Memory: Memory means the faculty by which the mind stores and remembers information.

It refers to the
processes that are used to acquire, store, retain, and later retrieve information.

According to Crider Memory is the ability to store information so that it can be used at a later time.

Memory processing: It is process which involves how the information or experiences is encoded, stored
and recalled. This process has three stages.

1. Encoding.
2. Storage.
3. Retrieval.

Encoding: When information comes into our memory system through sensory input we can’t store it
directly we need to change a form that the system can cope with so that it can be stored. This process is
called encoding. There are three main ways in which information can be encoded. These are,

1. Visual.
2. Acoustic.
3. Semantic.

Visual: Information stored as a picture.

Acoustic: Information stored as a sound. Acoustic coding system is the principle coding system for short
term memory to encoded information.

Semantic: Information stored as a meaning. Semantic coding system is the principle coding system for
short term memory to encoded information.

For example, a word written in a whiteboard can’t be stored in directly it can be stored as a picture or
meaning.

Storage: This stage determined where the information is stored, how long the memory lasts for (duration),
how much can be stored at any time (capacity) and what kind of information is held.

Retrieval: This stage is concern how the stored information is retrieved accurately for later recall.

Types of memory: Atkinson & Shiffrin proposed that there are three types of memory. These are,

1. Sensory memory.
2. Short-term memory.
3. Long- term memory.

Sensory memory: Sensory memory is the earliest stage of memory. During this stage, sensory information
from the environment is stored for a very brief period of time, generally for no longer than a half-second
for visual information and 3 or 4 seconds for auditory information. 

Types of Sensory Memory

1. Iconic memory. This is associated with things that you see.
2. Echoic memory. This is associated with sound and hearing.
3. Haptic memory. This type of memory is related to your sense of touch.
4. Olfactory memory. This is associated with smell.
5. Gustatory memory. Associated with taste.
Short-term memory: Short-term memory, also known as active memory, is the capacity to store a small
amount of information in the mind and keep it readily available for a short period of time.

Characteristics of short term memory:

1. Limited capacity: Only about seven items can be stored at a time.

2. Limited duration: According to Atkinson & Shiffrin the duration of short term memory seems
between 15 to 30 seconds.

Forgetting information from short term memory: Forgetting information from short term memory (STM)
can be explained using the theories of trace decay and displacement.

Trace decay theory of forgetting short term memory: Trace decay theory states that forgetting occurs as a
result of the automatic decay or fading of the memory trace.
Displacement: Displacement theory provides a very simple explanation of forgetting.  Due to limited
capacity we forget older information which is displaced by newer information.

Long term memory: Long-term memory refers to the storage of information over an extended period.
This type of memory tends to be stable and can last a long time—often for years.

Characteristics of LTM:

1. The capacity of LTM could be unlimited.

2. Duration might be few minutes to life time.

Types of LTM: Long-term memory is usually divided into two types. These are,
1. Explicit memory.
2. Implicit memory.

Explicit memories: It is also known as declarative memories, include all of the memories that are
available in consciousness.

Types of explicit memory: There are two types of explicit memory. These are,

1. Episodic memory.
2. Semantic memory.

Episodic memory: Episodic memory is a category of long-term memory that involves the recollection of
specific events, situations, and experiences. For an example would be a memory of our 1st day at school.

Semantic memory: Semantic memory is a part of the explicit long-term memory responsible for storing
information about the world. 
For example, London is the capital of England. It involves conscious thought and is declarative.
Implicit memory: Implicit memories are those that are mostly unconscious. This type of memory includes
procedural memory, which involves memories of body movement and how to use objects in the
environment. How to drive a car or use a computer are examples of procedural memories.

Forgetting information from long term memory: Forgetting from long term memory (LTM) can be
explained using the theories of interference and lack of consolidation.

Theories of interference: Interference theory states that forgetting occurs because memories interfere with
and disrupt one another. It was assumed that memory can be disrupted or interfered with by what we have
previously learned or by what we will learn in the future. There are two ways in which interference can
cause forgetting.

1. Proactive interference: It occurs when you cannot learn a new task because of an old task that had
been learnt.
2. Retroactive interference: It occurs when you forget a previously learnt task due to the learning of
a new task.

Lack of consolidation: Previously described causes were psychological cause but forgetting is occurred
due to the biological causes also. Brain anatomy and chemistry are mostly responsible for remembering
such as hippocampus, neurons and neurotransmitter. When we find damage in those brain areas and find
abnormality in neurotransmitter functions then the information is forgotten.

Selective attention: We are constantly bombarded by an endless array of internal and external stimuli,
thoughts, and emotions. Due to nature of limited capacity we can’t focus to all. We have to focus a
relevant few of them. Selective attention is the process of directing our awareness to relevant stimuli
while ignoring irrelevant stimuli in the environment.

Selective recall: Individual has often tendency to memories of highly fearful experiences and more easily
retrieved than memories of non fearful experiences. This tendency is called selective recall. For an
example, snake phobic person can easily remember their fearful experience with snake.

False memory: Sometimes factors causes for memory distortion not only distort the memory but also help
to create completely new memories, this is known as false memory. That means it is psychological
phenomenon whereby an individual recall an event that never happened. For example, believing that you
had called a friend in the morning but actually you had not.

Memory distortions: People have tendencies to distort their memories. For example, just saying
something has happened to you makes you more likely to think it really happened. These distortions tend
to occur in seven specific ways, which Schacter refers to as the “seven sins of memory.” Here are
Schacter’s “seven sins”:

1. Transience
2. Absent-mindedness
3. Blocking tip of tongue phenomenon
4. Misattribution
5. Suggestibility
6. Bias
7. Persistence

Problems with memory:

Problem with memories:

Dissociative amnesia: It is a type of dissociative disorder that involves inability to recall important
personal information that would not typically be lost with ordinary forgetting. It is usually caused by
trauma or stress.

Localized amnesia: It involves being unable to recall a specific event or events or a specific period of
time; these gaps in memory are usually related to trauma or stress.

Selective Amnesia: Selective amnesia involves forgetting only some of the events during a certain period
of time or only part of a traumatic event. Patients may have both localized and selective amnesia.

Generalized amnesia: People with generalized amnesia forget their identify and life history—who they
are, where they went, to whom they spoke, and what they did, said, thought, experienced, and felt.

Continuous amnesia: Patients forget each new event as it occurs.