sustainability
Article
A GIS Approach for Analysis of Traffic Accident Hotspots in
Abha and Bisha Cities, Saudi Arabia
Khaled Ali Abuhasel
Citation: Abuhasel, K.A. A GIS
Approach for Analysis of Traffic
Accident Hotspots in Abha and Bisha
Cities, Saudi Arabia. Sustainability
2023, 15, 14112. https://doi.org/
10.3390/su151914112
Academic Editor: Elżbieta Macioszek
Received: 18 July 2023
Revised: 17 September 2023
Accepted: 21 September 2023
Published: 23 September 2023
Copyright: © 2023 by the author.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Sustainability 2023, 15, 14112. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151914112
Industrial Engineering Program, Mechanical Engineering Department, College of Engineering,
University of Bisha, Bisha 61922, Saudi Arabia; kabuhasel@ub.edu.sa
Abstract: Road traffic accidents present substantial global challenges, encompassing a wide range of
consequences that have implications for the economy, public health, the environment, and society.
The present study is focused on the phenomenon of rapid urbanization in Abha and Bisha, two
cities located in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. These cities have witnessed a substantial growth
in urbanization, with a notable increase of 225% over a span of 40 years. The expansion of urban
areas has given rise to significant concerns regarding the density of the road infrastructure, which
has been further exacerbated by an increase in the volume of vehicles. Consequently, this has led
to a notable escalation in traffic-related issues and accidents. Analysis reveals that traffic accidents
are concentrated in specific areas, with hotspots primarily located in the western regions of Abha
and Bisha, while cold spots are concentrated in the northern areas. Furthermore, a strong positive
correlation (r = 0.93) is observed between the number of traffic accidents and road type, with over half
of the accidents occurring on highways. Notably, the highways in Abha and Bisha predominantly
follow a direction from southwest to northeast at a 71.1◦ angle. In conclusion, this research offers
significant findings regarding the prevalence and determinants of traffic accidents in Abha and Bisha,
emphasizing the need for effective traffic management strategies to enhance road safety and mitigate
the associated risks.
Keywords: traffic accidents; spatial analysis; hotspots; K-function
1. Introduction
Road traffic accidents present substantial global challenges, encompassing a wide
range of consequences that have implications for the economy, public health, the environ-
ment, and society. The consequences of these accidents, including fatalities and injuries,
have far-reaching impacts worldwide. Road traffic accidents impose significant economic
costs, healthcare expenditures, environmental degradation, and immense social tragedies
on nations worldwide [1–4].
The car is frequently considered a representation of contemporary society, and unques-
tionably presents a multitude of benefits. Nevertheless, it is crucial to acknowledge that the
mode of transportation not only serves as a vital means of commuting for the population
but also holds the unfortunate distinction of being the predominant catalyst for traffic acci-
dents. Road traffic accidents have become a pressing issue due to the widespread adoption
of cars as the primary means of transportation [5,6]. Although cars provide a multitude of
advantages, their utilization presents substantial hazards. Research findings suggest that
automobile collisions are the predominant catalyst for traffic-related occurrences, leading
to loss of life, physical harm, and substantial financial burdens. The occurrence of acci-
dents is influenced by various factors, including the intricate nature of contemporary road
systems, driver conduct, the quality of road infrastructure, and advancements in vehicle
technology. As a result, nations across the globe are confronted with the task of addressing
and reducing the economic, health, and environmental ramifications stemming from road
traffic accidents [7,8].
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability
Sustainability 2023, 15, 14112 2 of 19

The social, economic, and environmental consequences of road traffic accidents are a
cause for concern worldwide. The loss of lives, injuries, and associated disabilities have
a profound impact on individuals, families, and communities. Moreover, these accidents
result in significant economic burdens due to healthcare costs, property damage, and loss of
productivity. Environmental degradation caused by car accidents, such as air pollution and
carbon emissions, further exacerbates the challenges faced by societies [9–11]. Addressing
the root causes of traffic accidents and implementing effective road safety measures are
crucial to reducing the severity of these impacts and safeguarding public health and
well-being. In Saudi Arabia, road traffic accidents remain a pressing concern, with a
significant number of incidents attributed to drivers’ distraction and violations of the right
of way. The year 2022 witnessed 193,827 accidents caused by drivers’ distraction, while
184,610 accidents occurred due to violations of the right of way. These figures highlight
the need for increased awareness and enforcement of road safety measures to address
these specific causes of accidents [12–14]. By implementing measures to mitigate driver
distraction and encourage compliance with traffic regulations, it is feasible to reduce the
frequency of such accidents and mitigate the accompanying risks.
The number of deaths resulting from traffic accidents in Saudi Arabia demonstrates the
urgent need for effective road safety measures. In 2019, the country recorded 5754 deaths
caused by road accidents, which decreased by 26% to 4555 deaths in 2022. This reduc-
tion indicates some progress in mitigating the severity of accidents and emphasizes the
importance of ongoing efforts to enhance road safety [15,16]. However, further initiatives
are required to sustain this positive trend and ensure the protection of lives on the roads.
While the number of deaths decreased, the prevalence of injuries resulting from road traffic
accidents in Saudi Arabia remains a concern. In 2019, the country recorded 32,910 injuries
caused by these accidents, which decreased to 24,446 in 2022 [13]. Although this decline
is promising, it is, however, crucial to continue implementing comprehensive measures
to further reduce the number of injuries. This includes raising awareness, improving
infrastructure, and promoting responsible driving behaviors to ensure the safety of all
road users. Road traffic accidents in Saudi Arabia have emerged as a prominent issue,
leading to a considerable number of fatalities and injuries. According to statistics pro-
vided by the Ministry of Health, the latest available data from 2021 reveals that there were
27,281 reported traffic accidents, leading to 5629 deaths [17–19]. These figures emphasize
the urgency of addressing road safety issues to reduce the devastating impact of accidents
on individuals and society. The Ministry of Health plays a crucial role in monitoring and
reporting these statistics, providing valuable insights into the current state of road traffic
accidents in the country [20,21].
The issue of road safety in Saudi Arabia has garnered significant attention in recent
years, primarily due to the concerning frequency of accidents and resulting fatalities.
Researchers have conducted studies to investigate the factors contributing to road traffic
accidents in the country. An examination of recent patterns in road traffic accidents and their
corresponding mortality rates has yielded noteworthy findings, offering valuable insights
into the underlying trends, and contributing factors associated with these occurrences. The
obtained results have demonstrated significant outcomes. [22,23]. Additionally, factors
influencing road traffic fatalities in Saudi Arabia shed light on key determinants that
need to be addressed for effective road safety interventions [24–26]. To develop effective
strategies for accident prevention and enhance road safety, it is crucial to understand the
characteristics and implications of road traffic accidents. Many researchers have conducted
different studies regarding the impact of road characteristics on road traffic accidents in
Saudi Arabia by focusing on various aspects of road traffic accidents. The authors of [27–29]
conducted a population-based study to examine the trends and risk factors associated with
road traffic injuries in the country. Similarly, [30,31] investigated the severity and outcomes
of road traffic injuries among different age groups, providing insights into the variations in
injury patterns and their consequences. These studies have made a significant contribution
to the current body of knowledge and provided valuable insights for policymakers and
Sustainability 2023, 15, 14112 3 of 19

stakeholders to effectively implement targeted interventions and policies with the goal of
mitigating road traffic accidents and their associated consequences [32–34].
In urban road classification, various factors are considered to categorize roads based
on their function and characteristics. These factors include traffic volume, speed limits,
connectivity, land use, and the presence of pedestrian and cycling facilities. The data of
the road network are analyzed to determine the classification of each road. These data
include information such as the road length, number of lanes, presence of medians or
shoulders, types of intersections, and any special features such as roundabouts or flyovers.
By analyzing these data, urban planners can classify roads into different categories such
as arterial roads, collector roads, local streets, or highways. Arterial roads typically have
high traffic volumes and connect major destinations within a city or region. Collector
roads serve as intermediaries between arterial roads and local streets. Local streets are
low-volume roads that provide access to residential areas. Additionally, the analysis of
road network data helps identify areas where improvements are needed. For example, if
a certain area has high congestion or lacks pedestrian infrastructure, it can be identified
through this analysis and appropriate measures can be taken to address these issues.
Overall, the classification of urban roads and analysis of road network data play a crucial
role in urban planning and transportation management to ensure efficient movement of
people and goods within cities [35,36].

1.1. Area of Study

This study employs Bisha and Abha as its two selected domains of application. The
two cities are located in the Asir region, one of the thirteen administrative divisions of
the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, situated in the southwestern part of the country as shown
in Figure 1. Abha city, located in the Asir region, fulfils the dual role of serving as the
administrative center and capital of the emirate. The name was bestowed in recognition
of the nearby valley. The city of Abha is situated at the geographical coordinates of
12 degrees 18 min latitude and 30 degrees 42 min east longitude. There are several
centers located in the Al-Hamr region of the Abha Governorate, as well as in Al-Sha’f and
Marba within the same governorate. Additionally, there are centers in Khamis Mushait
City of the Khamis Mushait Governorate, and in Tayyib and Al-Souda within the Abha
Governorate. Furthermore, there are centers situated to the south in Al-Sha’f and Marba
of the Abha Governorate.
The municipality of Abha encompasses an approximate land area of 290.7 square
kilometers, which is further subdivided into 44 distinct residential neighborhoods. As of
the year 2022 AD, the population of Abha was recorded to be 446,697 individuals. Notable
residential areas within the city include Shamsan, Al-Manhal, Al-Andalus, Al-Azizia, Al-
Salam, among others. Bisha is geographically located in the northwest region of the Asir
area, specifically between latitudes 00 19◦ and 510 20◦ N, and longitudes 500 41◦ and 50
43◦ E. The northern border of the area in question is adjacent to Makkah Al-Mukarramah,
while its southern border is shared with the city center of Khaybar in the Khamis Mushait
Governorate. The eastern boundary of the region is delineated by the cities of Tathleeth,
Jash, and Al-Sabikha, which are located within the Tathleeth Governorate. On the other
hand, the western border is demarcated by the Al-Baha region, as well as the governorates
of Balqarn and Al-Namas [37].
The urban area of Bisha encompasses a longitudinal extent of 185 kilometers, stretching
from its northernmost location to its southernmost location. The width of the object,
however, exhibits variations in an east–west orientation. The southern region exhibits the
narrowest width, measuring approximately 48 km, whereas the northern region displays
the widest width, measuring around 120 km. Bisha, a municipality situated on Wadi
Bisha, the most extensive and consequential valley in the Kingdom, covers a land area
measuring 659 square kilometers. The population of the specified region in the year 2022
AD was documented as 248,452 individuals. The prominence of the city is derived from
its strategic geographical positioning and the existence of the largest dam in the Kingdom,
 Sustainability 2023, 15, 14112 4 of 19

which possesses a substantial storage capacity of 325 million cubic meters. Bisha is widely
recognised for its agricultural endeavors, specifically in the realm of date palm cultivation.
Furthermore, the urban area derives advantages from its extensively established system
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 20
of roads, exhibiting noteworthy linkages to adjacent cities including Khamis Mushait,
Raniyeh, and Khurmah [37].

Figure 1. The Saudi cities of Abha and Bisha.

Figure 1. The Saudi cities of Abha and Bisha.

The municipality of Abha encompasses an approximate land area of 290.7 square

kilometers, which is further subdivided into 44 distinct residential neighborhoods. As of
the year 2022 AD, the population of Abha was recorded to be 446,697 individuals. Notable
residential areas within the city include Shamsan, Al-Manhal, Al-Andalus, Al-Azizia, Al-
Sustainability 2023, 15, 14112 5 of 19

Road safety analysis refers to the process of studying and evaluating various factors
that contribute to road accidents and injuries. It involves collecting and analyzing data
related to road traffic crashes, identifying patterns and trends, and developing strate-
gies to improve road safety. By conducting a comprehensive analysis of these factors,
policymakers, traffic engineers, law enforcement agencies, and other stakeholders can de-
velop evidence-based interventions and policies to enhance road safety. This may include
implementing engineering improvements, enhancing enforcement measures, promoting
education and awareness campaigns, or introducing legislation to address specific issues
identified through the analysis.
When analyzing a region or country, it is important to consider both geography and
demographics in addition to road transport network characteristics. Geography plays a
crucial role in determining the layout and accessibility of road networks. For example,
mountainous regions may have winding roads and tunnels, while coastal areas may have
bridges and causeways. The presence of rivers, lakes, and other bodies of water can also
impact road connectivity, requiring the construction of bridges or ferries. Demographics are
equally important as they provide insights into population distribution and transportation
needs. Factors such as population density, urbanization levels, and economic activities
influence the demand for road infrastructure. Urban areas with high population densities
often require extensive road networks to accommodate traffic flow, while rural areas may
have more limited road connectivity due to lower population densities. In conclusion,
analyzing a region or country requires the consideration of both geography and demo-
graphics alongside road transport network characteristics. Understanding these factors
helps in assessing transportation needs, identifying infrastructure gaps, and formulating
appropriate policies for the efficient movement of goods and people.
Road orientation can have a significant impact on accidents. Some key factors need to
be considered, such as traffic flow, which indicates the direction of the flow of traffic, and
also, whether it is one way or there is oncoming traffic; the risk of a frontal collision on a
one-way street is generally lower than on a two-way street because vehicles are traveling
in the same direction. The direction of the road also affects the number and arrangement
of lanes. Wider roads with multiple lanes in each direction reduce congestion and give
vehicles more room to maneuver, potentially reducing accidents. The orientation of the
road affects how an intersection is designed. For example, left-turn lanes or special signal
lights can be used to increase safety at multi-lane road intersections. The orientation of a
road affects various design features such as curves, slopes, and visibility. Roads with sharp
curves or poor visibility due to hills or vegetation can increase the likelihood of an accident
if the driver is not properly prepared. It is important to note that while these factors are
influenced by the direction of the road, they interact with other variables such as driver
behavior, weather conditions, vehicle characteristics, etc., which collectively contribute to
accident occurrence.
Literature analysis in the field of accident analysis often tends to focus on one country,
which limits the generalizability of findings and may overlook important variations across
different regions. To enhance the comprehensiveness of accident analysis, it is valuable to
expand the research scope by including examples of spatial and spatiotemporal analyses
from other countries. This broader approach allows for a more comprehensive understand-
ing of accident patterns and their underlying causes. In conclusion, expanding literature
analysis with examples from other countries enhances our understanding of accidents by
considering variations in spatial distribution and temporal dynamics. By incorporating a
global perspective, researchers can gain insights into commonalities and differences across
regions, leading to more effective strategies for accident prevention worldwide.

1.2. Research Questions

Abha and Bisha are among the fastest-growing cities in the kingdom. Their urban-
ization level increased by approximately 225% over a 40-year period due to the rapid
population growth, causing critical issues in terms of the density of the urban road network.
Sustainability 2023, 15, 14112 6 of 19

The rise in the phenomenon was concomitant with a surge in the quantity of automobiles
traversing roadways, culminating in there being approximately 620,000 vehicles by the con-
clusion of 2022, in contrast to a mere 203,403 in the year 2000. This escalation has resulted
in a corresponding upswing in the predicaments linked to traffic congestion, consequently
engendering a proportional augmentation in the frequency of vehicular accidents. The
number of transportation-related accidents in these regions was in 2021, which increased to
in 2022. Therefore, the research tends to seek to answer the following questions:
1. What kind of relationship is there between traffic accidents and the types of roads in
the cities of Abha and Bisha?
2. Why are there increasing traffic accidents in the most densely populated districts?
3. Where are the hotspots of traffic accidents concentrated in Abha and Bisha?

2. Materials and Methods

The surveys conducted can be used to enhance accident reduction actions in several
ways. By analyzing the survey data, authorities can identify specific locations or areas
where accidents are more likely to occur. This information can help prioritize resources
and interventions in these high-risk areas to reduce accidents. In addition, surveys can
provide insights into the contributing factors leading to accidents, such as distracted
driving, speeding, or poor road conditions. This understanding allows policymakers and
law enforcement agencies to develop targeted strategies and campaigns addressing these
factors. Overall, by utilizing survey data effectively, decision makers can gain valuable
insights into the underlying causes of accidents and develop evidence-based strategies for
accident reduction actions that are tailored to address specific issues identified through
the surveys.
Data used in this research were collected from various sources such as research studies,
surveys, government databases, public records, private companies, and academic institu-
tions. The accessibility of the data depends on its source and any restrictions or permissions
associated with it.
This article uses data from the Saudi Arabian General Directorate of Transport (GDT)
for 2021 and 2022. The data includes the location, date, time, type, cause, and severity of
every traffic accident that occurred in the cities of Abha and Bisha. Data were geocoded
using ArcGIS software and Google Maps to assign spatial coordinates to each incident.
Data characteristics are as follows:
• The total number of road traffic accidents in the cities of Abha and Bisha was 11,515 in
2021 and 12,263 in 2022, an increase of 6.1%.
• Most traffic accidents are caused by human factors such as speeding, negligence, and
violation of traffic rules, followed by environmental factors such as weather conditions,
road surfaces, and lighting.
• The most common type of road accident is collision, followed by rollover, collision
with solid objects, and collision with pedestrians.
• Serious traffic accidents cause casualties, and the least serious ones only cause
property damage.
• The spatial distribution of traffic accidents shows that accidents are highly concen-
trated in some areas and hotspots exist.
The health data used in the paper were obtained from the Ministry of Health (MOH)
in Saudi Arabia for the years 2021 and 2022. The characteristics of the health data are
as follows:
• The total number of fatalities due to traffic accidents in Abha and Bisha cities was 1114
in 2021 and 1218 in 2021, with an increase of 8.5%
• The total number of injuries due to traffic accidents in Abha and Bisha cities was 6212
in 2021 and 6642 in 2022, with an increase of 6.5%
• The total number of disabilities due to traffic accidents in Abha and Bisha cities was
1726 in 2021 and 1848 in 2022, with an increase of 6.6%
Sustainability 2023, 15, 14112 7 of 19

• The health data showed that traffic accidents had a significant negative impact on the
quality of life and well-being of the residents of Abha and Bisha cities
The availability of the data on which an operation is performed depends on various
factors. It can be determined by the source of the data, or whether it is publicly available,
or proprietary. Additionally, the data’s accessibility may depend on any legal or privacy
restrictions that apply to them. In some cases, the data may be readily available and
easily accessible, such as public datasets or open-source databases. These types of data
are typically freely available for anyone to use. However, there may be situations where
the data are not readily available or require specific permissions or licenses to access.
This can be the case with proprietary datasets owned by companies or organizations that
restrict access to their data. Furthermore, certain types of sensitive data, such as personal
information or classified government data, may have strict regulations and restrictions
on their availability and usage. Ultimately, whether the data on which an operation is
performed are available depends on the specific circumstances and characteristics of the
dataset in question [38,39].
The surveys conducted were carried out to enhance accident reduction actions in
several ways. By analyzing the survey data, authorities can identify specific locations
or areas where accidents are more likely to occur. This information can help prioritize
resources and interventions in these high-risk areas to reduce accidents; also, surveys
can provide insights into the contributing factors leading to accidents, such as distracted
driving, speeding, or poor road conditions. This understanding allows policymakers and
law enforcement agencies to develop targeted strategies and campaigns addressing these
factors. Overall, by utilizing survey data effectively, decision makers can gain valuable
insights into the underlying causes of accidents and develop evidence-based strategies for
accident reduction actions that are tailored to address specific issues identified through
the surveys.
The research necessitated the utilization of an analytical descriptive methodology. The
nature of the study dictated the use of three approaches: the objective as a main approach,
the regional approach to highlight the geographical character of the city, and the historical
one to study the development of traffic accidents, with the use of many methods, including:
statistical analysis through computer programs, where the researchers relied on the SPSS
program 23 to extract the different quantitative correlations between the phenomena under
study, and the Excel program to deposit the data of the field study, and cartography to
interpret and draw the phenomenon under study.
Geostatistical methods are statistical techniques used for analyzing spatially correlated
data. Some commonly used geostatistical methods include: Kriging, which is a spatial
interpolation technique that estimates values at unobserved locations based on the values at
nearby observed locations. It takes into account the spatial correlation structure of the data
and provides estimates with minimum prediction error. Variogram analysis is used to quan-
tify the spatial dependence or correlation between data points at different distances. It helps
in understanding the spatial structure of the data and selecting appropriate interpolation
models. Co-kriging is an extension of kriging that incorporates auxiliary variables, which
are correlated with the target variable, to improve prediction accuracy. It is particularly
useful when there are additional variables available that can provide information about
the target variable. Indicator kriging is used when dealing with categorical or binary data,
where each location is assigned a specific category or class. It estimates the probability
of occurrence or membership of a particular category at unobserved locations. These
methods are widely used in various fields such as environmental science, geology, ecology,
epidemiology, urban planning, and natural resource management to analyze and model
spatial data.
The analytical descriptive methodology is a research approach that aims to systemati-
cally analyze and describe a particular phenomenon or topic. It involves breaking down
the subject into its constituent parts, examining their characteristics, and identifying pat-
terns or relationships between them. This methodology typically relies on quantitative
Sustainability 2023, 15, 14112 8 of 19

data and statistical analysis to draw conclusions. In addition to the analytical descriptive
methodology, three supplementary methodologies can be utilized to enhance the research:
Substantive Methodology: This methodology focuses on understanding the underlying
principles, theories, or concepts related to the research topic. It involves a comprehensive
review of the existing literature, theoretical frameworks, and conceptual models that pro-
vide a foundation for the study. The substantive methodology helps researchers develop
a deep understanding of the subject matter and ensures that their analysis is grounded
in relevant theories. Regional Methodology: If the research topic has regional variations
or if it is necessary to understand how different regions influence the phenomenon under
investigation, a regional methodology can be employed. This approach involves studying
specific geographical areas or regions and analyzing how they impact the research topic.
It may include collecting data from different regions, comparing their characteristics or
trends, and identifying any regional variations or patterns. Historical Methodology: The
historical methodology involves examining past events, developments, or trends related to
the research topic. By studying historical data and records, researchers can gain insights
into how the phenomenon has evolved over time and identify any long-term patterns or
changes. This methodology helps provide context and perspective to the current state of
affairs and allows for a more comprehensive understanding of the subject. By combining
these supplementary methodologies with the analytical descriptive approach, researchers
can ensure a more holistic and comprehensive analysis of their research topic. Each method-
ology brings unique perspectives and tools that contribute to a deeper understanding of
the phenomenon under investigation [40–42].
The researcher utilized Geographic Information System (GIS) as a tool for generating
maps and conducting spatial analysis. This was accomplished using a software program
known as “Arc GIS 10.8”, with the aim of elucidating the spatial arrangement of the phe-
nomenon under investigation. The accomplishment of this step involved the establishment
of a geo-database through the utilization of a software application known as “Arc Cata-
logue”, which consists of a collection of feature classes containing data on various aspects of
urban areas. This allows researchers to perform spatial statistical analyses, density analyses,
pattern analyses, proximity analyses, and spatial interpolation analyses.
To achieve the research objectives, the study is structured into three primary parts.
- Distribution of traffic accidents;
- Analysis of spatial features of traffic accident distribution;
- Hotspot analysis of traffic accidents.
GIS (Geographic Information System) can be used for the analysis of road accidents in
several ways such as spatial analysis: GIS can help in identifying accident-prone areas by
analyzing the spatial distribution of accidents. It can overlay accident data with other spatial
datasets such as road networks, traffic volumes, land use, and demographic information to
identify patterns and hotspots of accidents. GIS can analyze the characteristics of roads
and their surroundings to determine factors contributing to accidents. It can assess road
geometry, signage, lighting conditions, speed limits, and proximity to intersections or
hazardous locations. This analysis helps in identifying high-risk routes or specific road
segments that require improvement. GIS provides a visual representation of accident
data through maps and charts. This helps in understanding the spatial patterns and
trends of accidents over time. Visualization techniques such as heat maps or cluster
analysis can highlight areas with a high concentration of accidents. GIS can be used to
develop predictive models for road accidents based on historical data. By analyzing various
factors, such as weather conditions, time of day, road conditions, and traffic volume, GIS
can predict the likelihood of accidents occurring in specific locations or under certain
circumstances. Overall, GIS plays a crucial role in analyzing road accidents by providing a
spatial perspective that enhances understanding, decision making, and planning for safer
transportation systems.
Sustainability 2023, 15, 14112 9 of 19

2.1. Traffic Distribution Analysis

The correlation coefficient, denoted by the symbol “r”, is a statistical measure that
quantifies the strength and direction of the linear relationship between two variables. It
is commonly known as Pearson’s correlation coefficient. The resulting value of r ranges
from −1 to +1. A positive value indicates a positive linear relationship (as one variable
increases, so does the other), while a negative value indicates an inverse relationship (as one
variable increases, the other decreases). A value close to zero suggests no significant linear
relationship. The magnitude or absolute value of r indicates the strength of association.
The closer r is to +1 or −1, the stronger the relationship. A value near zero suggests a weak
or no relationship. It is important to note that correlation does not imply causation; it only
measures how closely two variables are related in a linear sense.
Figure 2 presents an analysis depicting the distribution of traffic accidents occurring
on the road, where the focus was on highways (22.8), arterial roads (47.7), and finally,
local roads (29.5). The analysis shows a strong positive correlation between the number of
traffic accidents and road type. According to the statistical equation, r = 0.93 as accidents
rise on highways with more than half of the total accidents in the studied cities. The
highest number of accidents happened on King Fahd Road: almost more than 25% of
total road traffic accidents due to traffic intensity. Arterial roads came in the second order
with more than one-third of total accidents in the cities of Abha and Bisha, especially on
King Abdullah Road, where accidents happened most frequently with 11.4% of the total
number of accidents in the cities of Abha and Bisha. Unlike arterial roads, collector roads
have a lower number of accidents with 8.8% of the total, while on the cities of Abha and
Bisha’s local roads, a very small number of accidents was reported relative to the other
types of roads; 2.7% of the total number of traffic accidents due to the low traffic density
on these roads.
The correlation between the types of roads and accidents in urban areas can vary
depending on various factors. However, certain characteristics of different road types can
contribute to accident rates. Urban roads typically have lower speed limits and are designed
to accommodate a mix of vehicles, pedestrians, and cyclists. Accidents on urban roads
often occur due to factors such as intersection congestion, pedestrian/cyclist interactions,
and distracted driving. Highways are designed for high-speed travel with limited access
points; while highways generally have fewer accidents compared to urban roads due to
controlled access and higher speeds, certain factors contribute to accidents on highways.
The higher speeds on highways increase the severity of accidents when they occur. It is
important to note that these correlations may vary based on specific local conditions, such
as traffic regulations/enforcement, driver behavior, weather conditions, and other factors.
Additionally, effective road design features such as clear signage, proper lane markings,
and well-designed intersections/interchanges can help mitigate accident risks on both
urban roads and highways.
The correlation between road networks and traffic accidents can be further eluci-
dated through the utilization of the Linear Directional Mean tool. This tool facilitates the
assessment of the impact of road network expansion on the occurrence of accidents by
identifying the average length of the road network and its overall spatial orientation on
the ground. By analyzing this, it is possible to observe that the road network takes several
directions according to its type, thus representing the same directions of traffic accidents.
The highways where at least half of the total of traffic accidents occur take the direction
from the southwest towards the northeast at about a 71.1◦ angle, and this corresponds
to the direction analysis of the distribution of traffic accidents. Unlike highways, on the
arterial roads, where one-third of all road traffic accidents occurred, they happened in a
southeast–northwest direction at an angle of 142◦ , while on collector roads and local roads,
accidents occurred in a south–north direction at angles of 110◦ and 118.8◦ , respectively.
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 20
Sustainability 2023, 15, 14112 10 of 19

Figure 2. Traffic distribution of accidents on the road network.

Figure 2. Traffic distribution of accidents on the road network.
2.2. Analysis of Spatial Features of Traffic Accident Locations
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where roadfactors contribute
accidents to accidents
have been on such
on the rise, high-as
ways. The higher speeds on highways increase the severity of accidents when
King Faisal Road in Abha and King Abdulaziz Road in Bisha, together constituting 15.5% they occur.
Itof
is the
important to noteofthat
total number these correlations
accidents. mayinvary
This is shown Figurebased
3. on specific local conditions,
such as traffic regulations/enforcement, driver behavior, weather conditions, and other
factors. Additionally, effective road design features such as clear signage, proper lane
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Sustainability 2023, 15, 14112 11 of 19

Figure 3. The results of the application of the distribution of traffic accidents in the cities of Abha and
Figure 3. The results of the application of the distribution of traffic accidents in the cities
Bisha in 2022.
and Bisha in 2022.
Central Feature—As a result of applying this tool, the most centrally located site of
accidents is identified
Central Feature—Asat the intersection
a result of ofaapplying
collector road thisand the King
tool, Abdullah
the most arterial located
centrally
road that is characterized by its high density of traffic.
accidents is identified at the intersection of a collector road and the KingThe central deviation of traffic
Abdullah
accidents from the mean center in the west is 1.8 km, and this is explained by the rise in
road that is characterized by its high density of traffic. The central deviation of tra
traffic accidents in the center and the west of the cities.
cidents fromDistance—The
Standard the mean center standardin the
circlewest
radiusisof1.8 km,accident
traffic and this is explained
distribution in the by the
traffic accidents
city of Abha in m,
is 8520.1 theand
center andit the
in Bisha is 0.4west of the
m. This cities.in the central parts of the
is located
citiesStandard
of Abha and Bisha covering large areas such
Distance—The standard circle radius of as the Wast El-Balad
trafficneighborhood in
accident distribution
Abha, and the King Abdullah neighborhood in Bisha. This circle covers 68.1% of the total
city of Abha is 8520.1 m, and in Bisha it is 0.4 m. This is located in the central part
traffic accidents in the cities of Abha and Bisha.
citiesDirectional
of Abha Distribution
and Bisha (D covering
factor)—Thelarge areasshowed
results such that
as the
the Wast El-Balad
distribution neighborh
of traffic
Abha,
accidentsand in the
Abha King
takesAbdullah
a directionneighborhood
from the southwest in Bisha.
to the This circleThe
northeast. covers
angle68.1%
of of th
deviation ◦
is 69.9 with a standard km, towards the x-axis, and 17.1 km
traffic accidents in the cities of distance
Abha and of 4.7Bisha.
towards the y-axis. In Bisha, it takes a direction
Directional Distribution (D factor)—The results from the southwest
showed to the northeast.
that The
the distribution o
angle of deviation is 73.1◦ with a standard distance of 6.1 km towards the x-axis, and
accidents in Abha
19.1 km towards takes This
the y-axis. a direction from
explains the the of
nature southwest
the extension to of
thethenortheast.
cities of AbhaThe angle
viation
and Bisha is with
69.9°thewith a standard
surrounding distancephenomena
geographical of 4.7 km, and towards the x-axis, and 17.1 km to
altitudes.
the y-axis. In Bisha, it takes a direction from the southwest to the northeast. The a
deviation is 73.1° with a standard distance of 6.1 km towards the x-axis, and 19.1
wards the y-axis. This explains the nature of the extension of the cities of Abha and
with the surrounding geographical phenomena and altitudes.
Sustainability 2023, 15, 14112 12 of 19

2.2.2. Analyzing Patterns

The tools in the Analyzing Patterns toolset show the extent to which traffic accidents
take a specific pattern. It includes various tools to perform statistical data analysis as shown
in Figure 4A–C.
Nearest Neighbor Analysis (NNA)—This study aims to assess the distributions based
on their clustering, randomness, or regularity. The utilization of nearest neighbor analysis
can be employed in studies pertaining to the succession of vegetation in sand dunes, with
the purpose of testing a given hypothesis. The formula for finding nearest neighbor analysis
can be described by the following equations.

D (O)
NN A = q
0.5 A
N

where, D (O) represents the observed nearest neighbor distance, while A represents the
area under study. N represents the total number of points in the area. This statistical
method shows that the distribution of traffic accidents in the cities of Abha and Bisha has a
clustered pattern 0.233 at a very high confidence level of 99%, which means that there is
only
Sustainability 2023, 15,ax very small
FOR PEER probability that the result happened by accident. Sample randomness is
REVIEW 13 of
less than 1%. The Z-score (also called a standard score) is −49.4, below the critical value.
p-value = 0.000.

(A)

Figure 4. Cont.
Sustainability 2023, 15,Sustainability
14112 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 19 14 o

(B)

(C)

Figure 4. (A): Result of Moran I analysis; (B): result of nearest neighbor analysis; (C): result of
K-function analysis.
Sustainability 2023, 15, 14112 14 of 19

Spatial Autocorrelation (Moran Index)—We apply the spatial autocorrelation measures

to determine spatial distribution patterns of the phenomenon concerned. By studying
features and an associated attribute, it evaluates whether the pattern expressed is clustered,
dispersed, or random. The result (Figure 4B) shows that the spatial distribution of traffic
accidents indicates a clustered phenomenon pattern. The Moran’s I statistic is equal to
(+0.56). This was confirmed by the Z-score (11.40) in that it falls outside the critical value
region (−2.58, +2.58) at a 99% confidence level, which means that population density is a
reason for the higher numbers of traffic accidents.

X −µ
z=
σ
X represents the data value, while µ, σ represent the mean and standard deviation, re-
spectively. The Moran’s I spatial correlation can be computed using the autocorrelation below.
n n
n ∑i ∑ j wi,j zi z j
MI =
W0 ∑in=1 z2i
zi is used to represent the deviation of a given attribute for a particular feature from
its mean, while wi,j is the spatial weight between two features i and j from total features n.
The aggregate weight W0 can be represented by
n
W0 = ∑j wi,j

Now, we can compute the Z I score as follows:

I − E( I )
ZI = p
V(I)

−1
E( I ) =
( n − 1)
h i
V ( I ) = E I 2 − E [ I ]2

Multi-distance Spatial Cluster Analysis (Ripley’s K-function)—This spatial analysis

method shows that (Figure 4C) the observed K value is larger than the expected K value, so
the distribution pattern of traffic accidents is more clustered than a random distribution.
This result corresponds to the result of the nearest neighbor analysis at a very high confi-
dence level because the observed K-function curve falls below the confidence interval (CI).
The K-function can be computed as follows:
s
AoS ∑in=1 ∑nj=1, j6=n k i,j
KF =
πn2 − πn

n represents the total number of features, AoS is the area of study, and k i,j is the weight.

2.3. Hotspot Analysis

The present statistical analysis demonstrates the identification of positive hotspots,
characterized by high values, and negative cold spots, characterized by low values, in the
distribution of accidents across its geographical range. This analysis yields the critical
value, denoted as Z score GI, and the level of significance or probability, denoted as p.
The statistical indication GI represents the value of the data in Z. When the Z value is
significantly positive and the probability values of p are considerably low, it suggests the
presence of a concentrated occurrence of the “hot spots” phenomenon. Conversely, if the
Z value is high and negative, and the probability values of p are high, it indicates a lack
Sustainability 2023, 15, 14112 15 of 19

of concentration of the “hot spots” phenomenon. When the Z value approaches zero, it
indicates that the phenomenon under consideration is not highly concentrated.
For positive z-scores with statistical significance, where the cluster of high values is
more intense, the higher the z-score [43,44].

X −µ
z=
σ
X represents the data value, while µ, σ represent the mean and standard deviation,
respectively.
The following is the Getis–Ord local (GI) statistic [43,44]:

∑nk=1 wk,l xl − X ∑nl=1 wk,l

Gi∗ = r
2
S n ∑n 2 n
k=1 wk,l − ( ∑l =1 wk,l )
n −1

∑nl=1 xl
X=
n
s
∑nl=1 xk2
S= n − ( x )2
n
The symbol wk,l denotes the spatial weight between feature k and feature l, while the
variable n represents the total number of features. The symbol xl denotes the attribute
value associated with feature l.
The Mapping Clusters tools perform cluster analysis using ArcMap (Figure 5). The
results show traffic accident hot/cold spots in Abha. Traffic accident hotspots are mainly
centered in the north of Abha at the three confidence levels presented (90%, 95%, and 99%;
+3 at confidence level 99% in two main zones; +2 and +1 at confidence levels 95% and 90%,
respectively), while a focus can be noted along the axes of the King Abdulaziz and King
Abdullah roads. In Bisha, traffic accidents hotspots are mainly centered in the west of Bisha
at the three confidence levels presented (90%, 95% and 99%). (+3 at confidence level 99%).
(+2, +1) at confidence levels 95%, 90% respectively, while noting a focus along the axes of
King Faisl, and King Abdulaziz roads.
In contrast, it is observed that the areas with a lower incidence of traffic accidents
are predominantly located in the northern regions. This finding is supported by the
highest negative value recorded, which stands at −3 with a confidence level of 99%.
The distribution of cold spots is observed in both the western and eastern regions of
the aforementioned zone. However, the cold spots are predominantly concentrated in
the southern areas of the cities, with a confidence level of 90% indicating a temperature
decrease of −1. This may be because these areas are largely uninhabited. It remains to be
pointed out that there is no statistical evidence of the distribution of traffic accidents in
various parts of the downtown, western, and eastern parts of the cities, where the value of
G is zero, which indicates that traffic accidents occur by chance and cannot be traced to
specific factors.

Sustainability 2023, 15, 14112
respectively), while a focus can be noted along the axes of the King Abdulaziz and King
Abdullah roads. In Bisha, traffic accidents hotspots are mainly centered in the west of
Bisha at the three confidence levels presented (90%, 95% and 99%). (+3 at confidence level
99%). (+2, +1) at confidence levels 95%, 90% respectively, while noting a focus along
16 of 19 the
axes of King Faisl, and King Abdulaziz roads.

Hotspot analysis
Figure5.5.Hotspot
Figure analysis ofoftraffic
trafficaccidents.
accidents.
3. Conclusions
InAcontrast, it is observed that the areas with a lower incidence of traffic accidents are
robust positive correlation was observed between the incidence of traffic accidents
predominantly
and road type, indicatingina the
located northern
higher regions.
prevalence This finding
of accidents is supported
on highways. by the highest
This highlighted
negative valuefor
the necessity recorded,
focused which standsand
interventions at −3enhancements
with a confidence
in roadlevel of 99%. The
infrastructure distribu-
to ef-
tion of cold spots is observed in both the western and eastern regions
fectively tackle the distinct challenges linked to highways and mitigate the frequency of of the aforemen-
tioned zone.
accidents. However,the
Conversely, thedirectional
cold spots are predominantly
patterns exhibited by theconcentrated
road networks in within
the southern
the ar-
study
eas areacities,
of the offer valuable insights that
with a confidence can inform
level of 90%strategies
indicating foratraffic management
temperature and of −1.
decrease
enhance
This may road safety measures.
be because these areasHighways primarily
are largely exhibit a It
uninhabited. directional
remains pattern from the
to be pointed out that
southwest to the northeast, whereas arterial, collector, and local roads display varying
there is no statistical evidence of the distribution of traffic accidents in various parts of the
orientations. Gaining an understanding of these patterns can be beneficial in facilitating
downtown, western, and eastern parts of the cities, where the value of G is zero, which
efficient traffic planning and the successful execution of road safety strategies.
indicates thattransport
A road traffic accidents occur by
network should chance
have and cannotsystem
a well-connected be traced to specific
of roads factors.
that allows
for easy movement of people and goods between different locations. This includes high-
3.ways,
Conclusions
expressways, and local roads. The network should provide easy access to various
destinations
A robustsuch as residential
positive areas,
correlation wascommercial centers, industrial
observed between zones,ofand
the incidence public
traffic accidents
facilities such as schools, hospitals, and airports. A good road transport network should
and road type, indicating a higher prevalence of accidents on highways. This highlighted be
designed to minimize travel time and congestion. This can be achieved through proper
Sustainability 2023, 15, 14112 17 of 19

planning of road layouts, traffic management systems, and efficient intersection designs.
Safety is a crucial characteristic of a road transport network. It should include measures
such as well-maintained roads, clear signage, proper lighting, pedestrian crossings, and
speed limits to ensure the safety of all road users.
Furthermore, the spatial analysis reveals the presence of localized accident hotspots
within the urban areas of Abha and Bisha. The hotspots are predominantly situated within
geographical areas, underscoring the necessity for focused interventions and heightened
enforcement measures in said regions to effectively mitigate the likelihood of accidents. In
conclusion, the relationship between traffic accidents and road characteristics, such as road
type, directional patterns of road networks, and the spatial distribution of accident hotspots,
offers a foundation for the formulation of evidence-based approaches and interventions
aimed at improving road safety and mitigating the frequency of accidents in these regions.
The implementation of specific interventions, such as the enhancement of infrastructure,
the intensification of awareness campaigns, and the enforcement of traffic regulations, and
through the use of modern applications in monitoring traffic accidents such as drones and
others, has the potential to yield a substantial decrease in road accidents and foster the
development of safer transport systems.

Funding: This research was funded by the University of Bisha: the Deanship of Scientific Research at
the University of Bisha through the Fast-Track Research Support Program, Saudi Arabia.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Approval for the study was not required in accordance with
local/national legislation.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available on request from the author.
Acknowledgments: The author is thankful to the Deanship of Scientific Research at the University of
Bisha for supporting this work through the Fast-Track Research Support Program.
Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflict of interest.

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