STRUCTURES

STRUCTURES
STRESS & STRAIN
 Define terms used in properties of materials
 Calculate the stress and strain
 State hooke's law
 Describe the stress strain -relationship
 Sketch stress strain graphs
 Describe the modulus of rigidity
 Explain working stress and ultimate stress
 Describe the factor of safety and poisson’s ratio
INTRODUCTION
Structures = Things with a definite size and shape, which serve a definite purpose or function.
To perform its function, every part of the structure must resist forces (stresses such as pushes
or pulls) that could change its shape or size.
The structure must also be able to support a load.
Load = The weight carried or supported by a structure.
Weight = Product of mass of an object and gravitational pull
Types of Structures
 Natural Structures: Structures not made by people.
 Examples: feathers, sand dunes , boulders…
 Manufactured Structures: Structures that have been built by people.
 Examples: buildings, umbrellas, jigsaw puzzle…
Diploma in Building Technology (Mod 1 ) 2014 series –Mathenge Technical Training Institute .Prepared by Sir
Ahmed Salim –Contact @fb -ahmedsalimn@gmail.com
Stress Strain Relationship
A force exerted on a body can cause a change in either the shape or the motion of the
body. The unit of force is the newton, N. No solid body is perfectly rigid and when forces
are applied to it, changes in dimensions occur. Such changes are not always perceptible
to the human eye since they are so small. For example, the span of a bridge will sag
under the weight of a vehicle and a spanner will bend slightly when tightening a nut.
It is important for engineers and designers to appreciate the effects of forces on

materials, together with their mechanical properties.
The three main types of mechanical force that can act on a body are:
(i) Tensile force
(ii) Compressive force, and
(iii) Shear force
Units of force is Newton(N) , kilonewton (kN)= , meganewton(MN) =

,giganewton (GN) =
Tensile force
Tension is a force that tends to stretch a material & tends to pull it apart ,as shown below .It
can therefore lead to Rapture of the material
Examples in a building : i)Ties in roof members ii) Lower/bottom side of beams/slabs
compressive force
Compression is a force that tends to squeeze or crush a material, as shown below
Applications of Compressive force
(i) a pillar supporting a bridge is in compression
(ii) the sole of a shoe is in compression
(iii) the jib of a crane is in compression
Shear force
Shear is a force that tends to slide one face of the material over an adjacent face. For example,
The forces tend to make one part of the material slide over the other part . i.e it’s a force that
is applied sideways on the material (transversely loaded)
When forces tend to pull the member apart, it is in tension. When the forces tend to compress
the member, it is in compression. A tensile force, i.e. one producing tension, increases
the length of the material on which it acts. A compressive force, i.e. one producing
compression, will decrease the length of the material on which it acts. A shear force can cause a
material to bend, slide or twist.
Properties of Material
• Elasticity
• Plasticity
• Ductility:The plastic strain at failure.
• Malleability
• Brittleness
• Toughness: The energy needed to break a unit volume of material.
• Hardness
• Elasticity: is the ability of a material to return to its original shape and size on the
removal of external forces. Plasticity is the property of a material of being permanently
deformed by a force without breaking. Thus if a material does not return to the original
shape, it is said to be plastic.
Stress
what is stress and how does it develop?
When an object is subjected to an external force, the object tends to build up internal
resistance within itself (material). Resistance offered by the material per unit cross- sectional
area is called STRESS in short, stress can be defined as load per unit area.
Stress = i.e
Load ( ) = weight ( ) of an object
Weight = Mass of an object ( )× gravitational pull ( )
Where , 1 kg = 10 Newton
Since
Stress = i.e
Stress is normally denoted by Symbol – Sigma i.e
∴ = = = /
Unit of Stress is Pascal & 1 Pascal = 1 N/m2
Depending on the magnitude of the stress it can be :
KiloPascal ( Kpa) i.e (× 10 Pascal) = KN/m2 = N/m2
MegaPascal ( Mpa) i.e (× 10 Pascal) =MN/m2 = N/m2
GigaPascal ( Gpa) i.e (× 10 Pascal) =GN/m2 = N/m2
Exercise 1
1. Convert the 1 Pascal, 1 KiloPascal ,1 MegaPascal and 1 GigaPascal into
i) N/mm2
ii) N/cm2
Stress can be classified into :
a) Tensile stress
b) Compressive stress and
c) Shear stress
Direct Stress
Tensile and compressive forces are called DIRECT FORCES. Direct stress may be
tensile, t or compressive, c and result from forces acting perpendicular to the
plane of the cross-section i.e either axial tension or axial compression. The stress
caused by axial tension force is called Tensile stress and denoted by symbol t i.e
= = Where P = Force (Pull)

×
W = Width & H= Height of the X-section
The stress caused by axial compression force is called Compressive stress and
denoted by symbol i.e
= =
×
Where P = Force (Pull)
W = Width & H= Height of the X-section
. What will be stress when the cross-sectional area is

i) Circular ii) Semi-circular ii) Right angled trangle
Shear Stress
Shear stress is the force per unit area carrying the load. This means the cross
sectional area of the material being cut, and shear stress is tangential to the area
over which it acts, the beam and pin. As shown by the side elevation of a
rectangular box
Shear Stress is denoted by symbol called Tau

F
Shear Stress   Where Area (A ) is parallel to applied force (F )
A
Example 1
Q: Find the minimum diameter of an alloy cable, tensile strength 75 MPa, needed
to support a load of 15 kN
Soln
Tensile Strength which is stress = 75 Mpa
Load to be supported ( P ) =15 kN & Recalling
MegaPascal ( Mpa) i.e (× 10 Pascal) =MN/m2 = 10 N/m2
∴75 Mpa =75× 10 Pascal= 75 × 10 N/m2
15 kN= 15 × 10 N
×
Hence 75 × 10 N/ = = =
× ×
A= = = 0.2× 10 m2 OR 0.00002 m2
×
=0.0002 m2 & (A)= =0.0002 m2
∴ ℎ .
= ,∴ = Where = 0.0002 m2
Which is = 0.0002 = 0.008Metres = 8 mm
2 = 2 × 8 = 16
Example 2
Q: Calculate the tensile stress in a nylon fishing line of diameter 0.36 mm which a
fish is pulling with a force of 20 N
Soln Where P = Force (Pull) = 20N
= = r = Radius of the X-sction =0.18mm
= = =196.1 = 196.5 Mpa OR

× . .
= = = = = =
× . × . .
= .
Example 3
Q: A rectangular block of plastic material 500 mm long by 20 mm wide by 300 mm

high has its lower face glued to a bench and a force of 200 N is applied to the
upper face and in line with it. The upper face moves 15 mm relative to the lower
face. Determine the shear stress, assuming the deformation is uniform.
Soln
Shear Stress =
Area of any face parallel to the force = ×
= ( × ) 10000
= = . =0.02Mpa
Exercise 2
1. The greatest tensile stress which steel of a particular sort can withstand
without breaking is about 109 Nm . A wire of cross-sectional area
0.01m is made of this steel. What is the greatest force that it can
withstand?
2. Calculate the tensile stress in a suspension bridge supporting cable, of

diameter of 50 mm, which pulls up on the roadway with a force of 4 kN.
3. A short hollow, cast iron cylinder with wall thickness of 10 mm is to carry

compressive load of 100 kN. Compute the required outside diameter `D’ , if
the working stress in compression is 80 N/mm2. (D = 49.8 mm).
4. A Steel wire hangs vertically under its weight. What is the greatest length it
can have if the allowable tensile stress =200MPa? Density of steel
=80 kN/m3.(ans:-2500 m)
Direct Strain
When loads are applied to a body, some deformation will occur resulting to a
change in dimension . Consider a bar, subjected to either tensile or Compressive
axial loading force, P. If the bar extension is  (delta) and its original length
(before loading) is L, then tensile or compressive strain is:
a) It is defined as deformation per unit length
b) Strain is the deformation per unit of the original length
c) The fractional change in a dimension of a material produced by a force is

called the strain i.e it is the ratio of change in length to original length
Direct Strain
Original Length l0
P P
Direct Strain
Its direct strain as it results from direct forces i.e Tensile & Compressive forces.
From the defination it can be expressed mathematically as:
ℎ ℎ
=
ℎ
Direct strain is denoted by symbol called Epilson
∴ ( )= Strain is dimensionless quantity
Strain has no unit’s since it is a ratio of length to length. Most engineering

materials do not stretch very much before they become damages, so strain values
are very small figures.
Example 2
A bar 1.60 m long contracts axially by 0.1 mm when a compressive load is applied
to it. Determine the strain and the percentage strain.
Soln
Strain = , i. e =
where = 1.60 = 1600 , = 0.1

.
∴ = = =0.0000625
Percentage strain = % = × 100
=0.0000625×100 = 0.00625
Shear Strain
Shear Strain 
The force causes the material to deform as shown. The shear strain is
defined as the ratio of the distance deformed to the height . And is
denoted by symbol called Gamma
Shear strain is the distortion produced by shear stress on an element or rectangular block as above.
For small 
 
Example
Q: Arectangular block of plastic material 500 mm long by 20 mm wide by 300 mm high has its lower
face glued to a bench and a force of 200 N is applied to the upper face and in line with it. The upper face
moves 15 mm relative to the lower face. Determine the shear strain in the upper face, assuming the
deformation is uniform.
EXERCISE

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STRUCTURES

STRESS & STRAIN

 Define terms used in properties of materials

 Calculate the stress and strain

 State hooke's law

 Describe the stress strain -relationship

 Sketch stress strain graphs

 Describe the modulus of rigidity

 Explain working stress and ultimate stress

 Describe the factor of safety and poisson’s ratio

The structure must also be able to support a load.

Load = The weight carried or supported by a structure.

Weight = Product of mass of an object and gravitational pull

 Natural Structures: Structures not made by people.

 Examples: feathers, sand dunes , boulders…

 Manufactured Structures: Structures that have been built by people.

 Examples: buildings, umbrellas, jigsaw puzzle…

It is important for engineers and designers to appreciate the effects of forces on

(i) Tensile force

(ii) Compressive force, and

(iii) Shear force

Units of force is Newton(N) , kilonewton (kN)= , meganewton(MN) =

Examples in a building : i)Ties in roof members ii) Lower/bottom side of beams/slabs

Compression is a force that tends to squeeze or crush a material, as shown below

Applications of Compressive force

(i) a pillar supporting a bridge is in compression

(ii) the sole of a shoe is in compression

(iii) the jib of a crane is in compression

• Ductility:The plastic strain at failure.

• Toughness: The energy needed to break a unit volume of material.

Load ( ) = weight ( ) of an object

Weight = Mass of an object ( )× gravitational pull ( )

Stress is normally denoted by Symbol – Sigma i.e

Unit of Stress is Pascal & 1 Pascal = 1 N/m2

Depending on the magnitude of the stress it can be :

KiloPascal ( Kpa) i.e (× 10 Pascal) = KN/m2 = N/m2

MegaPascal ( Mpa) i.e (× 10 Pascal) =MN/m2 = N/m2

GigaPascal ( Gpa) i.e (× 10 Pascal) =GN/m2 = N/m2

1. Convert the 1 Pascal, 1 KiloPascal ,1 MegaPascal and 1 GigaPascal into

b) Compressive stress and

= = Where P = Force (Pull)

W = Width & H= Height of the X-section

Where P = Force (Pull)

W = Width & H= Height of the X-section

. What will be stress when the cross-sectional area is

Shear Stress is denoted by symbol called Tau

Tensile Strength which is stress = 75 Mpa

Load to be supported ( P ) =15 kN & Recalling

MegaPascal ( Mpa) i.e (× 10 Pascal) =MN/m2 = 10 N/m2

∴75 Mpa =75× 10 Pascal= 75 × 10 N/m2

=0.0002 m2 & (A)= =0.0002 m2

Which is = 0.0002 = 0.008Metres = 8 mm

Soln Where P = Force (Pull) = 20N

= = r = Radius of the X-sction =0.18mm

= = =196.1 = 196.5 Mpa OR

Q: A rectangular block of plastic material 500 mm long by 20 mm wide by 300 mm

Area of any face parallel to the force = ×

2. Calculate the tensile stress in a suspension bridge supporting cable, of

3. A short hollow, cast iron cylinder with wall thickness of 10 mm is to carry

a) It is defined as deformation per unit length

b) Strain is the deformation per unit of the original length

c) The fractional change in a dimension of a material produced by a force is

Direct strain is denoted by symbol called Epilson

∴ ( )= Strain is dimensionless quantity