OpenStax Psychology

Chapter 8 Memory
Study Guide

8.1 How Memory Functions

Memory is much like a computer in that it is a system of information processing and works to encode, store, and
retrieve information over different periods of time.

The process of information processing begins at encoding, which is the input of information into our memory.
Once taken in, our brains code the information and process it automatically or effortfully.

● In automatic processing, processing is done without conscious awareness and regards time, space, or
definition-based information.
● Effortful processing, however requires more work and attention.
● Once processed, information can be coded in three ways: semantic, visual, or acoustic.
● Semantic encoding involves words and meaning while visual encoding and acoustic encoding are for
images and sounds respectively.
● Once information has been processed and encoded, we have means to retain it through storage or
permanently recorded information.

For memory to enter storage, three phases are required. Researchers Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin
describe a structure to better illustrate the process known as the Atkinson-Shiffrin model.
● The model begins at sensory memory, which stores brief sensory events such as tastes, smells, or
sights. Because our environments consist of so many stimuli, we are constantly barraged with sensory
information in an almost overwhelming fashion.
● Because of this, we utilize short-term memory, a temporary storage and processing system, to focus on
any valuable information.
● Through repetition of information known as rehearsal, information moves from short-term memory to
long-term memory, a process known as memory consolidation.
● Consisting of all things remembered, long-term memory consists of two types of memory: explicit and
implicit.
● Explicit memories are consciously remembered episodically and semantic (knowledge based) while
implicit memories are not a part of our consciousness and are more procedural or emotional.
● Once information is encoded it must be retrieved or recalled when required. In the case the already
processed information is encountered, recognition is experienced.
● Of course, through prolonged periods without recall information becomes weak, in this case the process
of relearning can be utilized to relearn the no longer familiar information.

Questions:

ENCODING

1. How so we get information into our brain?

2. What is the difference between automatic and effortful encoding?
3. What are some examples of each?
4. What are the three different types we use to encode information?

STORAGE

5. What are the three distinct stages that memory has to go through to become long term
memory?
6. How are short term and working memory similar and different?
7. How can we move information from short term memory into long term memory?
8. What are the different types of long term memory? (hint: look at figure 8.6)
9. Give an example of each

RETRIEVAL

10. How does retrieval work?

11. What are the different ways in which we retrieve information?
8.2 Parts of the Brain Involved with Memory

The parts of the brain responsible for memory are the prefrontal cortex, amygdala, hippocampus, and
cerebellum. Each of these parts has a designated task regarding types of information to be processed and
stored.

The amygdala plays a part in how memories are stored because storage is influenced by stress hormones.

Hippocampus:
 normal recognition memory as well as spatial memory (when the memory tasks are like recall tests)
 projects information to cortical regions that give memories meaning and connect them with other
memories.
 memory consolidation: the process of transferring new learning into long-term memory.

Cerebellum
 Plays a role in processing procedural memories, such as how to play the piano and classical conditioning.
 Damage prevents classical conditioning such as an eye-blink in response to a puff of air.

Prefrontal cortex
 Appears to be involved in remembering semantic tasks.
 PET scans show activation in the left inferior prefrontal cortex when completing semantic tasks.
 Encoding is associated with left frontal activity.
 Retrieval of information is associated with the right frontal region.

Neurotransmitters also play a vital role in memory processing although specific roles are unspecified along with
a handful of phenomena regarding. It is generally thought that stronger emotions associated create stronger
memories in contrast to weaker emotions, this concept is known as arousal theory. Cases of flashbulb memory,
or incredibly clear recollections, also demonstrate particular strength in memories with little explanation to why.

Questions:

1. Do you think memories are stored in just one part of the brain?
2. What would happen to someone who suffers from brain damage if that were the case?

THE AMIGDALA
 3. How does the amygdala play a role in memory formation?
4. What is the evidence that demonstrate the role of the amygdala in memory formation?

THE HIPPOCAMPUS

5. How did researchers learn about the role of the hippocampus in memory?
6. What are the various functions of the hippocampus in memory?
7. What types of memory problems did patient H. M exhibit after his left and right hippocampi were
removed?

THE CEREBELLUM AND PREFRONTAL CORTEX

8. What is the evidence that indicates that the cerebellum plays a role in implicit memories?
9. How does the prefrontal cortex play a role in processing and retaining information?

NEUROTRANSMITTERS

10. Which neurotransmitters have been found to be involved in the process of memory?
11. Is their role in memory well know?
12. How does the arousal theory explain the formation of emotional experiences?
13. How are flashbulb memories formed?

8.3 Problems With Memory

● Long-term memory loss or amnesia caused by head trauma can result in severe issues regarding
memory processing.
○ In the case of retrograde amnesia, victims demonstrate a loss in memory of events prior the
trauma.
○ While in anterograde amnesia, victims are unable to construct new information.
○ In such cases, reconstruction may be needed however, in such cases inaccuracies or distortions
are probable. It is then apparent that our memories are ultimately malleable and prone to
influence.

● Suggestibility can change or even create false memories through misinformation. As you can imagine,
this is a prevalent issue in our legal system regarding witness testimony.
● In a case where wrong information is affirmed, false memory syndrome can result in completely false
memories. Of course, simple instances such as forgetting can prove just as effective in changing even
 ridding of memories. Regardless, issues with encoding can have an initial effect on false memory
processing.
● Instances such as misattribution can confuse the source of the information and biases may change our
recollections in accordance to our beliefs.
● Our previously stored information can also have an effect on changes in memory during encoding.
○ When older information contradicts and inhibits new, proactive interference prevents new
information from accurate encoding.
○ This can also be reversed in retroactive interference where newly learned information hinders
recall of old.

Questions:

AMNESIA

1. What is amnesia?
2. What are the different types of amnesias?
3. How do they occur?

MEMORY CONSTRUCTION AND RECONSTRUCTION

4. What is the difference between memory construction and reconstruction?

5. Why do we say that memory is reconstructed?
6. List the different memory problems that can happen and give examples of each:

FORGETTING

7. What does forgetting mean?

8. Why do we forget? List the different reasons why we suffer from forgetting information:
9. Memory Errors: Give an example of each Schacter’s seven sins of memory
10. Which is those sins have you suffered from the most?
11. How does interference affect our memory?
12. What are the two types of interference?
8.4 Ways to Enhance Memory

Despite all cases of memory loss and plasticity, memory can be enhanced through sets of memory-enhancing
strategies.

 Rehearsal – conscious repetition of information to be remembered.

 Chunking – organizing information into manageable bits or chunks.
o E.g. Separating phone numbers into 3 chunks.
 Elaborative rehearsal – technique in which you think about the meaning of the new information and its
relation to knowledge already stored in your memory.
 Mnemonic devices – memory aids that help us organize information for encoding.
o E.g. One way to remember the order of planets is the name MR. VEM J. SON.
 Other techniques can include:
o Expressive writing.
o Saying words aloud.

Questions:

1. Briefly describe each of the different memory enhancing strategies:

2. Which of those did you use when you were learning as a child?
3. Which of those do you currently use to learn the materials from each of your classes?
4. Please create a mnemonic device to help you remember the different memory-enhancing strategies
mentioned in this section:
5. Give an example of how you would use elaborative rehearsal:
6. Give an example of how you would use self-reference effect
7. Why is it important to use distributed practice?
8. When is it beneficial to rehearse?
9. How can you ensure you study efficiently? Why is highlighting not very efficient?
10. How can interference affect your studying?
11. How do exercise and sleep influence learning?