UNIT 03

MEMORY:-

Memory refers to the processes that are used to acquire, store, retain. and later retrieve information.
There are three major processes involved in memory: encoding, storage, and retrieval. Human
memory involves the ability to both preserve and recover information we have learned or experienced.
As we all know, however, this is not a flawless process. Sometimes we forget or misremember things.
Sometimes things are not properly encoded in memory in the first place.

Memory problems can range from minor annoyances like forgetting where you left your car keys to
major diseases, like Alzheimer's and other kinds of dementia, that affect the quality of life and the
ability to function. The study of human memory has been a subject of science and philosophy for
thousands of years and has become one of the major topics of interest within cognitive psychology.

Definition of Memory

1. According to Magdougall, "Memory means to imagine the experience of past events and to
recognize that they are past experiences in their own right."

2. According to Stout, "memory is the ideal repetition in which the experiences of the past are
awakened in the same order and manner as they occurred before."

3. According to Woodworth, "memory is the direct use of learned experiences."

Phases of Memory

(i) Learning:- Memory is based only on the recording of learning or experiences. Therefore, the first
stage of memory is the learning of an object or fact. The conscious mind does the work of learning. In
this stage, the experiences of life are imprinted in our mind in the form of mental impressions and
when necessary, they come again in the present consciousness.

(ii) Retention:- Retaining the learned text or rituals permanently in the mind is called dharana.
Remember that the power to hold is found in different amounts in each person. The longer a person
holds something in his mind, the better his memory is said to be. The holding power of the students
i.e. adolescents and adolescent girls is more than that of the adults.

(iii) Recall:- Bringing dry experiences to consciousness is called Pratyamaran. Whether a person's
memory is good or bad depends only on recalling his past experiences. No matter how well he has
learned, it is in vain if he cannot remember anything when needed. Remember that a person has to
face many difficulties while remembering those things which a person does not wear properly.

(iv) Recognition:- Seeing an object or a person, to tell that we have seen it before is called
identification. In other words, identity is the mental process by which we come in contact with some
object or person and tell what is or who is the person and when we got acquainted with it. Remember
that recognition and recall have the same relation as the mind has with the body.

How Memories are Formed?

In order to form new memories, information must be changed into usable form, which occurs through
the process known as encoding. On the information has been successfully encoded, it must be stored
in memory for later use. Much of this stored memory lies outside of our awareness most of the time,
except when we actually need to use it. The retrieval process allows us to bring stored memories into
conscious awareness.
Types of Memory:-

1. Sensory Memory:-

Sensory memory refers to the brief storage of sensory information. Sensory memory is a memory
buffer that lasts only very briefly and then, unless it is attended to and passed on for more processing,
is forgotten. The purpose of sensory memory is to give the brain some time to process the incoming
sensations, and to allow us to see the world as an unbroken stream of events rather than as individual
pieces.

2. Short-Term Memory:-

Most of the information that gets into sensory memory is forgotten, but information that we turn our
attention to, with the goal of remembering it, may pass into short-term memory. Short-term memory
(STM) is the place where small amounts of information can be temporarily kept for more than a few
seconds but usually for less than one minute. Information in short-term memory is not stored
permanently but rather becomes available for us to process, and the processes that we use to make
sense of, modify, interpret, and store information in STM are known as working memory.

3. Long-term Memory:-

It refers to the transfer of information from short-term memory into long-term storage in order to
create enduring memories. This type of memory is unlimited in capacity and stable—lasting for years
or even a lifetime. Short-term memories can become long-term memories through a process known
as consolidation.

Long-term memory can be further subdivided into two different types: explicit (conscious) and implicit
(unconscious) memory. If you can remember something that happened more than just a few moments
ago, whether it occurred just hours ago or decades earlier, it is long-term memory.

Long term memory is important because it helps us recall major events in our lives. We also use long-
term memory to access the skills and behaviours that we've learned which contribute to our survival.

Methods of Memorization:-

Having a better memory isn’t just helpful to remember your family’s go-to pot roast recipe, it’s also an
important skill to have at work. Whether it’s remembering the name of someone you met at a
conference or recalling figures or dates during a meeting with your team, a good memory is good for
business. Our brain memorizes information in four steps: attention, encoding, storage, and retrieval.

1. Attention:- Let’s say you’re in a meeting and one of your colleagues pitches a marketing idea. The
information enters your brain through sensory receptors. They will hold on to this information for mere
seconds while your brain filters it and hopefully deems it important. Only when you consciously
perceive information, will it be passed onto the next step.

2. Encoding:- It looks like your colleague’s pitch was good because your brain is now encoding the
information. In this step, it will either be moved into your short-term memory or working memory.
Your short-term memory will hold the information for a few seconds, while in your working memory,
you can retain it for up to 20 minutes. This can be helpful when solving a math problem or cleaning up
an Excel sheet but it won’t help you recall your colleague’s pitch during the client call next Thursday.

3. Storage:- Moving information from your short-term memory into your long-term memory is an
active step. Your brain can’t make this decision for you, you’ll have to memorize it using a technique
that works for you—but we’ll get to that in a minute.
4. Retrieval:- How you pay attention, encode, and store information will affect how well you can
retrieve it at a later point in time. The more time that passes between the last two steps, storage and
retrieval, the more important it is to revisit and review the information frequently so it stays fresh in
your mind.

Factors Affecting Memory:-

Memory as stated already, is a process which includes learning, retention and remembering. As such
all the three processes are important for good memory. Factors that Influence Memory Process in
Humans are as follows:

• Ability to retain:- This depends upon good memory traces left in the brain by past experiences.
• Good health:- A person with good health can retain the learnt material better than a person
with poor health.
• Age of the learner:- Youngsters can remember better than the aged.
• Maturity:- Very young children cannot retain and remember complex material.
• Will to remember:- Willingness to remember helps for better retention.
• Intelligence:- More intelligent person will have better memory than a dull person.
• Interest:- If a person has more interest, he will learn and retain better.
• Sleep or rest:- Sleep or rest immediately after learning strengthens connections in the brain
and helps for clear memory.

Causes of Forgetting:-

1. Lack of sleep:- Not getting enough sleep is perhaps the greatest unappreciated cause of
forgetfulness. Too little restful sleep can also lead to mood changes and anxiety, which in turn
contribute to problems with memory.

2. Medications:- Tranquilizers, antidepressants, some blood pressure drugs, and other medications
can affect memory, usually by causing sedation or confusion. That can make it difficult to pay close
attention to new things. Talk to your doctor or pharmacist if you suspect that a new medication is
taking the edge off your memory.

3. Underactive Thyroid:- A faltering thyroid can affect memory (as well as disturb sleep and cause
depression, both of which can be causes of forgetfulness). A simple blood test can tell if your thyroid
is doing its job properly.

4. Alcohol:- Drinking too much alcohol can interfere with short-term memory, even after the effects of
alcohol have worn off. Although "too much" varies from person to person, it’s best to stick with the
recommendation of no more than two drinks per day for men and no more than one a day for women.
One drink is generally defined as 1.5 ounces (1 shot glass) of 80-proof spirits, 5 ounces of wine, or 12
ounces of beer.

5. Stress and Anxiety:- Anything that makes it harder to concentrate and lock in new information and
skills can lead to memory problems. Stress and anxiety fill the bill. Both can interfere with attention
and block the formation of new memories or the retrieval of old ones.

6. Depression:- Common signs of depression include a stifling sadness, lack of drive, and lessening of
pleasure in things you ordinarily enjoy. Forgetfulness can also be a sign of depression or a consequence
of it.
The short-term memory differs from the long-term memory in the following ways:

1. Short-term memory is viewed as a rapidly decaying system. Most psychologists believe that short-
term memory does not involve permanent changes in the brain. However, some temporary changes
occur in this case. The physiological nature of the traces is such that they fade quickly. The long-term
memory appears to be permanent. A permanent change occurs in our brain when we remember things
for a longtime. Long-term memory has a more or less enduring impression on the brain. Because of
the consolidation of traces, the traces are relatively permanent.

2. Short-term memory has limited storage capacity resistant to overcrowding in any form. It just cannot
take any overload. On the other hand, long-term memory is limitless for all practical purposes. Any
information transferred from short-term memory to long-term memory will have a place for
permanent storage.

3. Short-term memory is an active system involving rehearsal. We need to keep the items actively in
STM relearning them constantly. On the other hand, the long-term memory is rather passive in nature;
it is not easily disturbed by interruption, unlike short-term memory.

4. Long-term memory differs from short-term memory in the kind of information that is most easily
stored. Information is usually stored in short-term memory in terms of the physical qualities of the
experience (what we see, do, taste, touch, hear etc.) with a special emphasis on acoustic (sense of
hearing) codes. Although sensory memories can be stored in long-term memory, information is
primarily stored in LTM in terms of its meaning or semantic codes.

5. There is a difference between long-term memory and short-term memory in the process of recall.
When we are looking for a bit of information in STM we scan the entire contents of this store. But as
the amount of information stored in long-term memory is lost, we cannot scan the entire contents of
the LTM when we are looking for a bit of information. We use a cue relevant to the information we
need and retrieve only that information instead of the entire contents of LTM.

6. Short-term memory also differs from long-term memory in the way forgetting occurs. Short-term
memory is characterized by trace dependent forgetting. If information is not rehearsed or processed
immediately, then the memory transformed by the information fades rapidly and the item is
permanently lost or completely erased from the memory, in contrast, long-term memory is
characterized by cue dependent forgetting. The information is permanently recorded in LTM but our
ability to retrieve it depends upon having the appropriate cues

7. The different stages of memory are handled by different parts of the brain. Short-term memory is
primarily a function of the frontal lobe of the cerebral context, while information that is stored in long-
term memory. is first held in the hippocampus and then transferred to the areas of the cerebral cortex
involved in language and perception for permanent storage.
MOTIVATION:-

Motivation in one form or the other is always present at the root of all human activities, as human
behaviour in one form or the other is guided by motives or drives. In every sphere of life and at various
phases of activities motivation plays a vital role. So our success and achievement in life depend on
motivation.

Motivation is said to be the heart of learning' sine-qua-non of learning', 'golden road to learning' and
potent factor in learning, as all learning is motivated learning. Learning cannot be successful, effective
or efficient without persistent, purposeful and selective effort.

Motivation is derived from the word 'movere' which means to move. It is the process of arousing
action, sustaining activity in progress, regulating and directing pattern of activity through energy
transformations within the tissues of the organism. It is an art of inculcating and stimulating interest
in studies and in other such activities. Some of the aspects of motivation are stressed by the terms:
incentive, intention, impulse, desire, drive, determination, need, urge, wish, want, will, longing
appetite, attitude, bias, prejudice, set, readiness, purpose and the like.

Definitions of Motivation:-

Some of the well-known definitions of motivation are given below:

According to Thompson, "Motivation covers any and every factor of the spring of human action from
the beginning to the end i.e., attitudes, bias, urge, impulse, cravings, incentive, desire, wish, interest,
will, intention, longing, aim."

According to Guilford, "Motivation is an internal factor or condition that tends to initiate and sustain
activity."

According to Johnson, "Motivation is the influence of general pattern of activities indicating and
directing behaviour of the organism.

According to McDonald, "Motivation is an energy change within the person characterised by effective
arousal and anticipatory goal reactions.

Definition by Skinner, "Motivation in school learning involves arousing, persisting, sustaining and
directing desirable behaviour."

Process in Motivation:-

The elements of the process of motivation are: (1) Motivates, (2) Behaviour, (3) Goal, (4) Feedback.

(1) Motive:- Motives prompt learner to action. Motives determine the general direction of learner's
behaviour.

(2) Behaviour:- Behaviour is a series of activities of an individual. It generally motivated by a desire to

achieve a goal.

(3) Goal:- Motives are directed towards goals. Goals are the ends which provide satisfaction to
learners.

(4) Feedback:- Feedback may be in the form of reduction or increase in tension.

Nature of Motivation:-

Motivation is a psychological phenomena which generates within an individual. A person feels the lack
of certain needs, to satisfy which he feels working more. The need satisfying ego motivates a person
to do better than he normally does. From definitions given earlier the following inferences can be
derived:

• Motivation is an inner feeling which energizes a person to work more.

• The emotions or desires of a person prompt him for doing a particular work.
• There are unsatisfied needs of a person which disturb his equilibrium.
• A person moves to fulfil his unsatisfied needs by conditioning his energies.
• There are dormant energies in a person which are activated by channelizing them into actions.

Motivation Cycle:-

Motivation is a state of the organism which is initiated by some need that moves or drives the organism
from within and directs its activities to a goal that can bring about the satisfaction of that need. Hence
motivation constitutes a cycle completed in different stages:

(1) Need:- In the beginning, there is a need. desire or want.

(2) Drive:- Need, desire or want gives birth to a drive or motive.

(3) Motivate to Act:- The drive or motive so produced, then motivates the organism to act for reducing
the motive or drive.

(4) Goal-directed:- In this way, the behaviour of the organism becomes goal-directed.

(5) Reaching and Goal:- In the final stage of the motivational cycle, the organism reaches the desired
goal and his drive or motive is satisfied.

When the organism reaches the desired goal, he gets immediate reinforcement or encouragement. In
other words, he is further motivated. to act. The term "incentive" is frequently used for this stage of
motivational cycle. Incentives in this way, are the objectives or situations satisfying the desired motives
and intensifying the individual's motivation. Offering over-time allowance to an employee is an
example of incentive.

Sources of Motivation:-

There are four major sources of motivation: (1) Needs, (2) Drives, (3) Incentives and (4) Motives.

(1) Needs:- Every individual, who has his existence in this world, has to strive for the satisfaction of his
needs or wants. In the words of Boring, Langfeld and Weld, "A need is a tension within on organism
which tends to organise the field of organism with respect to certain incentives or goals and to incite
activity directed towards their attainment."

Needs are relatively permanent tendencies which seek their satisfaction in achieving certain specific
goals. When these goals are achieved, need no more exists for the time being. Need is different from
want in the sense that I may want a car. It may be want or wish but not essentially a need. But need is
always wanted. The needs can be classified in two categories:

1. Physiological Needs:- Physiological needs are those needs that are necessary for survival of
the individual e.g., need for food, rest, sleep, sex, light, elimination of all sorts, and needs for
activity.
 2. Psychological Needs:- Psychological needs include need for belongingness, need for security,
need for status and prestige, need for self-confidence, need for achievement, need for
independence, need for self-actualisation etc.

(2) Drive:- Drive is an original source of energy that activates the human organism. It is an intra-organic
activity or condition of tissue supplying stimulation for a particular type of behaviour. In words of
Shaffer and others, "A drive is a strong persistent stimulus that demands an adjunctive response."

All the drives are created by needs. Drives become active when there is some felt need. For example,
when there is a need of food, water and sex we feel hungry, thirsty and sexy respectively and these
are called drives. The term 'drive' is used for physiological needs. Need gives birth to drive. A drive is
because of needs. The drive directs the behaviour in a definite direction according to the needs.

(3) Incentive:- Those environmental things which satisfy the drives of a living being are called
incentives. For example, hunger drive is satisfied with food, so food is called incentive. But needs and
drives the internal requirements whereas the incentive is a thing or being which is found in
environment. Incentives incite, arouse, and move to action when they are associated with certain
stimuli which signal their presence.

According to Boring, Langfeld and Weld, "An incentive may be defined as an object, a situation or an
activity which excites, maintains and directs behaviour." In words of Hilgard, "In general an appropriate
incentive is one that can reduce the intensity of a drive." Incentive activates the activity. Incentives can
be of two types:

Positive incentives include praise, prize, smile, money.

Negative incentives include pain, punishment etc.

(4) Motives:- Motives take a variety of forms and are designated by many different terms such as
needs, desires, tensions, sets, determining tendencies, attitudes, interests, persisting stimuli and so
on. Some psychologists call motives as innate or acquired energies, and some psychologists call them
as physiological or psychological condition.

Types of motivation:-

The following are the types of motivation:

1. Positive Motivation:-

Positive motivation or incentive motivation is based on reward. The workers are offered incentives for
achieving the desired goals. The incentives may be in the shape of more pay, promotion, recognition
of work, etc. The employees are offered the incentives and try to improve their performance willingly.

According to Peter Drunker, the real and positive motivators are responsible for placement, high
standard of performance, information adequate for self-control and the participation of the worker as
a responsible citizen in the plant community. Positive motivation is achieved by the co-operation of
employees and they have a feeling of happiness.

2. Negative Motivation:-

Negative or fear motivation is based on force or fear. Fear causes employees to act in a certain way. In
case, they do not act accordingly then they may be punished with demotions or lay-offs. The fear acts
as a push mechanism. The employees do not willingly co-operate, rather they want to avoid the
punishment.
Though employees work up-to a level where punishment is avoided but this type of motivation causes
anger and frustration. This type of motivation generally becomes a cause of industrial unrest. In spite
of the drawbacks of negative motivation, this method is commonly used to achieve desired results.
There may be hardly any management which has not used negative motivation at one or the other
time.

Impact of Motivation:-

Anyone who has ever had a goal (like wanting to lose 20 pounds or run a marathon) probably
immediately realizes that simply having the desire to accomplish something is not enough. Achieving
such a goal the ability to persist through obstacles and endurance to keep going in spite of difficulties.

There are three major components of motivation: activation, persistence, and intensity.

Activation involves the decision to initiate a behaviour, such as enrolling in a psychology class.

Persistence is the continued effort toward a goal even though obstacles may exist. An example of
persistence would be taking more psychology courses in order to earn a degree although it requires a
significant investment of time, energy, and resources.

Intensity can be seen in the concentration and vigor that goes into pursuing a goal. For example, one
student might coast by without much effort, while another student will study regularly, participate in
discussions, and take advantage of research opportunities outside of class. The first student lacks
intensity, while the second pursues their educational goals with greater intensity.

Types of Motives:

Motives:-

I) Physiological Motives:

a. Hunger motive:

We eat to live. The food we take is digested and nutritional substances are absorbed. The biochemical
processes get their energy from the food in order to sustain life. When these substances are exhausted,
some imbalancement exists.

We develop hunger motive in order to maintain homeostasis. This is indicated by contraction of

stomach muscles causing some pain or discomfort called hunger pangs. Psychologists have
demonstrated this phenomenon by experiments.

b. Thirst motive:

In our daily life regularly we take fluids in the form of water and other beverages. These fluids are
essential for our body tissues for normal functioning. When the water level in the body decreases, we
develop motive to drink water.

Usually thirst motive is indicated by dryness of mouth. Experiments by psychologists have shown that
just dried mouth getting wetted is not enough. We need to drink sufficient quantity of water to satiate
our thirst.

c. Need for oxygen: Our body needs oxygen continuously. We get it through continuous respiration.
Oxygen is necessary for the purification of blood. We cannot survive without regular supply of oxygen.
Lack of oxygen supply may lead to serious consequences like damage to brain or death.
d. Motive for regulation of body temperature:

Maintenance of normal body temperature (98.6°F or 37.0°C) is necessary. Rise or fall in the body
temperature causes many problems. There are some automatic mechanisms to regulate body
temperature, like sweating when the temperature rises above normal or, shivering when it falls below
normal.

These changes motivate us to take necessary steps. For example, opening of windows, put on fans,
take cool drinks, remove clothes, etc., when the temperature increases to above normal level; and
closing doors and windows, wear sweaters, take hot beverages when temperature falls down. In this
way we try to regulate the body temperature.

e. Need for sleep:

Sleep is an essential process for normal functioning of body and mind. When our body and mind are
tired, they need rest for rejuvenation of energy. It is observed that there is excess accumulation of a
toxin called ‘Lactic acid’ when tired.

After sleep it disappears and the person becomes active. Sleep deprivation also leads to psychological
problems like confusion, inability to concentrate, droopy eyelids, muscle tremors, etc.

f. Need for avoidance of pain:

No organism can continue to bear pain. Whenever we experience pain, we try to avoid it. We are
motivated to escape from painful stimulus. For example, when we are under hot sun we go to shade.
When something is pinching, we avoid it.

g. Drive for elimination of waste:

Our body cannot bear anything excess or anything waste. Excess water is sent out in the form of urine
or sweat. So also digested food particles after absorption of nutritional substances are sent out in the
form of stools. We experience discomfort until these wastes are eliminated.

h. Sex motive:

This is a biological motive, arises in the organism as a result of secretion of sex hormones-like
androgens and estrogens. Sex need is not essential for the survival of the individual, but it is essential
for the survival of the species. However, fulfilment of the sex need is not like satisfying hunger or thirst.

The society and the law exercise certain codes of conduct. Human being has to adhere to these rules.
Usually this need is fulfilled through marriage.

i. Maternal drive:

This is an instinct or an inborn tendency. Every normal woman aspires to become a mother.
Psychologists have

Motivation, Emotion and Attitudinal Processes 123 learnt from related studies that; this is a most
powerful drive. That is why in many cases the women who cannot bear children of their own, will
sublimate that motive and satisfy it through socially acceptable ways, like working in orphan schools,
baby sittings or adopting other’s children.
II) Social Motives:

Physiological motives discussed above pertain to both animals as well as human beings, but the social
motives are specific only to human beings. These are called social motives, because they are learnt in
social groups as a result of interaction with the family and society. That is why their strength differs
from one individual to another. Many social motives are recognised by psychologists. Some of the
common social motives are:

a. Achievement motive:

Achievement motivation refers to a desire to achieve some goal. This motive is developed in the
individual who has seen some people in the society attaining high success, reaching high positions and
standards.

He/she develops a concern to do better, to improve performance. David C Mc Clelland who conducted
a longitudinal study on characteristics of high and low achievers found that the high achievers choose
and perform better at challenging tasks, prefers personal responsibility, seeks and utilizes feedback
about the performance standard, having innovative ideas to improve performance.

On the other hand, low achievers do not accept challenges, puts on average standards and accepts
failures easily. Parents must try to inculcate leadership qualities in children for better achievement in
their future life.

They must allow children to take decisions independently, and guide them for higher achievement
from the childhood, so that the children develop high achievement motivation.

b. Aggressive motive:

It is a motive to react aggressively when faced frustrations. Frustration may occur when a person is
obstructed from reaching a goal or when he is insulted by others. Even in a fearful and dangerous do
or die situation the individual may resort to aggressive behaviour. Individual expresses such behaviour
to overcome opposition forcefully, which may be physical or verbal aggression.

c. Power motive:

People with power motive will be concerned with having an impact on others. They try to influence
people by their reputation. They expect people to bow their heads and obey their instructions.

Usually people with high power motive choose jobs, where they can exert their powers. They want
people as followers. They expect high prestige and recognition from others. For example, a person may
aspire to go for jobs like Police Officer, Politician, Deputy Commissioner, etc.

d. Acquisitive motive:

This motive directs the individual for the acquisition of material property. It may be money or other
property. This motive arises as we come across different people who have earned a lot of money and
leading a good life. It is a human tendency to acquire all those things which appear attractive to him.

e. Curiosity motive:

This is otherwise called stimulus and exploration motive. Curiosity is a tendency to explore and know
new things. We see people indulge in a travelling to look at new places, new things and new
developments taking place outside their environment.
People want to extend their knowledge and experiences by exploring new things. Curiosity motive will
be very powerful during childhood. That is why they do not accept any toy or other articles unless they
examine them from different angles, even at the cost of spoiling or breaking the objects.

f. Gregariousness:

This is also known as affiliation need. Gregariousness is a tendency to associate oneself with other
members of the group or same species. The individual will be interested in establishing, maintaining
and repairing friendly relationships and will be interested in participating in group activities.

Individual will conform to social norms, mores and other ethical codes of the groups in which he/she
is interested. To the greater extent gregariousness is developed because many of the needs like basic
needs, safety and security needs are fulfilled.

In addition to the above there are some other social motives like need for self-esteem, social approval,
self-actualization, autonomy, master motive, combat, defence, abasement, etc.
Conflict:-

The word conflict has been derived from a Latin word ‘Conflicts’ which means ‘strike two things at the
same time’.

Conflict is an opposition or a tug-of-war between contradictory impulses. According to Colman ‘A

conflict is the anticipated frustration entailed in the choice of either alternative’. Conflicts occur in the
individual when more than one, equally powerful desires or motives present at the same time and
pressurize for immediate satisfaction.

If any one of the motive is weak, it will be suppressed and the stronger motive gains satisfaction.
Conflicts give rise to a lot of tension in the individual, he becomes completely disturbed. Tension
continues until a decision is taken and conflict is resolved.

In total conflict may be a friction between two desires, motives, needs or values, finally the stronger
one will take upper hand. Sometimes, when he cannot resolve the conflicts, the individual will be put
into severe consequences, which he cannot withstand and try to escape from the field itself through
unhealthy means.

Types of Conflicts:

There are different types of conflicts. Very common among them are:

a) Intrapersonal or Goal conflicts b) Interpersonal conflicts,

a. Intrapersonal conflicts:

These are the conflicts caused within the individual. These conflicts arise as a result of two or more
motives or goals to be achieved at a time. Hence, these are called goal conflicts. Lewin has described
three types of goal conflicts.

However, in addition to these there is one more conflict in which the individual faces more than one
attracting or repelling forces making the individual to experience more stress.

This is called multiple approach avoidance conflict. These are as follows:

1) Approach-approach conflict:

In this type of conflict individual will have two desires with positive valence which are equally powerful.
For example, a person has two attractive job offers and he has to choose any one of them- tension
arises.

Such conflicts are not so harmful, because after selecting one, the other one automatically subsides or
loses its importance to him. But in some situation choice will be very difficult. For example, a girl has
to choose either loving parents or a boyfriend for inter-caste marriage. Such cases are like ‘you cannot
have the cake and eat it too’. The individual will be psychologically torn and may lose equilibrium.

2) Avoidance-avoidance conflict:

This conflict involves two goals with negative valence. At times the individual is forced to choose one
among two negative goals. In such conflicts, both are unwanted goals, but he cannot keep quiet
without opting also. For example, a woman must work at a job which she dislikes very much or else
she has to remain unemployed.
Here the individual is caught between two repelling threats, fears or situations. When she cannot
choose either of them, she may try to escape from the field itself. But the consequences of the escape
may also be harmful. For example, a person who cannot convince the mother or the wife may resort
to Alcohol consumption which is otherwise dangerous or some people may even commit suicide.

In the event of such conflicts when there is no way to escape- some people may find a way to reduce
their tension by developing ‘amnesia’ or defence mechanisms like regression or fantasy.

3) Approach-avoidance conflict:

This is also a most complex conflict and very difficult to resolve. Because in this type of conflict a person
is both attracted and repelled by the same goal object. Here the goal object will have both positive
and negative valences. The positive valence attracts the person, but as he approaches, the negative
valence repels him back. Attraction of the goal and inability to approach it leads to frustration and
tension.

For example, a person is approaching to accept a job offer, because the salary is attractive- but at the
same time he is repelled back as the job is very risky. A man wants to marry to lead a family life, but
does not want the responsibilities of family life.

4) Multiple-approach-avoidance conflict:

Some of the situations in life we come across will involve both positive and negative valences of
multiple nature. Suppose a woman is engaged to be married. The marriage to her has positive valences
like-providing security to life and marrying a person whom she loves very much.

Suppose, on the other hand, if the marriage is repellent to her because she has to quit her attractive
job and salary, recognition which makes her dependent, the situation builds up tension in her.

The resolution of this conflict depends upon the sum total of both valences. If the sum total of
attractive valence takes upper hand, she will quit the job and go for marriage; otherwise she may reject
marriage and continue the job if the sum total of negative valence is powerful.

2. Resolution of Conflicts:

The conflicts may arise from frustrations, competing roles or goals having positive or negative valences.
Some conflicts are of great danger to mental health of the individual. Hence, it is necessary to resolve
them as quickly as possible.

Otherwise, they may be carried on to the unconscious level, resulting in psychological problems and
psychosomatic disorders. The clash between the urges, desires and motives may go on without being
fully aware of it. These forces may disturb the individual causing lot of mental turmoil.

Conflicts resolution depends upon the type of conflict. The double approach conflict may be easily
resolved by satisfying first one goal which is more important than the other; for instance, a student
attending the class first, then going for food even if hungry.

Alternatively, this conflict is resolved by giving up one of the goals. Obviously, approach-approach
conflict does not generate much anxiety, because the individual is not going to lose much.

The double avoidance conflict is more complex. Since the individual does not want either of the goals,
he experiences more repelling effect as he moves near one goal by rejecting the other. Finally when it
is unbearable, the individual tries to leave the conflict situation, but the other factors in periphery of
the situation makes it difficult.
For example, a student who cannot face examination or failure may try to rim away from home, but
the love and affection of the parents or financial problems may prevent him from doing so. Some
people may resort to other means to get relief from tension, such as day dreaming, taking alcohol,
chain smoking, suicide, etc. Totally avoidance by some means is the goal of the individual.

In approach-avoidance conflict, since there is only one goal object, it is very difficult to decide. Here,
compromise with the situation is the only alternative solution to overcome stress resulting from
conflict.

Finally, in multiple approach-avoidance conflict the individual has to take a decision depending upon
the sum total of positive or negative valences resulting in selection of goals.

Though these are the coping strategies at individual level, people facing conflicts may help themselves
by examining the causes of conflicts clearly, trying to choose the best alternative, early decision
making, etc.

They have to make use of their creative thinking, divergent reasoning and proper perception of the
situations. Motives may influence our behaviour, but the individual should not be the slave of his
motives, instead he should be the master of his motives, so that he can have control over them. Finally
taking advice from parents, elders, teachers and counsellors will be of great help to cope with and to
resolve conflicts,

b. Interpersonal conflicts:

Interpersonal conflict is caused between individuals. This can be resolved through some strategies such
as avoiding, smoothing, forcing, confronting and compromising. Assertive behaviour and I am ok, you
are ok interpersonal orientation help to resolve such conflicts easily.

3. Unconscious Conflict:

The mental conflict below the level of conscious awareness is called unconscious conflict. The conflicts
in conscious level, when repressed, shifts to unconscious. Here the desires which cannot be satisfied
at conscious level are repressed to unconscious level as a mechanism of escaping. Many of our wants
raised by Id may not be socially acceptable. Such wants are objected by the Ego and the Super ego.
Hence these are repressed to unconscious.

The repressed desires or wishes remain active in the unconscious part of our mind. They slowly gather
strength by making alliance with other similar experiences and become stronger. This group of
repressed wants which is working for the satisfaction try to come back to the conscious. This process
is called complex. As soon as complexes are formed, they give rise to conflicts in the unconscious.

They try to come back to conscious, but prevented by censor or preconscious. So they try to enter the
conscious level when censor is at rest or sleep. They may appear in the form of dreams, slip of tongue,
slip of pen, motivated forgetting, etc. Sometimes they may appear in the form of peculiar behaviour
and mannerisms.
FRUSTRATION:-

The word frustration has been derived from a Latin word ‘Frusta’ means ‘obstruct’. The term frustration
refers to the blocking of behaviour directed towards the goal. The course of motivation does not always
run smoothly. Things that happen prevent us from reaching the goals toward which we are driven or
pulled.

If motives are frustrated or blocked, emotional feelings and behaviour often result. People who cannot
achieve their important goals feel depressed, fearful, anxious, guilty or angry.

Hence, frustration is called as a ‘negative feeling’. Figure 4.2 showing the frustration by environmental
and personal obstacles. A barrier (vertical line) stands between an individual and the goal (+) that
attracts the individual.

The barrier may be another person or object in the environment or it may be the individual’s own lack
of ability or skill.

Sources of Frustration:

There are three important sources of frustration:

1. Environmental forces:

Environmental obstacles can frustrate the satisfaction of motives by making it difficult or impossible
for a person to attain a goal.

An obstacle may be physical- such as untimely rain, disruption in electric supply, auto strike, famine,
earthquake, war, floods, etc., or it may be people such as parents or society who obstruct the fulfilment
of wants. For example, Inter-caste marriage, change of religion, etc. Even the social norms, codes of
conduct may cause frustration.

2. Personal inadequacies:

Unattainable goals or too high goals which are beyond the ability level of a person can be important
sources of frustration.

These are learned goals. For instance, a student with average level of intelligence aspires to score 90%
of marks in the examination will definitely face frustration. A physically handicapped person cannot
aspire to compete against a normal person in running race.

Thus, people are often frustrated because they aspire for goals which are not attainable by them, or
the goals are beyond their abilities.

3. Conflict produced frustration:

A major source of frustration is found in motivational conflict, in which the expression of one motive
interferes with the expression of other motives. Some common conflicts are between independence
and affiliation need, or career aspiration and economic realities.

For example, a person is motivated to be independent but at the same time he cannot neglect his
affiliation motive. A student may have high aspiration to pursue higher education, but too much
expenditure comes in between.

In this way we come across many frustrations due to conflict- as is said ‘life is full of conflicts and the
frustrations arising from them’.
Reactions to Frustrations:-

Frustrations are unavoidable. Hence, as far as possible we should learn to grow facing these
frustrations. Particularly in children, facing frustrations make them stronger and help them to develop
self-confidence.

As Symonds has rightly said, ‘a child will explore and gain knowledge of the external world only at the
behest of frustration’. The effects of frustrations will not be severe if there is high level of frustration
tolerance.

At the same time long, continued frustrations are not desirable. They may lead to serious psychological
problems.

Generally our reactions to frustrations will be as follows:

1. Attack or direct approach:

In this approach the individual will try to overcome obstacles to reach the goal. If necessary, he may
develop new and necessary skills, put more effort or change the mode of attack or approach. In case
of failure he may change the goal to one that is available.

2. Reduce the level of goal:

When a person fails to attain his goal even after repeated attempts, he may realize his inabilities and
limitations and try to reduce his level of goal to avoid further disappointment. For example, a
sportsman may reduce his level of goal after realizing that he cannot attain higher level goal. A student,
who fails to achieve high percentage of marks, may reduce his goal to an attainable level and avoid
frustration.

3. Aggressiveness:

Many people may react to the situation in an aggressive way. Aggressive reaction is very common
when some external obstacles like other people or object is the cause of frustration. He may attempt
to cause damage to these sources.

4. Withdrawal:

When all the measures said above become ineffective, the individual develops feelings of helplessness,
inadequacy and inferiority. These negative feelings make him to withdraw from the situation in order
to avoid further damage.

5. Compromise:

In some cases the individual does not want to accept the humiliation due to failure, at the same time
he is unable to face the situation also. So finally he will resort to compromise to save his self-respect.
Measures to Face Frustration:-

However, we can save ourselves from the severe damaging effect to our personality and avoid painful
experiences by adapting the following measures:

a. Review the situation:

At times our perception of the situation may be wrong. Hence, review the situation again and try to
understand the gravity of the situation. This will help you to adapt appropriate measures / steps. For
example, financial level and career aspiration, inter group conflicts, etc.

b. Change our goals:

People tend to set the goals according to their level of aspirations. But these goals may be very high
when compared to their abilities-leading to frustration. Hence, we have to set the goals according to
our ability level.

However, in case of frustration, the intelligent behaviour is to reduce the level of goal, change them or
modify our desires. For example, a sportsman aspiring to jump 6′, when found that he is not capable,
may reduce the goal to jump only 5′.

c. Opt for substitute goals:

In some instances the original goals will be highly impossible to attain. But we cannot forgo completely
and keep quite. But we can opt for substitute goals. For example, a student is not good in studies may
shift his option to sports or cultural activities to gain recognition in the college.
The Hierarchy of Needs Five-Stage Model:-

According to Maslow (1943, 1954), human needs were arranged in the form of a hierarchy, with
physiological (survival) needs at the bottom, and the more creative and intellectually oriented ‘self-
actualization’ needs at the top.

Maslow argued that survival needs must be satisfied before the individual can satisfy the higher needs.
The higher up the hierarchy, the more difficult it is to satisfy the needs associated with that stage,
because of the interpersonal and environmental barriers that inevitably frustrate us.

Higher needs become increasingly psychological and long-term rather than physiological and short-
term, as in the lower survival-related needs.

1. Physiological needs these are biological requirements for human survival, e.g., air, food, drink,
shelter, clothing, warmth, sex, and sleep.

Our most basic need is for physical survival, and this will be the first thing that motivates our behaviour.
Once that level is fulfilled, the next level up is what motivates us, and so on.

If these needs are not satisfied, the human body cannot function optimally. Maslow considered
physiological needs the most important as all the other needs become secondary until these needs
are met.

Once an individual’s physiological needs are satisfied, the needs for security and safety become salient.

2. Safety needs – people want to experience order, predictability, and control in their lives.

Safety needs can be fulfilled by the family and society (e.g., police, schools, business, and medical
care).

For example, emotional security, financial security (e.g., employment, social welfare), law and order,
freedom from fear, social stability, property, health and wellbeing (e.g., safety against accidents and
injury).

After physiological and safety needs have been fulfilled, the third level of human needs is social and
involves feelings of belongingness.

3. Love and belongingness needs – belongingness refers to a human emotional need for interpersonal
relationships, affiliating, connectedness, and being part of a group.

Examples of belongingness needs include friendship, intimacy, trust, acceptance, receiving and giving
affection, and love.

This need is especially strong in childhood and can override the need for safety as witnessed in children
who cling to abusive parents.

4. Esteem needs are the fourth level in Maslow’s hierarchy and include self-worth, accomplishment,
and respect.

Maslow classified esteem needs into two categories: (i) esteem for oneself (dignity, achievement,
mastery, independence) and (ii) the desire for reputation or respect from others (e.g., status, prestige).

Esteem presents the typical human desire to be accepted and valued by others. People often engage
in a profession or hobby to gain recognition. These activities give the person a sense of contribution
or value.
Low self-esteem or an inferiority complex may result from imbalances during this level in the hierarchy.

Maslow indicated that the need for respect or reputation is most important for children and
adolescents and precedes real self-esteem or dignity.

5. Self-actualization needs are the highest level in Maslow’s hierarchy, and refer to the realization of a
person’s potential, self-fulfilment, seeking personal growth, and peak experiences.

This level of need refers to what a person’s full potential is and the realization of that potential.

Maslow (1943, 1987, p. 64) describes this level as the desire to accomplish everything that one can,
and “to become everything one is capable of becoming”.

Individuals may perceive or focus on this need very specifically. For example, one individual may have
a strong desire to become an ideal parent.

In another, the desire may be expressed athletically. For others, it may be expressed in paintings,
pictures, or inventions.

Although Maslow did not believe that many of us could achieve true self-actualization, he did believe
that all of us experience transitory moments (known as ‘peak experiences’) of self-actualization.

Such moments, associated with personally significant events such as childbirth, sporting achievement
and examination success), are difficult to achieve and maintain consistently.

Maslow posited that human needs are arranged in a hierarchy:

“It is quite true that man lives by bread alone — when there is no bread. But what happens to man’s
desires when there is plenty of bread and when his belly is chronically filled?

At once other (and “higher”) needs emerge and these, rather than physiological hungers, dominate
the organism. And when these in turn are satisfied, again new (and still “higher”) needs emerge and
so on. This is what we mean by saying that the basic human needs are organized into a hierarchy of
relative prepotency” (Maslow, 1943, p. 375) .

Maslow continued to refine his theory based on the concept of a hierarchy of needs over several
decades (Maslow, 1943, 1962, 1987).

Regarding the structure of his hierarchy, Maslow (1987) proposed that the order in the hierarchy “is
not nearly as rigid” (p. 68) as he may have implied in his earlier description.

Maslow noted that the order of needs might be flexible based on external circumstances or individual
differences. For example, he notes that for some individuals, the need for self-esteem is more
important than the need for love. For others, the need for creative fulfilment may supersede even the
most basic needs.

Maslow (1987) also pointed out that most behaviour is multi-motivated and noted that “any behaviour
tends to be determined by several or all of the basic needs simultaneously rather than by only one of
them”.
EMOTION:-

The term emotion is derived from Latin term “emovere” which means to stir, to agitate, to move.
Hence, an emotion is referred to as a stirred-up state of the organism. We feel agitated or excited when
we experience anger, fear, joy, grief, disgust, etc. An emotional state consists of feelings, impulses,
physical and physiological reactions.

A feeling is the experience of pleasantness or unpleasantness. Every emotion is also accompanied by

an impulse or inner drives towards action of one kind or another. The mode of expression depends
upon the intensity of emotion. Physical and physiological components refer to the actual body
movements. An emotion is always aroused by certain stimulus which may be any people, object or
event.

Different persons may respond with different emotions to the same stimulus. So emotion stands for a
wide range of behaviours like love, anger, jealousy, etc. There is a specific condition of the mind when
one feels such thing like fear, anger or joy. Psychologists have termed these mental conditions as
emotions.

Nature of Emotions:-

Emotions are characterized by three elements:

Physical arousal- created by the sympathetic nervous system

Behaviour –to reveal the feeling to the outside world

Cognitive – An inner awareness of the feeling.

Types of Emotions:-

In addition to different theories about the development of emotions, there are also various theories
as to how many types of emotions humans experience. As mentioned, psychologist Paul Ekman
established the following six universal emotions:

Happiness:-

Of all the different types of emotions, happiness tends to be the one that people strive for the most.
Happiness is often defined as a pleasant emotional state that is characterized by feelings of
contentment, joy, gratification, satisfaction, and well-being.

Research on happiness has increased significantly since the 1960s within a number of disciplines,
including the branch of psychology known as positive psychology. This type of emotion is sometimes
expressed through:

Facial expressions: such as smiling

Body language: such as a relaxed stance

Tone of voice: an upbeat, pleasant way of speaking

While happiness is considered one of the basic human emotions, the things we think will create
happiness tend to be heavily influenced by culture. For example, pop culture influences tend to
emphasize that attaining certain things such as buying a home or having a high-paying job will result
in happiness.
The realities of what actually contributes to happiness are often much more complex and more highly
individualized. People have long believed that happiness and health were connected, and research has
supported the idea that happiness can play a role in both physical and mental health.

Happiness has been linked to a variety of outcomes including increased longevity and increased marital
satisfaction. Conversely, unhappiness has been linked to a variety of poor health outcomes.

Stress, anxiety, depression, and loneliness, for example, have been linked to things such as lowered
immunity, increased inflammation, and decreased life expectancy.

Sadness:-

Sadness is another type of emotion often defined as a transient emotional state characterized by
feelings of disappointment, grief, hopelessness, disinterest, and dampened mood.

Like other emotions, sadness is something that all people experience from time to time. In some cases,
people can experience prolonged and severe periods of sadness that can turn into depression. Sadness
can be expressed in a number of ways including:

Crying

Dampened mood

Lethargy

Quietness

Withdrawal from others

The type and severity of sadness can vary depending upon the root cause, and how people cope with
such feelings can also differ.

Sadness can often lead people to engage in coping mechanisms such as avoiding other people, self-
medicating, and ruminating on negative thoughts. Such behaviours can actually exacerbate feelings of
sadness and prolong the duration of the emotion.

Fear:-

Fear is a powerful emotion that can also play an important role in survival. When you face some sort
of danger and experience fear, you go through what is known as the fight or flight response.

Your muscles become tense, your heart rate and respiration increase, and your mind becomes more
alert, priming your body to either run from the danger or stand and fight.5

This response helps ensure that you are prepared to effectively deal with threats in your environment.
Expressions of this type of emotion can include:

Facial expressions: such as widening the eyes and pulling back the chin

Body language: attempts to hide or flea from the threat

Physiological reactions: such as rapid breathing and heartbeat

Of course, not everyone experiences fear in the same way. Some people may be more sensitive to fear
and certain situations or objects may be more likely to trigger this emotion.
Fear is the emotional response to an immediate threat. We can also develop a similar reaction to
anticipated threats or even our thoughts about potential dangers, and this is what we generally think
of as anxiety. Social anxiety, for example, involves an anticipated fear of social situations. Some people,
on the other hand, actually seek out fear-provoking situations. Extreme sports and other thrills can be
fear-inducing, but some people seem to thrive and even enjoy such feelings. Repeated exposure to a
fear object or situation can lead to familiarity and acclimation, which can reduce feelings of fear and
anxiety. This is the idea behind exposure therapy, in which people are gradually exposed to the things
that frighten them in a controlled and safe manner. Eventually, feelings of fear begin to decrease.

Disgust:-

Disgust is another of the original six basic emotions described by Eckman. Disgust can be displayed in
a number of ways including:

Body language: turning away from the object of disgust

Physical reactions: such as vomiting or retching

Facial expressions: such as wrinkling the nose and curling the upper lip

This sense of revulsion can originate from a number of things, including an unpleasant taste, sight, or
smell. Researchers believe that this emotion evolved as a reaction to foods that might be harmful or
fatal. When people smell or taste foods that have gone bad, for example, disgust is a typical reaction.

Poor hygiene, infection, blood, rot, and death can also trigger a disgust response. This may be the
body's way of avoiding things that may carry transmittable diseases.7

People can also experience moral disgust when they observe others engaging in behaviours that they
find distasteful, immoral, or evil.

Anger:-

Anger can be a particularly powerful emotion characterized by feelings of hostility, agitation,

frustration, and antagonism towards others. Like fear, anger can play a part in your body's fight or flight
response.

When a threat generates feelings of anger, you may be inclined to fend off the danger and protect
yourself. Anger is often displayed through:

Facial expressions: such as frowning or glaring

Body language: such as taking a strong stance or turning away

Tone of voice: such as speaking gruffly or yelling

Physiological responses: such as sweating or turning red

Aggressive behaviours: such as hitting, kicking, or throwing objects

While anger is often thought of as a negative emotion, it can sometimes be a good thing. It can be
constructive in helping clarify your needs in a relationship, and it can also motivate you to take action
and find solutions to things that are bothering you.

Anger can become a problem, however, when it is excessive or expressed in ways that are unhealthy,
dangerous, or harmful to others. Uncontrolled anger can quickly turn to aggression, abuse, or violence.
Anger Issues: Take the Test

This type of emotion can have both mental and physical consequences. Unchecked anger can make it
difficult to make rational decisions and can even have an impact on your physical health.8

Anger has been linked to coronary heart diseases and diabetes. It has also been linked to behaviours
that pose health risks such as aggressive driving, alcohol consumption, and smoking.

Surprise:-

Surprise is another one of the six basic types of human emotions originally described by Eckman.
Surprise is usually quite brief and is characterized by a physiological startle response following
something unexpected.

This type of emotion can be positive, negative, or neutral. An unpleasant surprise, for example, might
involve someone jumping out from behind a tree and scaring you as you walk to your car at night.

An example of a pleasant surprise would be arriving home to find that your closest friends have
gathered to celebrate your birthday. Surprise is often characterized by:

Facial expressions: such as raising the brows, widening the eyes, and opening the mouth

Physical responses: such as jumping back

Verbal reactions: such as yelling, screaming, or gasping

Surprise is another type of emotion that can trigger the fight or flight response. When startled, people
may experience a burst of adrenaline that helps prepare the body to either fight or flee.9

Surprise can have important effects on human behaviour. For example, research has shown that people
tend to disproportionately notice surprising events.

This is why surprising and unusual events in the news tend to stand out in memory more than others.
Research has also found that people tend to be more swayed by surprising arguments and learn more
from surprising information.

A few theories are discussed in brief here under:

1. James-Lange Theory:

Generally a layman believes that the physiological changes associated with emotion follow the
conscious experience of the individual. Accordingly, we cry because we are sad, we run because we
are afraid, we fight because we are angry.

Thus, emotion produces necessary physiological changes and expresses itself overtly. But American
psychologist William James and Danish physiologist Carl Lange proposed that the physiological
changes give rise to corresponding emotional experiences.

Accordingly, we are afraid because we run, we are angry because we strike, we feel sorry because we
cry. This theory proposes that we perceive the situation, we react and then we notice our emotions.

Hence, according to this theory, fear, anger or sorrow is not the cause, but the effect of stirred up state
of the body- that is, the felt emotion is the perception of bodily changes. However, many objections
are raised against this theory.
2. Cannon-Bard Theory:

Walter B Cannon and Philip Bard proposed a new theory, on the basis of their findings by conducting
operations on various parts of brain, including hypothalamus and cerebral cortex. According to this
theory, the felt emotion and bodily reactions in emotion are independent of each other, both are
triggered simultaneously. These theorists propose that, the cerebral cortex receives the sensory input
from the environment, processes it and then passes the results to the thalamus.

Then the thalamic activity produces the emotional experience and as a switch board mechanism,
relays the impulses to the brain and the hypothalamus at a time.

In turn the hypothalamus reacts with corresponding emotional feeling and stimulates the sympathetic
nervous system, which leads to eventual behavioural expression of emotional states. In other words,
impulses are sent simultaneously to the cerebral cortex and peripheral nervous system. Thus, the
stimulus and the response to the stimulus are experienced at the same time but independently.

3. Cognitive Theory:

Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer proposed this theory in 1962. This is also known as ‘cognitive
appraisal theory’, because the intensity of emotion depends upon the cognitive appraisal of the
situation.

These theorists state that generalized physiological excitation is the characteristic of emotional state.
This emotional state may be considered a function of a state of physiological arousal and of cognition
(past experience) appropriate to this state of arousal.

Thus, people experience internal arousal, seek an explanation for it, identify an external cue and finally
label the cue.

For example, a person labels and understands his feelings as anger, fear, joy, etc., in terms of the nature
of the event that trigger the emotion, and his understanding or interpretation of that event. If the
situation involves the presence of a snake, he interprets the arousal of fear, whereas if it involves
someone using his camera for recording, he would interpret as anger.

Thus, cognitive factors do play a very significant role in emotions. This theory has incorporated the
elements of both James-Lange and Cannon-Bard theory (See Panel C above). In addition to the above,
there are other theories also, viz., Watson’s theory of emotion, Emergency theories, Evolution theory,
Homeostasis theory, etc. which explain the emotional process in the individual.