ALGEBRA 1 MIXTURE PROBLEMS

Quantity Analysis: A + B = C
LOGARITHM Composition Analysis: Ax + By = Cz

WORK PROBLEMS
x = logb N → N =b x
Rate of doing work = 1/ time
Properties Rate x time = 1 (for a complete job)
Combined rate = sum of individual
rates Man-hours (is always assumed
log(xy) = log x + log
constant)
x
y log y
(Wor ker s1)(time1) (Wor ker s2 )(time2 )
 = quantity.of.work1
 = log x − log quantity.of.work2
y


log xn = nlog x ALGEBRA 2

logb x = log UNIFORM MOTION PROBLEMS
x logb
loga a =1

REMAINDER AND FACTOR THEOREMS S =Vt

Given: Traveling with the wind or downstream:
f (x)
Vtotal = V1 +V2
(x − r)
Traveling against the wind or upstream:
Remainder Theorem: Remainder = f(r)
Factor Theorem: Remainder = zero Vtotal = V1 −V2
QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
DIGIT AND NUMBER PROBLEMS
Ax + Bx +C = 0
2

− B ± B − 4AC
2
100h +10t +u → 2-digit number
Root = 2A
where: h = hundred’s digit
Sum of the roots = - B/A t = ten’s
Products of roots = C/A digit u =
unit’s digit

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 CLOCK PROBLEMS nth term
an = amr n−m

a2 a3
r= = ratio
a1 a2

a (r −1) n
Sum of ALL
where: x = distance traveled by the
S= 1 → r >1
r −1 terms, r >1
minute hand in minutes x/12 = distance
traveled by the hour hand in
minutes a1 (1 −r n )
S= → r <1 Sum of ALL
1 −r terms, r < 1

PROGRESSION PROBLEMS a Sum of ALL

1
S= → r <1& n =∞ terms,
a1 = first term an = nth term 1 −r r < 1 , n =∞
am = any term before an d =
common difference
S = sum of all “n” terms HARMONIC PROGRESSION (HP)
- a sequence of number in which their
reciprocals form an AP
ARITHMETIC PROGRESSION (AP) - calcu function: LINEAR (LIN)
- difference of any 2 no.’s is constant
- calcu function: LINEAR (LIN)
Mean – middle term or terms between two terms
in the progression.
a = a +(n −m)d nth term
n m
COIN PROBLEMS
Common Penny = 1 centavo coin Nickel
d = a −a = a −a ,...etc difference = 5 centavo coin
2 1 3 2
Dime = 10 centavo coin
Quarter = 25 centavo coin
n Sum of ALL Half-Dollar = 50 centavo coin
S = (a + a )
2 1 n terms
DIOPHANTINE EQUATIONS
If the number of equations is less than the number
of unknowns, then the equations are called
n
S = [2a +(n −1)d ] Sum of ALL “Diophantine Equations”.
2 1 terms
ALGEBRA 3
Fundamental Principle:
GEOMETRIC PROGRESSION (GP) “If one event can occur in m different ways, and
- RATIO of any 2 adj, terms is always constant after it has occurred in any one of these ways, a
- Calcu function: EXPONENTIAL (EXP) second event can occur in n different ways, and
then the number of ways the two events can
occur in succession is mn different ways”

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 PERMUTATION Properties of a binomial expansion: (x +
y)n
Permutation of n objects taken r at a time nPr
1. The number of terms in the resulting
= n! expansion is equal to “n+1”
2. The powers of x decreases by 1 in the
(n − r)! successive terms while the powers of y
increases by 1 in the successive terms.
Permutation of n objects taken n at a time
3. The sum of the powers in each term is always
nPn equal to “n”
= n! 4. The first term is xn while the last term in yn
both of the terms having a coefficient of 1.
Permutation of n objects with q,r,s, etc. objects
are alike
rth term in the expansion (x + y)n
P= n! q!r!
s!... r th term = nCr-1 (x)n-r+1 (y)r-1

Permutation of n objects arrange in a circle term involving yr in the expansion (x +

y)n

P = (n−1)! y r term = nCr (x)n-r (y)r

COMBINATION
sum of coefficients of (x + y)n
Combination of n objects taken r at a time

Sum = (coeff. of x + coeff. of y) n

nCr =
sum of coefficients of (x + k)n

−nr!)!r! Sum = (coeff. of x + k) n – (k) n

(n
Combination of n objects taken n at a time PROBABILITY

Probability of an event to occur (P)

nCn =1
P = number _of _ successful _outcomes total
Combination of n objects taken 1, 2, 3…n at a
time _outcomes

C = 2n −1 Probability of an event not to occur (Q)

BINOMIAL EXPANSION Q=1–P

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 MULTIPLE EVENTS 1 revolution = 360 degrees
1 revolution = 2π radians
Mutually exclusive events without a common
outcome 1 revolution = 400 grads
PA or B = PA + PB 1 revolution = 6400 mils
1 revolution = 6400 gons
Mutually exclusive events with a common
outcome
Relations between two angles (A & B)

PA or B = PA + PB – PA&B Complementary angles → A + B = 90°

Supplementary angles → A + B = 180°

Dependent/Independent Probability
Explementary angles → A + B = 360°

PAandB =PA × PB
Angle (θ) Measurement
NULL θ = 0°
REPEATED TRIAL PROBABILITY ACUTE 0° < θ < 90°
RIGHT θ = 90°
OBTUSE 90° < θ < 180°
P = nCr pr qn-r STRAIGHT θ =180°
REFLEX 180° < θ < 360°
FULL OR PERIGON θ = 360°
p = probability that the event happen q
= probability that the event failed
Pentagram – golden triangle (isosceles)
VENN DIAGRAMS
Venn diagram in mathematics is a diagram 36°
representing a set or sets and the logical,
relationships between them. The sets are drawn 72° 72°

as circles. The method is named after the British

mathematician and logician John Venn.

PLANE
TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES
TRIGONOMETRY
sin 2 A+ cos2 A = 1 1+
ANGLE, MEASUREMENTS &
cot2 A = csc2 A
CONVERSIONS

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 1+ tan2 A = sec A sin(A± B) = sin
2
= = sin A
AcosB ± cos Asin B cos(A± B) = sinB sinC
cosAcosB m sin Asin B tan(A± B) = COSINE LAW
tan A± tanB
a2 = b2 + c2 – 2 b c cos A b2 = a2 + c2 –
1m tan AtanB
cot(A± B) = 2 a c cos B c2 = a2 + b2 – 2 a b cos C
cot AcotB m1 cot A± cotB
sin 2A = 2sin AcosB cos2A AREAS OF TRIANGLES AND
QUADRILATERALS
= cos2 A−sin 2 A

tan2A = 2tan TRIANGLES

A 1− tan A 2

1. Given the base and height

cot2 A−1
cot2A =
2cot A Area = bh

SOLUTIONS TO OBLIQUE TRIANGLES 2. Given two sides and included angle

SINE LAW
Area = absinq
a b c
3. Given three sides
4. Quadrilateral circumscribing in a circle

Area = s(s − a)(s −b)(s − c)

Area = rs

s=a+b+c Area = abcd

2
s = a +b +c + d
4. Triangle inscribed in a circle 2

abc
Area = THEOREMS IN CIRCLES

4r
5. Triangle circumscribing a circle

Area=rs

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 6. Triangle escribed in a circle

Area = r(s − a)
QUADRILATERALS

1. Given diagonals and included angle

1
Area = d1d2 sinq
2
2. Given four sides and sum of opposite angles

Area = (s − a)(s −b)(s −c)(s − d) −abcd cos2q q = A+C = B + D

2 2 s = a +b +c + d
2

3. Cyclic quadrilateral – is a quadrilateral inscribed in a circle

Area = (s − a)(s −b)(s −c)(s − d)

s = a +b + c + d
2
(ab +cd)(ac +bd)(ad +bc)
r=
4(Area)

d1d 2= ac+bd →Ptolemy’s Theorem

SIMILAR TRIANGLES POLYGONS

3 sides – Triangle
A1 A2 = B2 =C 2 = H 4 sides – Quadrilateral/Tetragon/Quadrangle
2 5 sides – Pentagon
=  6 sides – Hexagon
A2  a   b   c   h  7 sides – Heptagon/Septagon
8 sides – Octagon
9 sides – Nonagon/Enneagon

SOLID GEOMETRY 10 sides – Decagon

11 sides – Undecagon
12 sides – Dodecagon
15 sides – Quidecagon/ Pentadecagon

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 16 sides – Hexadecagon Area = nr2 tan180 °
20 sides – Icosagon
n
1000 sides – Chillagon
Area of a regular polygon having each side
Let: n = number of sides
measuring x unit length
θ = interior angle
α = exterior angle
Area = 1 nx2 cot180 °
Sum of interior angles: 4 n

S = n θ = (n – 2) 180° PLANE GEOMETRIC FIGURES

Value of each interior angle CIRCLES

pd 2 2 A =
=p r
q = (n − 2)(180°) 4
Circumference =pd = 2pr
n
Sector of a Circle
Value of each exterior angle
A = rs = r2q

a =180°−q = 360° =
n pr3602q(deg° ) A
Sum of exterior angles:
prq(deg)
S = n α = 360° s = rq(rad) =
180°

Number of diagonal lines (N): Segment of a Circle

N=
n
(n − 3) A segment = A sector – A triangle
2 ELLIPSE

Area of a regular polygon inscribed in a circle A=πab

of radius r
PARABOLIC SEGMENT
Area = 1 nr2 sin
360° A = bh
2 n
TRAPEZOID
Area of a regular polygon circumscribing a
circle of radius r

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 V = B
A = (a +b)h number∑heightsof heights
PARALLELOGRAM A =
absina
A = bh

1 PYRAMID
A= d1d2sinq
2
V Bh
RHOMBUS
A(lateral) = ∑ Afaces
1
A= d1d2 = ah A(surface) =A(lateral) +B
2
A = a2 sina
Frustum of a Pyramid

SOLIDS WITH PLANE SURFACE h

V= (A1 + A2 + A1A2 )
Lateral Area = (No. of Faces) (Area of 1 Face) 3
Polyhedron – a solid bounded by planes. The bounding A1 = area of the lower base
planes are referred to as the faces and the intersections A2 = area of the upper base
of the faces are called the edges. The intersections of
the edges are called vertices.
PRISMATOID h
PRISM
V = 6(A1 + A2 +4Am)
V = Bh
Am = area of the middle section
A(lateral) = PL
A(surface) = A(lateral) + 2B REGULAR POLYHEDRON
a solid bounded by planes whose faces are congruent
regular polygons. There are five regular polyhedrons
where: P = perimeter of the namely:
base L = slant height
B = base area A. Tetrahedron
B. Hexahedron (Cube)
Truncated Prism C. Octahedron
D. Dodecahedron
E. Icosahedron

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 FRUSTUM OF A CONE

V = h (A1 + A2 + A1 A2
3

A(lateral) =p(R + r)L

SPHERES AND ITS FAMILIES

SPHERE

V =pr3

A(surface) = 4pr2

SPHERICAL LUNE
is that portion of a spherical surface bounded by the halves
of two great circles

Where: x = length of one edge

pr2q(deg)
A
SOLIDS WITH CURVED SURFACES (surface) = °
90
CYLINDER
SPHERICAL ZONE
is that portion of a spherical surface between two parallel
V = Bh = KL planes. A spherical zone of one base has one bounding
plane tangent to the sphere.
A(lateral) = PkL = 2 π r h

A(surface) = A(lateral) + 2B A(zone) =2p r h

Pk = perimeter of right section
K = area of the right section SPHERICAL SEGMENT
B = base area is that portion of a sphere bounded by a zone and the
L= slant height
planes of the zone’s bases. ph 2
CONE V = 3 (3r − h)
V =Bh
h
A(lateral) =prL p 2
+h2 )
V= (3a

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 6 V = 2π2Rr2 A(surface) =

h
4 π2Rr
p 2
+3b + h )
2 2

V= (3a ELLIPSOID
6
SPHERICAL WEDGE V = pabc
is that portion of a sphere bounded by a lune and the
planes of the half circles of the lune. OBLATE SPHEROID
a solid formed by rotating an ellipse about its minor axis. It
is a special ellipsoid with c =a
=
pr3q(deg° )
V V = pa2b
PROLATE
270 SPHEROID
SPHERICAL CONE a solid formed by rotating an ellipse about its major axis. It
is a solid formed by the revolution of a circular sector
about its one side (radius of the circle).
is a special ellipsoid with c=b

V = 1 A(zone)r V = pab2
3
PARABOLOID
A(surface) = A(zone) + A(lateralofcone) a solid formed by rotating a parabolic segment about its
axis of symmetry.

SPHERICAL PYRAMID
is that portion of a sphere bounded by a
spherical polygon and the planes of its sides. V = pr2h
pr3E SIMILAR SOLIDS
V= °
540 V1 = H 3 = R3 = L3
V2  h   r   l 
E = [(n-2)180°]
A1 H 2 = R 2 = L2
E = Sum of the angles
E = Spherical excess = 
n = Number of sides of the given spherical polygon A2  h   r   l 

SOLIDS BY REVOLUTIONS V12 2 = AA12 3

TORUS (DOUGHNUT) V 
a solid formed by rotating a circle about an axis not
passing the circle.

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 ANALYTIC y – y1 = m(x – x1)

GEOMETRY 1 Two-point form y − y1 = yx22 −−

RECTANGULAR COORDINATE SYSTEM

xy11 (x − x1)
x = abscissa
y = ordinate
Slope and y-intercept form
Distance between two points

y = mx + b
d = (x2 − x1)2 + (y2 − y1)2
Intercept form
Slope of a line
x y
+ =1
m = tanq = yx22 −− xy11 a b

Slope of the line, Ax + By + C = 0 m

Division of a line segment

=− BA
x = x1rr12 ++rx2 r1 y =
y1rr12 ++ry22r1 Angle between two lines
− 1
2
1m+2m−1mm12
Location of a midpoint  q = tan

Note: Angle θ is measured in a counterclockwise

x1 +2 x2 y = y1 + direction. m2 is the slope of the terminal side while m1 is the
slope of the initial side.
Distance of point (x1,y1) from the line
y2 x = 2 Ax + By + C = 0;

STRAIGHT LINES
d = Ax1 + By2 +1 B+2C
General Equation Ax + By +
C=0 ±A

Note: The denominator is given the sign of B

Point-slope form

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 d = (x2 − x1)2 +(y2 − y1)2 +(z2 − z1)2
Distance between two parallel lines

d = C1 −C2
A2 + B2

Slope relations between parallel lines:

m1 = m 2
ANALYTIC
Line 1 → Ax + By + C1 = 0
Line 2 → Ax + By + C2 = 0
GEOMETRY 2
CONIC SECTIONS
Slope relations between perpendicular a two-dimensional curve produced by slicing a plane
lines: through a three-dimensional right circular conical surface
m1m2 = –1
Ways of determining a Conic Section
Line 1 → Ax + By + C1 = 0
1. By Cutting Plane
Line 2 → Bx – Ay + C2 = 0 2. Eccentricity
3. By Discrimination
4. By Equation
PLANE AREAS BY COORDINATES
General Equation of a Conic Section:

= 1 x1,x2,x3,....xn,x1 Ax2 + Cy2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0 **

A
Cutting plane Eccentricity
2 y1, y2, y3,....yn, y1 Circle Parallel to base e→0
Note: The points must be arranged in a counter
Parabola Parallel to element e = 1.0
clockwise order.

Ellipse none e < 1.0

LOCUS OF A MOVING POINT
The curve traced by a moving point as it moves in a Hyperbola Parallel to axis e > 1.0
plane is called the locus of the point.

SPACE COORDINATE SYSTEM Discriminant Equation**

Circle B2 - 4AC < 0, A = C A=C
Length of radius vector r:
A ≠ C same
Parabola B2 - 4AC = 0
sign
r = x 2 + y 2 + z2 Sign of A
Ellipse B2 - 4AC < 0, A ≠ C opp. of B
Distance between two points P1(x1,y1,z1)
and Hyperbola B2 - 4AC > 0 A or C = 0
P2(x2,y2,z2)

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 CIRCLE Cy2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0
A locus of a moving point which moves so that its
distance from a fixed point called the center is constant. Coordinates of vertex (h,k):

k =− 2EC
substitute k to solve for h
Length of Latus Rectum:
Standard Equation:

(x – h)2 + (y – k)2 = r2
D
LR =
General Equation:
C
x + y + Dx + Ey + F = 0
2 2

AXIS VERTICAL:
Center at (h,k):
Ax2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0
D E
h =− ;k =−
2A 2A
Coordinates of vertex (h,k): h

Radius of the circle:

=− 2DA
r 2 = h2 + k 2 − F or r = 1 D2 +E2 −4F
substitute h to solve for k
A 2 Length of Latus Rectum:

PARABOLA
a locus of a moving point which moves so that it’s
always equidistant from a fixed point called focus and a LR = EA
fixed line called directrix.

STANDARD EQUATIONS:

Opening to the right:

(y – k)2 = 4a(x – h)

Opening to the left:

where: a = distance from focus to vertex
= distance from directrix to vertex
(y – k)2 = –4a(x – h)
AXIS HORIZONTAL:
Opening upward:

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 (x – h) 2 = 4a(y – k) General Equation of an Ellipse:

Opening downward: Ax2 + Cy2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0

(x – h) 2 = –4a(y – k) Coordinates of the center: h

D E
Latus Rectum (LR) =− ;k =−
a chord drawn to the axis of symmetry of the curve.
2A 2C
LR= 4a for a parabola
If A > C, then: a2 = A; b2 = C If A < C, then:
Eccentricity (e) a2 = C; b2 = A
the ratio of the distance of the moving point from the
focus (fixed point) to its distance from the directrix (fixed
line).
KEY FORMULAS FOR ELLIPSE

e=1 for a parabola Length of major axis: 2a

Length of minor axis: 2b

Distance of focus to center:

ELLIPSE
a locus of a moving point which moves so that the sum
of its distances from two fixed points called the foci is
constant and is equal to the length of its major axis.
c= a2 −b2
d = distance of the center to the directrix

Length of latus rectum:

2b2
LR = a
STANDARD EQUATIONS:

Major axis is horizontal: Eccentricity: c

(x − h)2 (y − k)2 a
2 + b2 =1 e= a = d
a
Major axis is vertical:
HYPERBOLA
(x − h)2 (y − k)2 a locus of a moving point which moves so that the
difference of its distances from two fixed points called the
2 + a2 =1 b foci is constant and is equal to length of its transverse axis.

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 KEY FORMULAS FOR HYPERBOLA

Length of transverse axis: 2a

d = distance from center to

Length of conjugate axis: 2b
directrix a = distance from center
to vertex c = distance from center
to focus Distance of focus to center:

STANDARD EQUATIONS c = a2 +b2

Transverse axis is horizontal Length of latus rectum:
(x−h)2 (y−k)2 2b2
2− b2 =1 a LR = a
Transverse axis is vertical:
Eccentricity:
(y − k) 2
(x − h) 2

− = 1 a2 b2 e = c = aa
d
GENERAL EQUATION

Ax2 – Cy2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0 POLAR COORDINATES SYSTEM

Coordinates of the center:
x = r cos θ
D y=r
h =− 2 A; k =− sin θ
E
2 C
r = x2 + y2
If C is negative, then: a2 = C, b2 = A
If A is negative, then: a2 = A, b2 = C y
Equation of Asymptote: tanq = x
(y – k) = m(x – h)
Transverse axis is

horizontal: m=± ba
Transverse axis is
SPHERICAL
vertical: m=± a b

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 TRIGONOMETRY Napier’s Rules

1. The sine of any middle part is equal to the product

Important propositions of the cosines of the opposite parts.
Co-op
1. If two angles of a spherical triangle are equal,
the sides opposite are equal; and conversely. 2. The sine of any middle part is equal to the product
of the tangent of the adjacent parts.
2. If two angels of a spherical triangle are
unequal, the sides opposite are unequal,
Tan-ad
and the greater side lies opposite the
greater angle; and conversely. Important Rules:

3. The sum of two sides of a spherical triangle is 1. In a right spherical triangle and oblique angle and
greater than the third side. the side opposite are of the same quadrant.

2. When the hypotenuse of a right spherical triangle

a+b>c is less than 90°, the two legs are of the same
quadrant and conversely.
4. The sum of the sides of a spherical triangle is
less than 360°. 3. When the hypotenuse of a right spherical triangle
is greater than 90°, one leg is of the first quadrant
0° < a + b + c < 360° and the other of the second and
conversely.
5. The sum of the angles of a spherical triangle is
greater that 180° and less than 540°. QUADRANTAL TRIANGLE
is a spherical triangle having a side equal to 90°.
180° < A + B + C < 540°

6. The sum of any two angles of a spherical SOLUTION TO OBLIQUE TRIANGLES

triangle is less than 180° plus the third angle.
Law of Sines:
A + B < 180° + C sina sinb sinc
= = sin A sin B
SOLUTION TO RIGHT TRIANGLES
sinC
NAPIER CIRCLE
Sometimes called Neper’s circle or Neper’s pentagon, Law of Cosines for sides:
is a mnemonic aid to easily find all relations between
the angles and sides in a right spherical triangle.
cosa = cosbcosc + sinbsinccos A cosb
= cosacosc + sinasinccosB
cosc = cosacosb + sinasinbcosC

Law of Cosines for angles:

cos A = −cos BcosC + sin Bsin C cosa cos

B = −cos AcosC + sin Asin C cosb

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 cosC = −cos Acos B + sin Asin Bcosc

AREA OF SPHERICAL TRIANGLE

p R2 E Derivatives
A= 180° dC
=0
R = radius of the sphere dx
E = spherical excess in degrees, d du dv
(u +v) = + dx
E = A + B + C – 180° dx dx
d dv du
(uv) = u +v dx
TERRESTRIAL SPHERE dx dx du
dv
Radius of the Earth = 3959 statute miles v −u
d u = dx 2 dx  
Prime meridian (Longitude = 0°) dx  v  v

Equator (Latitude = 0°) d (u n ) = nun−1

du dx dx du ddx u
Latitude = 0° to 90° =
dx 2u
Longitude = 0° to +180° (eastward)
= 0° to –180° (westward) −c du d

1 min. on great circle arc = 1 nautical mile  c = 2dx

dx u  u
1 nautical mile = 6080 feet
d u u du
= 1852 meters
(a ) = a ln a dx
1 statute mile = 5280 feet dx d u
u du
= 1760 yards
(e ) = e dx
1 statute mile = 8 furlongs dx
= 80 chains du
log a e
d (ln a u) = dx
dx u du

d dx

(lnu) = dx u d
du (sin u) =

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 cosu dx dx d (sinh
du (cosu) dxd −1 u) = u 2−−11 dudx
= −sin u dx
dx
d −1u) = −1 du
d 2 du
(sech
(tanu) = sec u dx
dx u 1−u 2 dx
dx
d 2 du
d −1u) = −1 du
(cotu) = −csc u dx (csch
dx d du
dx u 1+u 2 dx
(secu) = secu tanu dx
dx d du
(cscu) =−cscucotu
dx dx d −1 u) = 1
du
(sin
dx 1−u 2 dx
d −1 u) = −1 du

dx
(cos
1−u2 dx
DIFFERENTIAL
CALCULUS
dxd (tan−1 u) = 1+1u2 dudx dxd ( −1 u) =
LIMITS
1+ −u12 dudx cot Indeterminate Forms

d (sec−1 u) = 1 du dx u u 2 −1
dx d (csc−1 u) = −1 du dx u u 2 −1
L’Hospital’s Rule
dx d du (sinh u) = coshu dx dx d
du (coshu) = sinh u dx dx d
(tanhu) = sech2u du dx dx Lim f (x) = Lim f '(x) = Lim
f "(x) ..... x→a g(x) x→a g'(x) x→a g"(x)
d (cothu) = −csch2u du dx dx d du
(sechu) =−sechu tanhu dx dx d du Shortcuts
(cschu) =−cschucothu dx dx d −1 u)
Input equation in the calculator
= 1 du
(sinh TIP 1: if x → 1, substitute x = 0.999999
dx u 2 +1 dx
TIP 2: if x → ∞, substitute x = 999999
d −1 u) = 1 du
(cosh TIP 3: if Trigonometric, convert to RADIANS then
dx u2 −1 dx do tips 1 & 2

(tanh MAXIMA AND MINIMA

dxd −1 u) = 1−1u 2 dudx Slope (pt.) Y’ Y” Concavity

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 MAX 0 (-) dec down RADIUS OF CURVATURE
MIN 0 (+) inc up
[1+ ( y')2]
INFLECTION - No change -
R= y"

INTEGRAL
HIGHER DERIVATIVES CALCULUS 1
nth derivative of xn

∫du = u +C
∫adu = au +C
d nn (xn) =
n! dx ∫[ f (u) + g(u)]du = ∫ f (u)du +∫ g(u)du
n
un 1
+
th n
n derivative of xe
∫u du = n +1 +C..............(n ≠1)

(xe ∫ duu = lnu +C

dnn
dx n
) = (x+ n) eX
TIME RATE
the rate of change of the variable with respect to time
∫a du =
u lnaua +C

∫e du = e +C
u u

+ ∫sin udu = −cosu +C

dx = increasing
rate dt
∫cosudu = sin u +C
∫sec udu = tanu +C
2

− ∫csc udu = −cotu +C

2

dx
dt = decreasing rate ∫secu tanudu =secu +C

APPROXIMATION AND ERRORS

∫cscucotudu =− cscu +C
If “dx” is the error in the measurement of a quantity x,
then “dx/x” is called the RELATIVE ERROR.
∫ tanudu = ln secu +C
∫cotudu = ln sin u +C

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 ∫secudu = ln secu + tanu+C ∫ du = cosh −1 u +C u 2 −
a2 a
∫cscudu = ln cscu − cotu+C

∫ du2 2
1 −1 a +C
= − sinh
du 1 −1 u
uu+a a u
∫a 2 +u 2 = a tan a + du 1 u
∫ 2 2 tanh−1 +C..............u < a
=
∫ du = sin −1 u +C a2 −u a −u a a
2 a
du 1 u
C
∫ 2 2 = −1
+C..............u > a
coth
a −u a a

∫ du = 1 sec−1 u +C u u 2 ∫udv = uv −∫vdu

−a 2 a a

∫ du 2 cos−11− u +C
= PLANE AREAS
2au −u  a
Plane Areas bounded by a curve and the coordinate
∫sinh udu = coshu +C axes:
x2

∫coshudu = sinh u +C
=
∫sech udu = tanhu +C
2
A ∫y (curve) dx
x1

∫csch udu =−cothu +C

y2
2

∫sechu tanhudu =−sechu +C A = ∫x(curve)dy

y1

∫cschucothudu =− cschu +C
Plane Areas bounded by a curve and the coordinate
axes:
∫ tanhudu = ln coshu +C x2

∫cothudu = ln sinh u +C
A = ∫(y(up) − y(down))dx
∫ du = sinh −1 u +C u 2 x1 y2

+ a2 a

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 y
A = ∫(x(right) − x(left))dy
y1
= h

Plane Areas bounded by polar curves: Whole Parabola

A = 12qq∫ r2dq 21
y= h

Triangle
CENTROID OF PLANE AREAS
(VARIGNON’S THEOREM)

Using a Vertical Strip: x= b= b

x2
y
= h
A• x = ∫dA• x =h
x1

x2
LENGTH OF ARC

A• y = ∫dA• 2y
x
1
x2 2
Using a Horizontal Strip:
y2

S = ∫ 1+dy dx
A• x = ∫dA• 2x  dx
y1 x1
y2 y2 2

 dx
=
A• y ∫dA• y ∫
y1 S= 1 1+dy dy
y

z2 2 2
CENTROIDS

Half a Parabola
S= ∫  dx + dy
dz
x= b  dz   dz 
z1

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 of the arc and the circumference of the circle described by
the centroid of the arc.

A = S •2pr

A =∫dS •2pr

Second Proposition: If a plane area is revolved about

INTEGRAL a coplanar axis not crossing the area, the volume
generated is equal to the product of the area and the

CALCULUS 2 circumference of the circle described by the centroid of the

area.

TIP 1: Problems will usually be of this V = A•2pr

nature: • “Find the area
bounded by”
• “Find the area revolved around..” V =∫dA•2pr
TIP 2: Integrate only when the shape is IRREGULAR,
otherwise use the prescribed formulas CENTROIDS OF VOLUMES
x2

VOLUME OF SOLIDS BY REVOLUTION

V • x = ∫dV • x
Circular Disk Method
x1
x2
y2

V =p∫ R 2dx V • y = ∫dV • y

x1 y1

Cylindrical Shell Method WORK BY INTEGRATION

y2 Work = force × distance
x2 y2

V = 2p∫RL dy =
y1 W ∫Fdx = ∫Fdy ; where F = k x
x1 y1

Circular Ring Method

x2 Work done on spring

p
V= ∫(R −r 2 2
)dx W = k(x22 − x12)
x1 k = spring constant x1 = initial
value of elongation
PROPOSITIONS OF PAPPUS x2 = final value of elongation

First Proposition: If a plane arc is revolved about a Work done in pumping liquid out of the
coplanar axis not crossing the arc, the area of the container at its top
surface generated is equal to the product of the length

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 Work = (density)(volume)(distance) with respect to the parallel centroidal line plus the area
times the square of the distance between the lines.
Force = (density)(volume) = ρv

Specific Weight:
Ix = Ixo = Ad2
Moment of Inertia for Common Geometric
Figures

g= Volume Weight Square bh3

Ix =
γwater = 9.81 kN/m SI 2
3
γwater = 45 lbf/ft2 cgs bh3
Ixo =
Density: 12

Triangle bh3
Ix =
r =Volume mass 12

Ixo = bh3
ρwater = 1000 kg/m3 SI
ρwater = 62.4 lb/ft3 cgs
36
ρsubs = (substance)
Circle
(ρwater)
1 ton = 2000lb pr 4
Ixo =
MOMENT OF INERTIA
Moment of Inertia about the x- axis: 4
x2 Half-Circle pr4
Ix =
Ix = ∫y2dA 8
x1
Quarter-Circle pr4
Moment of Inertia about the y- axis: Ix =
y2 16
Ellipse
Iy = ∫x2dA pab3 4 pa3b
y1
Ix =
Parallel Axis Theorem I y=
The moment of inertia of an area with respect to any
coplanar line equals the moment of inertia of the area 4

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 P•Q = P Q cosq
FLUID PRESSURE
P •Q = PxQx + PyQy + PzQz
F = whA =ghA
Cross or Vector product
F =∫whdA
P×Q = P Q sinq i j k
F = force exerted by the fluid on one side of
the area h = distance of the c.g. to the P×Q = Px Py Pz
surface of liquid w = specific weight of the Qx Qy Qz
liquid (γ)
A = vertical plane area
EQUILIBRIUM OF COPLANAR FORCE
Specific Weight: SYSTEM

Conditions to attain Equilibrium:

g= Volume Weight ∑F (x−axis) =0

∑F (y−axis) =0
γwater = 9.81 kN/m2 SI
γwater = 45 lbf/ft2 cgs ∑M (point) =0

Friction
Ff = μN

tanφ = μ
φ = angle of friction

if no forces are applied except for the weight,

φ=θ

MECHANICS 1
VECTORS
CABLES
Dot or Scalar product
PARABOLIC CABLES

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 the load of the cable of distributed horizontally along the 8d
span of the cable.

Uneven elevation of supports

T =  wL 2 + H 2
H = wx12 = wx22 2

2d1 2d2 8d 2 32d 4

−
S = L + 3L 5L3
T1 = (wx1) + H
2 2

L = span of cable d = sag of cable T

= tension of cable at support H =
tension at lowest point of cable w =
T2 = (wx2)2 + H 2 load per unit length of span
S = total length of cable
Even elevation of supports

L
>10
d
wL2
H=
CATENARY

the load of the cable is distributed along the entire length MECHANICS 2 of the cable.

RECTILINEAR MOTION
Uneven elevation of supports

Constant Velocity
T1 = wy1
T2 = wy2 S = Vt
H = wc
Constant Acceleration: Horizontal Motion y12 = S12 + c2

y22 = S22 + c2 x1 = cln S1 + y1 

c S =V0t ± 1 2 c  S2 + y2  2 at
x2 = ln

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 Span = x1 + xc2 V =V0 ± at

Total length of cable = S1 + S2 V 2 =V0 2 ± 2aS

Even elevation of supports + (sign) = body is speeding up – (sign) = body is

slowing down

T = wy
Constant Acceleration: Vertical Motion

−
H = wc ± H =V0t 1 2 y 2 = S 2 + c2 2 gt


x = cln  S + y  V =V0 ± gt


c 2
=V02 ±2gH Span = 2x V
Total length of cable = 2S + (sign) = body is moving down
– (sign) = body is moving up

Values of g,

SI (m/s2) English (ft/s2)

general 9.81 32.2
estimate 9.8 32
exact 9.806 32.16

Variable Acceleration dS ROTATION (PLANE MOTION)

V=
dt Relationships between linear & angular dV parameters: a= dt

V = rw
PROJECTILE MOTION a = ra

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 V = linear velocity
ω = angular velocity (rad/s)
a = linear acceleration
α = angular acceleration (rad/s2)
r = radius of the flywheel

Linear Symbol Angular Symbol

Distance S θ
Velocity V ω
Acceleration A α
Time t t

x = (V0 cosq)t Constant Velocity

2
θ = ωt
± y = (V0 sinq)t −gt

Constant Acceleration ± y = xtanq − 2V 2gxcos2 2 q

q = w0t ± 12at 2
0

Maximum Height and Horizontal Range w = w0 ±at

V02 sin2q max ht w2 = w02 ± 2aq

y=
2g + (sign) = body is speeding up

=
V02 sing 2q – (sign) = body is slowing down D’ALEMBERT’S PRINCIPLE
x
“Static conditions maybe produced in a body possessing
Maximum Horizontal Range acceleration by the addition of an imaginary force called reverse effective force
(REF) whose magnitude is

Assume: Vo = fixed (and parallel but opposite in direction to the acceleration.” W/g)(a) acting through the center of
gravity of the body, θ = variable

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 V0 2 ⇔q = 45° REF = ma =W 

Rmax = g  g a

UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION T = W secθ

motion of any body moving in a circle with a constant
speed.
F V2
mV 2 WV 2 tanq = = W gr
Fc = = r gr
V 2
=
ac = r f 1p gh frequency

Fc = centrifugal 2
force V = velocity m BOUYANCY
= mass W = weight
A body submerged in fluid is subjected by an
r = radius of track ac = centripetal
unbalanced force called buoyant force equal to
acceleration g = standard
gravitational acceleration the weight of the displaced fluid

BANKING ON HI-WAY CURVES Fb = W

Fb = γVd
Fb = buoyant force W = weight of body or
Ideal Banking: The road is frictionless fluid γ = specific weight of fluid Vd =
volume displaced of fluid or volume of
V2 submerged body
tanq=
gr Specific Weight:

Non-ideal Banking: With Friction on the road

tan(q +f ) =
V 2
; tanf = m g= Volume Weight
gr

V = velocity r = radius of track g = γwater = 9.81 kN/m2 SI γwater

standard gravitational acceleration θ = 45 lbf/ft2 cgs
= angle of banking of the road
f = angle of friction
μ = coefficient of friction
ENGINEERING
Conical Pendulum
MECHANICS 3

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 IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM Coefficient of Restitution (e)

Impulse = Change in Momentum e = V V12' −

−VV12'
F∆t = mV − mV0
F = force
t = time of contact between the body and the force
m = mass of the body Type of collision e Kinetic Energy
V0 = initial velocity 100%
ELASTIC
conserved
0 < e >1
V = final velocity
Not 100%
INELASTIC
conserved e=0
Impulse, I
PERFECTLY Max Kinetic
INELASTIC Energy Lost e =1
I = F∆t Special Cases

Momentum, P

P=mV
hr
LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM
e= e = cot q tan b
hd
“In every process where the velocity is changed, the
momentum lost by one body or set of bodies is equal to
the momentum gain by another body or set of bodies”
Work, Energy and Power

Work

W = F ⋅S
Force Distance Work
Newton (N) Meter Joule
Dyne Centimeter ft-lbf
Pound (lbf) Foot erg
Momentum lost = Momentum gained
Potential Energy

m1V1 +m2V2 =m1V1' +m2V2' PE = mgh =Wh

Kinetic Energy
m1 = mass of the first body m2 = mass
of the second body V1 = velocity of
mass 1 before the impact
V2 = velocity of mass 2 before the impact KElinear = 1 mV 2
V1’ = velocity of mass 1 after the impact 2
V2’ = velocity of mass 2 after the impact

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 KErotational = 12Iw2 → V = rω Kinetic Energy = Potential Energy

WORK-ENERGY RELATIONSHIP
I = mass moment of inertia ω The net work done on an object always
= angular velocity produces a change in kinetic energy of the
object.

Mass moment of inertia of rotational Work Done = ΔKE

INERTIA for common geometric figures:
Positive Work – Negative Work = ΔKE

Total Kinetic Energy = linear + rotation

=
Solid sphere: I 2 mr2 Thin-walled hollow HEAT ENERGY AND CHANGE IN PHASE

Sensible Heat is the heat needed to change the

sphere: I = mr2 Solid disk: I = mr 2 temperature of the body without changing its phase.

Solid Cylinder: I = mr2 Hollow Cylinder: I Q = mcΔT

= m(router2 − rinner2 ) Q = sensible heat
5 m = mass
c = specific heat of the substance
ΔT = change in temperature
m = mass of the body
r = radius Specific heat values

Cwater = 1 BTU/lb–°F
Cwater = 1 cal/gm–°C
POWER Cwater = 4.156 kJ/kg
rate of using energy Cice = 50% Cwater
Csteam = 48% Cwater
W
P= =F Latent Heat is the heat needed by the body to change
⋅V t its phase without changing its temperature.
1 watt = 1 Newton-m/s
Q = ±mL
1 joule/sec = 107 ergs/sec
Q = heat needed to change phase m
= mass
1 hp = 550 lb-ft per second
L = latent heat (fusion/vaporization)
= 33000 lb-ft per min
(+) = heat is entering (substance melts)
= 746 watts (–) = heat is leaving (substance freezes)

LAW ON CONSERVATION OF ENERGY Latent heat of Fusion – solid to liquid

“Energy cannot be created nor destroyed, but it Latent heat of Vaporization – liquid to gas
can be change from one form to another”
Values of Latent heat of Fusion and

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 Vaporization, ΔV = VβΔT
Lf = 144 BTU/lb ΔV = change in volume V = original
volume β = coefficient of volume
Lf = 334 kJ/kg
expansion ΔT = change in temperature
Lf ice = 80 cal/gm
Lv boil = 540 cal/gm Note: In case β is not given; β = 3α

Lf = 144 BTU/lb
= 334 kJ/kg Lv
= 970 BTU/lb
= 2257 kJ/kg
1 calorie = 4.186 Joules
1 BTU = 252 calories
= 778 ft–lbf

LAW OF CONSERVATION OF HEAT ENERGY

When two masses of different temperatures are combined
together, the heat absorbed by the lower temperature
mass is equal to the heat given up by the higher
temperature mass.

Heat gained = Heat lost

THERMODYNAMICS
THERMAL EXPANSION
For most substances, the physical size increase with an In thermodynamics, there are four laws of very
increase in temperature and decrease with a decrease in general validity. They can be applied to systems
temperature. about which one knows nothing other than the
balance of energy and matter transfer.
ΔL = LαΔT ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
stating that thermodynamic equilibrium is an
ΔL = change in length L = original equivalence relation.
length α = coefficient of linear If two thermodynamic systems are in thermal
expansion ΔT = change in equilibrium with a third, they are also in thermal
temperature equilibrium with each other.

FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

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 about the conservation of energy Paxial
The increase in the energy of a closed system is s axial = A
equal to the amount of energy added to the
system by heating, minus the amount lost in the
form of work done by the system on its Paxial ┴ Area
surroundings.
σaxial = axial/tensile/compressive stress P = applied
SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS force/load at centroid of x’sectional area
about entropy A = resisting area (perpendicular area)

The total entropy of any isolated thermodynamic Shearing stress

system tends to increase over time, the stress developed when the force is applied parallel to
the resisting area.
approaching a maximum value.

THIRD LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS, P

about absolute zero temperature
s= s
As a system asymptotically approaches A
absolute zero of temperature all processes
virtually cease and the entropy of the system
asymptotically approaches a minimum value. Pappliedl ║ Area
This law is more clearly stated as: "the entropy
of a perfectly crystalline body at absolute zero σs = shearing stress P =
temperature is zero." applied force or load
A = resisting area (sheared area)

Bearing stress
the stress developed in the area of contact (projected
area) between two bodies.

s b= P = P A
dt
P ┴ Abaering
STRENGTH OF σb = bearing stress P = applied force or load
MATERIALS A = projected area (contact area) d,t = width
and height of contact, respectively

SIMPLE STRESS Units of σ

Stress = Force SI mks/cgs English

Area
N/m2 = Pa Kg/cm2 lbf /m2 = psi
Axial Stress
the stress developed under the action of the force acting
axially (or passing the centroid) of the resisting area. kN/m2 = kPa 103 psi = ksi

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 MN/m2 = MPa 103 lbf = kips

GN/m2 = Gpa

N/mm2 = MPa

Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP)

= 14.7 psi
= 1.032 kgf/cm2
= 780 torr
101.325 kPa = 1.013 bar
= 1 atm
= 780 mmHg d
= 29.92 in
e=
Thin-walled Pressure Vessels
L
A. Tangential stress ε = strain δ =
elongation L =
original length

s T = rtr = r2Dt Elastic Limit – the range beyond which the material
WILL NOT RETURN TO ITS ORIGINAL SHAPE when
unloaded but will retain a permanent deformation

B. Longitudinal stress (also for Spherical)
s L = r2tr = r4Dt
Yield Point – at his point there is an appreciable
elongation or yielding of the material without any
corresponding increase in load; ductile materials and
continuous deformation
Ultimate Strength – it is more commonly called
ULTIMATE STRESS; it’s the hishes ordinate in the curve

Rupture Strength/Fracture Point – the stress at failure

σT = tangential/circumferential/hoop stress σL
= longitudinal/axial stress, used in spheres
r = outside radius D =
outside diameter ρ =
pressure inside the tank t =
thickness of the wall
F = bursting force

SIMPLE STRAIN / ELONGATION

Strain – ratio of elongation to original length Types of elastic deformation:

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 a. Due to axial load Ti = initial temperature

HOOKE’S LAW ON AXIAL DEFORMATION

“Stress is proportional to strain” d. Biaxial and Triaxial Deformation ey
sae ez
s =Ye Young'sModulus of Elasticity s = m=−ex = −ex
Ee Modulus of Elasticity
s s =Eses Modulus inShear μ = Poisson’s ratio μ
= 0.25 to 0.3 for steel
s V =EVeV BulkModulus of Elasticity = 0.33 for most metals
1 = 0.20 for concrete
μmin = 0
Ev compressibility
μmax = 0.5

TORSIONAL SHEARING STRESS

d= AEPL Torsion – refers to twisting of solid or hollow

rotating shaft.
δ = elongation P = Solid shaft
applied force or load
A = area t = 16
L = original length E =
modulus of elasticity σ = T3 pd
Hollow shaft
stress
ε = strain = 16TD
t
b. Due to its own mass
p(D 4 −d 4 )
rgL2 mgL d τ = torsional shearing stress T
= torque exerted by the shaft D
= = = outer diameter
2E 2AE d = inner diameter
δ = elongation ρ = density or unit
mass of the body g = gravitational Maximum twisting angle of the shaft’s fiber:
acceleration
L = original length
E = modulus of elasticity or Young’s modulus m TL
= mass of the body
q=
c. Due to changes in temperature d= JG
La (Tf −Ti )
δ = elongation θ = angular deformation (radians)
α = coefficient of linear expansion of the body T = torque
L = original length L = length of the shaft
Tf = final temperature G = modulus of rigidity

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 J = polar moment of inertia of the cross m = Dmean = Rmean dr
pd 4 elongation,

J = → Solid shaft 32 64PR3n

p(D4 − d 4 ) d=
J= → Hollow shaft Gd 4
32
τ = shearing stress δ =
Gsteel = 83 GPa; elongation R = mean radius d
= diameter of the spring wire n
Esteel = 200 GPa
= number of turns G =
Power delivered by a rotating shaft: modulus of rigidity

P = Tw
Prpm = 2pTN rps

rpm
Prpm =
2pTN ft −lb
60
sec
Php = ft −lb
ENGINEERING
2pTN min ECONOMICS 1
550
SIMPLE INTEREST
Php =
2pTN I = Pin
3300
T = torque
N = revolutions/time
F = P(1+ in)
P = principal amount
HELICAL SPRINGS F = future amount I = total interest
earned i = rate of interest n =
number of interest periods

t = 16pdPR3 1+ 4dR  Ordinary Simple Interest

n= days n =
t = 16pdPR3  44mm−−14 + months12
0.615m  360
Exact Simple Interest
where,

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 n= days → ordinary year 365

n= days → leap year

366

COMPOUND INTEREST

F = P(1+i)n ANNUITY
Nominal Rate of Interest Note: interest must be effective rate

Ordinary Annuity
NR
i= ⇔ n = mN m
Effective Rate of Interest A[(1+i)n −1]
F=
ER =(1+i)m −1 i

ER =1+ NRm m −1 A[(1+i)n −1]

P= (1+i)n i
ER ≥ NR ; equal if Annual
A = uniform periodic amount or annuity
i = rate of interest per period NR = nominal
rate of interest m = number of interest Perpetuity or Perpetual Annuity
periods per year n = total number of interest
periods N = number pf years
ER = effective rate of interest
Mode of Interest m P=
Annually 1 Ai
Semi-Annually 2
Quarterly 4
Semi-quarterly 8
Monthly 12 LINEAR / UNIFORM GRADIENT SERIES
Semi-monthly 24
Bimonthly 6
Daily 360

Shortcut on Effective Rate

P = PA + PG

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 C = initial cash flow of the geometric gradient series
PG = G (1i(+1i+)ni)−n 1− which occurs one period after the present q = fixed
percentage or rate of increase
(1+ni)n  i 
ENGINEERING
G (1+i)n −1  FG = i ECONOMICS 2
 i −n
DEPRECIATION

Straight Line Method (SLM)

AG = G1i − (1+in)n d= C0 − Cn n
−1

Dm = md Cm = C0 – Dm
Perpetual Gradient d = annual depreciation C0
G = first cost
PG = i2 Cm = book value Cn =
salvage or scrap value
n = life of the property Dm = total
depreciation after m-years m = mth
UNIFORM GEOMETRIC GRADIENT
year

Sinking Fund Method (SFM)

d= ((1C+0 −i)Cn −n )1i

P = C(1+ q)nq(1−+ii)−n −1 if q ≠ i

d[(1+i)m −1]
Dm =

F = C
( 1+i)n
(1+ q)qn −− i
i

 if q ≠ i
Cm = C0 – Dm
i = standard rate of interest

P= Cn P = Cn(1+i)n if q = i Sum of the Years Digit (SYD) Method

1+ q 1+ q
2(n − m +1)
q= second −1 dm = (C0 −Cn )
first n(n +1) 

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 i = interest rate
OMC = Annual operating & maintenance cost
BONDS
Dm = (C0 −Cn) (2nn−(nm+
+1)1)m P = Panuity = Pcpd interest

SYD = n(n +1) P
= Zr[((11++ii))nni−1](1+Ci)
2 Cm
= C0 – Dm + n

SYD = sum of the years digit dm P = present value of the bond Z = par
= depreciation at year m value or face value of the bond r = rate of
Declining Balance Method (DBM) interest on the bond per period Zr =
periodic dividend i = standard interest
rate n = number of years before
Cn redemption
k =1 − n C = redemption price of bond
Co
Matheson Formula
BREAK-EVEN ANALYSIS
k =1 − m Cm
Co Total income = Total expenses

Cm = C0 (1− k)m

dm = kC0(1− k)m−1

Dm = C0 – Cm
k = constant rate of depreciation

CAPITALIZED AND ANNUAL COSTS

CC = C0 + P
CC = Capitalized Cost
C0 = first cost
P = cost of perpetual maintenance (A/i)

AC = d +C0(i)+OMC
AC = Annual Cost d = Annual
depreciation cost

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