicating system
⇓ ⇓
Aircraft/Engine MGT Do an inspection or a repair
indicating system
⇓ ⇓

TYPICAL PERFORMANCE TROUBLE SHOOTING TABLE - 1 (PART)

To assist engineers in the troubleshooting process some AMMs contain some

form of guide usually in table format (see above example). Some aircraft
manufacturers also publish a Fault Isolation Manual (FIM) and on many
aircraft there are on-board fault computers fitted. These will store faults with
rectification codes and these can be cross-referred to the FIM for the
appropriate action to be taken

The examples shown above and on the following page are typical, and for a
small helicopter engine and are self-explanatory.

Remember to use the proper guide in the AMM/FIM or aircraft computer.

Also acquaint yourself with the way in which that particular manufacturer
goes through the process of fault diagnosis and subsequent repair.

As with any trouble shooting process a full functional test must be carried out
on the component and associated system or systems after any rectification
work has been carried out.

The appropriate documentation must also be completed and work undertaken

signed for on the relevant work sheets/log books.

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 ENGINE
PARAMETE PROBABLE CAUSE ACTION REQUIRED REMARKS
RS
MGT Ng
Aircraft/Engine Ng indicting Do an inspection or a Do hot section
⇑ or system repair inspection if
⇓ limits are
exceeded
CT stator burned or flow Do a borescope
area increased inspection of the CT
Oxidation of CT blades tip stator and CT blades
⇑ ⇓ or damage caused by rubs
Do a hot section
Deterioration of hot section inspection if MGT limits
are exceeded
Air leaks from airframe or
engine systems
Aircraft/Engine MGT
indicting system
⇑ Gas generator case leaks at: Do an inspection or a
Fuel nozzles, flanges, repair
bosses
Air leaks at gas generator
case drain valves
Defective fuel nozzles or bed
spray pattern
Cold and Hot sections Do a borescope Deterioration of
deterioration inspection of Hot and both sections
Cold sections could make Ng
seem unchanged

NOTE: An increase in MGT, without changes to other parameters can be the result of a
defective fuel nozzle. This can cause a change in the combustion pattern and modify the
distribution of the temperature.

TYPICAL PERFORMANCE TROUBLE SHOOTING TABLE – 2 (PART)

MAINTENANCE – GENERAL

Some precautions to be observed when working on engines.

Cadmium Contamination

Contamination can be caused by cadmium-plated tools when being used on

titanium. If this happens on titanium components it can cause failure. This is
caused by a chemical reaction between the cadmium and the titanium at
certain temperatures. It causes the titanium to become brittle develop cracks.

Because of this do not use cadmium-plated tools on titanium parts.

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The Use of Molybdenum Disulfide Lubricants

Do not use molybdenum disulfide lubricants when temperatures will be more

than 300°C (572°F). Molybdenum disulfide lubricants break down above this
temperature and when this happens the lubricant breaks down and sulphur
is released. This can cause stress, corrosion and early failure.

Many of the bolt materials which are used in the higher temperature zones of
the engine are sensitive to sulphur. Only use molybdenum disulfide lubricants
as specified in the manual.

COMPRESSOR CLEANING/ENGINE CLEANING

Compressor cleaning is carried out:

* When specified in the maintenance schedule.

* After inspection reveals a built-up of debris.
* After crew report of flight through ash or similar debris.
* If reported engine poor performance suggests compressor wash
required.

The equipment required will include: protective work mats for air intakes and
other areas; pressure washing rig – locally manufactured, with a probe
(nominal inside diameter – 0.16” {4.0mm}), operating pressures of 100psi,
pressure gauge, and a minimum capacity of (say) 24 US gallons (20 Imperial
gallons, 90 Litres).

Fluids to use are listed in the AMM, eg compressor washing fluid UK Spec
ZOK 27, American Spec OMat No 1070 or similar specification. Demineralised
water is required and self-adhesive tape.

Warnings 1. Do not clean the compressor at air temperatures below 1°C

(34°F) otherwise damage can occur to the engine.

2. Follow the fluid manufacturer’s instructions when using

proprietary brands of fluid. Although the washing fluids are non-
flammable and non-toxic, they are skin irritants. Avoid contact as
much as possible.

Procedure

1. Open engine start circuit breaker and attach a DO-NOT-CLOSE notice.

2. Put protective work mats in the inlet cowl. Ensure warning pennants
can be seen from the ground.
3. Put a cover on the P1 probe and any other probes as specified in the
AMM.

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4. Prepare a quantity of cleaning fluid (eg for a large high by-pass engine -
24 gallons/90lt using a ratio by volume of 4 parts demineralised water
to one part washing fluid.
5. Turn the LP rotor by hand until the blade to be cleaned is at the 6
o’clock position. This keeps unwanted fluid from the blade root.
6. Clean the blade with a clean cloth or soft bristle brush that is moist
with cleaning fluid.
7. Wipe dry each LP rotor blade with a clean cloth.
8. Repeat with each successive blade until all blades are clean.
9. Attach the LP rotor blade disc to the outlet guide vanes of the LP
compressor tangentially with a lightweight rope. Carry out this
attachment at three locations that have an equal radial distance
between them.
10. Remove the DO-NOT-CLOSE tag and close the circuit breaker on the
overhead circuit breaker panel.
11. Use the Power Plant Dry-Motor procedure and motor the engine (AMM
chapter 71) for 2 minutes.
12. During the motoring period and subsequent engine rundown carry out
the following to apply washing fluid:

a) Use the pressure washing rig to apply the washing fluid at a

pressure not greater than 100psi.

b) Use a continuous flow of cleaning fluid around the LP compressor

inlet rotating fairing. Point the jet of fluid at the blade roots of the
1st stage of the IP compressor.

c) Stop the flow of cleaning fluid when N3 goes below 5%.

13. Stop and allow 10 minutes to let the cleaning fluid drain.
14. For the second wash carry out steps 11 to 13 above.
15. Use the Power Plant Dry-Motor procedure to motor the engine for 2
minutes.
16. During this procedure and subsequent engine rundown carry out the
steps as listed in 12 above but using demineralised water only.
17. Stop and allow 10 minutes to let the demineralised water drain.
18. Repeat steps 15 to 17 above.
19. Stop and allow 10 minutes for draining.
20. Use the Power Plant Dry-Motor procedure to motor the engine for 2
minutes without applying any fluid.
21. Remove the protective cover from the P1 probe (and any other probes)
and make sure that the P1 probe orifice (and any other orifices) is/are
clear.
22. Remove the rope from the LP rotor blades and remove the protective
work mats from the inlet cowl. Rotate blade disc by hand slightly to
ensure it is clear.

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23. Clean and inspect the area and ensure the intake area is free from any
unwanted material and all engine drains are clear. Ensure there is no
standing liquid in any parts of the engine/engine cowlings.
24. Start the engine using the AMM procedure and:

a) Allow the engine to become stable (oil temp/pressure, JPT etc) at

minimum idle for 5 minutes.

b) Push the thrust lever forward until 1.5 EPR is registered.

c) Allow the engine to become stable at 1.5 EPR for 5 minutes.

25. Operate both air conditioning packs from the engine to make sure there
is no sign of contamination.
26. Use the AMM Power Plant Operation (Normal) procedure to shutdown
the engine.
27. Record the work carried out and engine running times in the airframe
and engine logbooks.

BORESCOPE INSPECTIONS

Boroscope inspections can be carried out on any part of the aircraft where
visual access is difficult. The boroscope inspection is carried out extensively
on jet engines as it allows visual inspection of almost any internal part of the
engine – in particular the rotors and stators.

Access is via ports, the covers to which are removed to allow the boroscope to
be inserted. Once the inspection has taken place the plug or cover is fitted
back into place (usually bolted back into position).

Borescope Ports

The engine will have a number of ports (figure 35 shows the ports and their
covers of the RB211). The covers may be fitted with plugs that are a close fit
within the engine. The plug effectively provides a gas seal and a smooth
surface within the engine.

The ports are numbered for identification purposes and referenced in the
AMM.

All plugs and covers should be torque loaded as per the AMM.

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 Fig. 39 TYPICAL BORESCOPE ACCESS POINTS

Boroscope Kits

These come in a variety of shapes and sizes. The basic kit has a battery
powered lamp at the end of a hollow rod. The rod has a lens system so that
when the end of the rod fitted with the lamp is fed into the engine the person
can look through the eye-piece of the rod to see what is inside.

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 Fig. 40 TYPICAL BOROSCOPE KIT

A variety of lengths of rods or probes may be available to include right angle

adaptors, flexible probes etc. Some kits are more sophisticated to include
provision to display what is being viewed onto a colour CRT screen or flat
screen.

STORAGE & INHIBITING

During normal engine operation in service the routine maintenance checks

carried out should ensure that no deterioration of the engine’s condition
occurs. If, however, an engine is out of use for a period of time while it is
installed in an aircraft, it must be given some additional protection.

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Similarly, uninstalled engines, whether held as spare units or removed to
allow access to airframe assemblies, must be protected to prevent onset of
corrosion.

Periods of storage for installed engines are defined as short and long term and
the definition of each may vary between manufacturers. For example some
engine manuals have storage inspections of 7, 14, 30, 60, 90 and 180 days

Short term – Up to one month

The following procedures is typical:

a) Run the engine to normal operating temperature for 5 minutes.

Shut engine down.

b) Drain the engine fuel system – both the LP and HP lines.

c) Inhibit the engine fuel system in accordance with the aircraft

manual.

d) Close and isolate all the aircraft fuel cocks.

e) The whole engine oil system may require draining, filters removed,
chip detectors removed, cleaned and replaced, then re-filled with
either clean oil or special storage oil. Check the AMM.

f) External treatment. Clean as required, remove all traces of

corrosion, re-protect as necessary. Fit all the relevant covers and
blanks to components, intakes and exhaust outlet, using
desiccant or Vapour Phase Inhibitor as required.

Long Term – Up to six months and re-protect every six months

Carry out normal short-term storage procedure plus the following:

a) Grease all control rods and fittings.

b) Blank off all apertures, wrap up rubber and electrical components

and a light coat of the appropriate external preservative sprayed
over the engine forward of the exhaust units.

c) Inspect at intervals of approximately two weeks.

For uninstalled engines a typical procedure to give full protection is as follows:

a) Drain all fuel and oil, protect oil system as recommended by

manufacturers.

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 b) Inhibit fuel systems.

c) Fit correct blanks to all apertures.

d) Ensure engine is free of corrosion.

e) Pad the engine exterior, ensure no leaks, fit and seal into MVP
bag, using the appropriate quantity of desiccant.

f) Inspect humidity indicator after 24 hours (ie, ensure it is not

pink) and also at monthly intervals afterwards.

The above process should give protection for up to three years. Over this
time, the engine must be re-inspected and the procedure repeated. Any
deterioration found should be rectified.

Remember to record and sign for all work done on the engine during storage.

FUEL SYSTEM DRAINING

Inhibiting of engine fuel systems is achieved by draining the fuel from the
system and refilling with a light grade mineral preservative oil. There are three
basic methods. These are:

* The Motoring Method.

* The Gravity Method.
* The Pressure Rig Method.

The Motoring Method

This should be used on all installed engines where it is convenient to turn the
engine using the normal starting system. A header tank is used to supply
inhibiting oil through a suitable pipe to the engine.

A filter and an on/off cock are incorporated in the supply pipe, which should
be connected to the low-pressure inlet to the engine fuel system and the
aircraft LP cock closed. After draining the engine fuel filter a motoring run
should be carried out bleeding the high-pressure pump and the fuel control
unit and operating the HP cock several times while the engine is turning.

Neat inhibiting oil will eventually be discharged through the fuel system and
combustion chamber drains. When the motoring run is complete the bleeds
should be closed and locked, the oil supply pipe disconnected and all
apertures sealed or blanked off.

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The Gravity Method

This is used when the engine cannot be turned. A header tank similar to the
one used in the motoring method is required but in this case the feed pipe is
provided with the fittings necessary for connection at several positions in the
engine fuel system.

The fuel filter should first be drained then the oil supply pipe connected to
each of the following positions in turn, inhibiting oil being allowed to flow
through the adjacent pipes and components until all fuel is expelled:

* High-pressure fuel pump pressure tapping.

* Fuel control unit pressure tapping.
* Burner Manifold.
* Low-pressure inlet pipe.

Components should be bled at the appropriate time and the HP cock operated
several times when inhibiting the fuel control unit. All bleeds and apertures
should be secured when the system is full of inhibiting oil.

The Pressure Rig Method

This may be used on an engine which is installed either in the aircraft or in an

engine stand. A special rig is used which circulates inhibiting oil through the
engine fuel system at high-pressure.

The fuel filter should be drained and, where appropriate, the aircraft LP cock
closed. The inlet and outlet pipes from the rig should be connected to the
high-pressure fuel pump pressure tapping and the system low-pressure inlet
respectively, and the rig pump turned on.

While oil is flowing through he system the components should be bled and the
HP cock operated several times. When neat inhibiting oil flows from the
combustion chamber drains the rig should be switched off and disconnected,
the bleed valves locked and all apertures sealed or blanked off.

WATER VAPOUR RESISTANT BAGS

The WVR bag is efficient but an expensive method of preserving aero-engines.

They are classed as an item of ground equipment and have their own history
cards and serial numbers.

They are re-usable bags manufactured from a plastic material which has a low
water vapour transmission rate. Bandoliers containing desiccant are
positioned within the bag to maintain the air in a dry condition when the bag
is sealed.

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A humidity indicator is placed inside the bag so that the condition of the air
within can be ascertained. The bags are commonly known by trade names
such as Dri-clad and Texikoon.

The parts of a WVR bag and the purpose of each part are as follows:

a) Large Fastener. Incorporated to allow the bag to be undone along

its length and opened out to receive an engine. The fastener is a
special extruded closure that can be closed by hand or by the use
of a closure tool.

b) Window. Incorporated to permit inspection of the Engine Data

Plate details and the humidity indicator.

c) Relief Valve. Fitted to allow air to escape from the bag when it is
being transported by air. It eliminates the possibility of the bag
bursting at altitude.

d) External Pockets. Incorporated to accommodate a History Card for

the bag, instructions for the fitting and removal of the bag to an
engine, a quantity of repair material and the required bag closure
tool.

e) History Card. Is used to provide a record of the usage of the bag.

The card accompanies the bag throughout its life. The following
data is recorded on the history card.

Bag Details. Type, serial number, manufacturer and date of

manufacture or repair. Type and make of engine to which
the bag can be fitted. Date of fitting and relevant
inspections and maintenance procedures.

f) Humidity Indicator. This is a paper indicator which turns colour

when subjected to moisture vapour.

Blue = Safe. Pink = Unsafe.

An unsafe indication must be investigated and rectified

immediately.

g) Desiccant. Is a substance capable of absorbing and retaining

moisture. The usual desiccant is Silica-gel. The required amount
of desiccant to be used inside a WVR bag is determined by using
the formula:

Weight = 35 x A x R x M
1000

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 Where A = The surface area of the bag.
R = The water vapour transmission rate of the bag
material.
M = The number of months required to provide
protection.

This formula and the weight of desiccant can be found on the outside of
the bag.

Cleaning and Examination

Although WVR bags have a certain resistance to fuels, oils, greases and
preservatives, accumulations or prolonged contact with these substances will
eventually cause contamination and deterioration.

They should therefore, be cleaned every time the opportunity arises with the
solvents approved for the purpose, details of which may normally be found in
the instruction sheet found in the pocket of the bag.

Removing a WVR bag from, or before fitting it to, an engine, it should be

examined for cracks, splits, cuts and punctures, especially around the engine
mounting points, inspection windows and the closure seal. It should also be
examined for damage due to excessive absorption of oil or kerosene and
cleaned as necessary.

If inspection reveals the necessity for repairs to be made to the WVR bag,
these should be carried out using the repair materials and instructions
provided in the pocket of the bag. There are three types of repair:

1) Patch repair.

2) Weld repair – using a special welding tool to provide a polythene

repair.

3) Emergency repair – using fabric based adhesive tape to provide a

temporary repair until a new bag can be provisioned, or until an
permanent repair can be made.

Engine Storage – General

In general terms, complete engines and individual components should be kept

in a clean and well ventilated area away from sources of heat and in their
original packing boxes.

In general they should be issued from stores on a ‘first in first out’ basis.

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Rubber components must be kept away from direct sunlight, oil and grease
and heat sources. They should also not be stored near electric motors or
generators as they produce ozone, a principle ageing agent for rubber. The
temperature of such storage areas should be maintained at between 10°C and
20°C.

Recovery From Storage

a) Get access to engine and remove all blanks, covers and any
applied anti-corrosive compounds.

b) Examine engine and components for any signs of deterioration

and corrosion. Rectify as necessary.

c) Rectify any leaks.

d) Drain oil system of any inhibiting fluid if necessary. Refill with

new correct specification fluid, flush and refill.

e) Remove any dehydrating agents and relative humidity indicators.

f) Ensure all engine controls and indicator systems work correctly.

g) With the fuel cocks on, wet motor the engine with the starter until
fuel comes from the burners.

h) Allow engine to stand for a while then start engine and allow to
burn off remaining flushing oil from the fuel system.

i) Carry out normal engine test run checking that engine operating
parameters are met and the all controls and indication systems
work correctly.

j) Shut down engine.

k) Record all work done, engine hours run etc in airframe and
engine log books.

Note. If the engine was stored off the wing then engine runs can only be
carried
out once it has been fitted to the airframe – unless specialist engine running
test beds are available.

”””””””

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