4.1 What is meant by ‘Intervention‘ in International Relations?

Make a detailed explanation with

examples?

In the field of International Relations, the term "intervention" refers to the deliberate and active involvement
of one or more states or international actors in the affairs of another state. It involves actions taken to
influence, disrupt, or shape the political, economic, social, or military dynamics of a target state or region.
Interventions can be carried out for various reasons, such as to protect national interests, promote stability,
prevent human rights abuses, or respond to humanitarian crises. Let's explore different types of interventions
and provide examples for better understanding:

Military Intervention: This type of intervention involves the use of military force by one or more states to
influence the outcome of a conflict or to address a specific threat. Examples include the U.S.-led military
intervention in Afghanistan in 2001 to dismantle the Taliban regime and the NATO intervention in Libya in
2011 to protect civilians during the Libyan civil war.

Humanitarian Intervention: Humanitarian interventions are aimed at alleviating the suffering of populations
facing severe humanitarian crises, such as genocide, ethnic cleansing, or large-scale human rights abuses. An
example is the international intervention in the Balkans during the 1990s, where NATO conducted airstrikes
against Bosnian Serb forces and later deployed peacekeeping troops to protect civilians.

Economic Intervention: Economic interventions occur when states or international organizations intervene in
the economic affairs of another state. This can involve imposing economic sanctions, providing financial aid
or loans, or influencing trade policies. For instance, the European Union's economic intervention in Greece
during its debt crisis involved imposing austerity measures and providing bailout funds to stabilize the
country's economy.

Diplomatic Intervention: Diplomatic interventions aim to resolve conflicts or disputes through negotiations,
mediation, or diplomatic pressure. Examples include diplomatic efforts to prevent the proliferation of
nuclear weapons, such as the negotiations with Iran to curb its nuclear program through the Joint
Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA).

Political Intervention: Political interventions involve influencing the political processes and governance
structures of another state. This can include supporting political factions, promoting democratization, or
influencing electoral processes. One example is the U.S. intervention in Iraq in 2003, where efforts were
made to establish a democratic system after the removal of Saddam Hussein's regime.

Cyber Intervention: With the increasing significance of cyberspace, interventions in the form of cyberattacks
or cyber operations have become prevalent. These interventions aim to disrupt or influence a state's critical
infrastructure, communications, or political processes. The alleged Russian interference in the 2016 U.S.
presidential election through cyber means is a notable example.
It's important to note that interventions can be controversial and subject to debate, as they involve
encroachments on state sovereignty and may have unintended consequences. The legality and legitimacy of
interventions are often discussed within the framework of international law and ethical considerations.

4.2 What is the ‘Intervention Process‘ in International Relations? Make a detailed explanation with
examples?

The intervention process in International Relations refers to the series of steps or stages that are typically
followed when a state or international actor decides to intervene in the affairs of another state. This process
involves various considerations, decision-making, planning, and execution. While the specific steps may
vary depending on the situation, here is a general overview of the intervention process along with examples:

Issue Identification: The first step is identifying an issue or situation that prompts the need for intervention.
This can range from conflicts, humanitarian crises, human rights abuses, threats to national security, or other
challenges. For example, the ongoing civil war in Syria and the resulting humanitarian crisis prompted
international actors to consider intervention.

Decision-Making and Justification: Once the issue is identified, the intervening state or states must make a
decision to intervene. This involves assessing the situation, weighing the potential costs and benefits,
considering legal and moral justifications, and evaluating the feasibility of intervention. The decision-
making process may involve consultations with other states, international organizations, and regional actors.
For instance, in the case of the NATO intervention in Libya, a decision was made based on the justification
of protecting civilians from the Gaddafi regime's violence.

Formulating Intervention Objectives: Clear objectives are established to define the desired outcomes of the
intervention. These objectives may include promoting stability, protecting human rights, preventing further
violence, or achieving specific political or military goals. The objectives help guide the planning and
execution of the intervention. In the case of the U.S. military intervention in Afghanistan, the primary
objective was to dismantle the Taliban regime and eliminate terrorist groups.

Planning and Resource Allocation: Detailed planning takes place, involving military, diplomatic, and
logistical considerations. Resources, including troops, equipment, funding, and diplomatic efforts, are
allocated accordingly. The planning phase also involves coordination with allies and international partners.
For example, in the planning phase of the humanitarian intervention in Somalia in the 1990s, the United
Nations coordinated with member states to form a multinational force to provide humanitarian assistance
and restore stability.

Execution and Implementation: The intervention is executed based on the formulated plans and objectives.
This can involve military operations, diplomatic negotiations, economic sanctions, humanitarian aid
delivery, or a combination of approaches. The execution phase requires close coordination among the
intervening actors and adaptation to changing circumstances on the ground. During the execution of the
intervention in Mali in 2013, France led a military operation to counter Islamist militant groups and support
the Malian government.

Monitoring and Evaluation: Throughout the intervention process, monitoring and evaluation mechanisms are
established to assess the progress, effectiveness, and impact of the intervention. This involves gathering
data, conducting assessments, and analyzing the outcomes against the stated objectives. Adjustments may be
made based on the evaluation findings. For instance, in the case of peacekeeping interventions, monitoring
and evaluation processes are crucial for assessing the mission's impact on peace and stability.

It's important to note that the intervention process can be complex and subject to uncertainties, challenges,
and unforeseen consequences. The effectiveness and legitimacy of interventions are often evaluated based
on the adherence to international law, respect for human rights, and the achievement of the desired
outcomes.

4.3 What are the ‘Intervention Techniques‘ in International Relations? Make a detailed explanation
with examples?

In the field of International Relations, intervention techniques refer to the various methods and approaches
used by states or international actors to implement interventions in the affairs of other states. These
techniques are employed to achieve specific objectives and influence the political, economic, social, or
military dynamics of the target state. Here are some common intervention techniques along with examples:

Diplomatic Negotiation: Diplomatic negotiation involves engaging in dialogue, mediation, or negotiation

with the parties involved in a conflict or crisis. It aims to resolve disputes, reach agreements, or facilitate
peaceful settlements. Examples include the negotiation processes in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, where
various diplomatic efforts have been made to establish a lasting peace agreement.

Economic Sanctions: Economic sanctions are measures imposed by states or international organizations to
exert economic pressure on a target state. They can include trade restrictions, asset freezes, or the denial of
financial aid. Sanctions are often used to address human rights abuses, nuclear proliferation, or other
violations of international norms. For example, the United Nations imposed economic sanctions on North
Korea to curb its nuclear weapons program.

Military Force: Military force is a direct intervention technique that involves the use of armed forces to
achieve specific objectives. This can include airstrikes, ground operations, or peacekeeping missions. The
1999 NATO intervention in Kosovo aimed to stop the ethnic cleansing of Albanians by deploying military
forces and conducting airstrikes against Serbian forces.

Humanitarian Aid: Humanitarian aid interventions focus on providing assistance to populations affected by
conflicts, natural disasters, or other humanitarian crises. This can involve delivering food, medical supplies,
shelter, and other forms of support. Humanitarian aid interventions are often carried out by international
organizations, such as the United Nations and non-governmental organizations. An example is the provision
of humanitarian aid to Syrian refugees in neighboring countries like Jordan and Turkey.

Capacity Building and Development Assistance: Capacity building interventions aim to enhance the
capabilities of a target state or region in various areas, including governance, infrastructure, education, or
health. Development assistance programs can include providing financial aid, technical expertise, or training
to support long-term development and stability. The United States' Marshall Plan after World War II, which
aimed to rebuild Europe's economies, is an example of a capacity-building intervention.

Cyber Operations: With the rise of cyber warfare, intervention techniques in cyberspace have gained
significance. Cyber operations involve using cyber tools and techniques to disrupt or influence a target
state's computer networks, communication systems, or critical infrastructure. Examples include the Stuxnet
malware attack, which targeted Iran's nuclear facilities, and the alleged Russian cyber interference in the
2016 U.S. presidential election.

Covert Operations: Covert operations refer to secret or clandestine interventions carried out by intelligence
agencies or special forces of states. These operations can include espionage, sabotage, or targeted
assassinations. Covert interventions are often intended to achieve specific political, military, or intelligence
objectives. The U.S. Central Intelligence Agency's (CIA) support for anti-Soviet guerrilla forces in
Afghanistan during the Cold War is an example of covert intervention.

It's important to note that the choice of intervention technique depends on various factors, including the
nature of the issue, the political climate, the capabilities of the intervening actor, and the level of
international support. The selection of the appropriate technique is crucial for achieving the desired
outcomes while minimizing potential risks and unintended consequences.

4.4 What are the ‘Stages of Intervention‘ in International Relations? Make a detailed explanation with
examples?

In International Relations, the stages of intervention refer to the sequential steps involved in the process of
intervention. These stages provide a framework for understanding how interventions unfold and progress.
While the specific stages may vary depending on the context and nature of the intervention, here are the
general stages of intervention along with examples:

Pre-Intervention Stage:

Issue Identification: This stage involves recognizing a problem or situation that may warrant intervention,
such as a conflict, humanitarian crisis, or threat to international security. For example, the identification of
the crisis in Syria led to discussions on potential intervention by various international actors.
Assessment and Analysis: The pre-intervention stage includes assessing the situation, analyzing its causes
and potential consequences, and evaluating the feasibility and effectiveness of intervention. This stage often
involves gathering intelligence, conducting research, and consulting with experts.
Decision-Making Stage:

Policy Deliberation: In this stage, decision-makers evaluate different policy options and consider the
potential risks, costs, and benefits of intervention. They assess the political, military, economic, and legal
implications of various courses of action. For instance, decision-makers weigh the consequences of military
intervention against diplomatic or economic measures.
Authorization and Mandate: Once a decision to intervene is made, the appropriate authorities or governing
bodies provide authorization and mandate for the intervention. This can include obtaining approval from
domestic legislative bodies or seeking authorization from international organizations such as the United
Nations Security Council.
Planning Stage:

Objective Formulation: During the planning stage, the objectives of the intervention are defined and
articulated. These objectives can include promoting stability, protecting civilians, restoring order, or
achieving specific political outcomes. For example, in the intervention in Mali, the objectives included
countering Islamist militant groups and supporting the Malian government.
Resource Allocation: The planning stage involves allocating resources such as military forces, equipment,
funding, and logistical support. This includes determining the size and composition of forces, logistical
requirements, and the necessary diplomatic and economic resources. Coordination with international
partners and allies also takes place during this stage.
Execution Stage:

Deployment and Operations: The execution stage involves the actual deployment of forces and
implementation of the intervention strategy. Military forces may engage in combat operations,
peacekeeping, or humanitarian assistance, depending on the objectives of the intervention. Diplomatic and
economic measures are also implemented as part of the overall intervention strategy. For instance, in the
military intervention in Afghanistan, international forces were deployed to conduct counterterrorism
operations and support the Afghan government.
Diplomatic Engagement: Alongside military operations, diplomatic efforts are carried out to engage with
relevant actors and stakeholders. This can include negotiations, mediation, and diplomatic pressure to
facilitate political solutions and peace processes. Diplomatic engagement was a crucial component of the
intervention in the Balkans during the 1990s.
Post-Intervention Stage:

Stabilization and Reconstruction: After the initial phase of intervention, the post-intervention stage focuses
on stabilizing the situation, rebuilding institutions, and promoting development. This stage can involve
nation-building efforts, economic reconstruction, and the establishment of governance structures. For
example, post-intervention efforts in post-conflict states like Iraq and Afghanistan aimed to rebuild
infrastructure, establish democratic institutions, and foster economic development.
Transition and Exit: The final stage involves transitioning responsibilities to local authorities and gradually
withdrawing intervention forces. This stage includes supporting local capacity-building efforts, facilitating
political transitions, and ensuring sustainable security and governance structures. The transition and exit
strategy in intervention cases like the United Nations Mission in Liberia (UNMIL) and the International
Security Assistance Force (ISAF) in Afghanistan focused on handing over security responsibilities to local
forces.

4.5 What are the ‘Case Studies for Intervention‘ in International Relations? Make a detailed
explanation with examples?

Here are some notable case studies of interventions in International Relations, showcasing different types,
contexts, and outcomes:

NATO Intervention in Kosovo (1999):

Type of Intervention: Military Intervention

Context: The intervention took place during the Kosovo War when ethnic Albanians faced brutal repression
by Serbian forces under President Slobodan Milosevic.
Objective: The intervention aimed to protect civilians, stop ethnic cleansing, and restore stability.
Intervention Technique: NATO conducted a 78-day air campaign against Serbian forces, followed by the
deployment of peacekeeping troops.
Outcome: The intervention led to the withdrawal of Serbian forces, the establishment of UN administration
in Kosovo, and the eventual declaration of Kosovo's independence.
United Nations Peacekeeping Intervention in Rwanda (1994):

Type of Intervention: Peacekeeping Intervention

Context: The intervention occurred during the Rwandan genocide, where approximately 800,000 people,
primarily from the Tutsi minority, were killed.
Objective: The intervention aimed to protect civilians and prevent further violence.
Intervention Technique: The United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda (UNAMIR) was deployed to
maintain peace and security. However, due to limited resources and a lack of political will, the mission was
unable to prevent the genocide.
Outcome: The intervention is often criticized for its failure to effectively stop the genocide, highlighting the
challenges and limitations of peacekeeping operations.
U.S.-led Intervention in Iraq (2003):

Type of Intervention: Military and Political Intervention

Context: The intervention took place based on the assertion that Iraq possessed weapons of mass destruction
(WMDs) and posed a threat to international security.
Objective: The primary objective was to remove Saddam Hussein's regime, eliminate WMDs, and promote
democracy.
Intervention Technique: The U.S.-led coalition conducted a military invasion, followed by occupation and
nation-building efforts.
Outcome: The intervention resulted in the removal of Saddam Hussein, but the anticipated WMDs were not
found. Iraq faced significant instability, insurgency, and sectarian violence in the post-intervention period.
French Intervention in Mali (2013):

Type of Intervention: Military Intervention

Context: The intervention was a response to the growing influence of Islamist militant groups and a
rebellion in northern Mali.
Objective: The intervention aimed to counter the threat posed by Islamist groups, restore territorial integrity,
and support the Malian government.
Intervention Technique: France led a military operation, supported by African Union and United Nations
forces, to target militant strongholds and stabilize the region.
Outcome: The intervention successfully disrupted the advance of Islamist groups and helped restore
government control, although challenges of insurgency and political instability persist.
Humanitarian Intervention in East Timor (1999):

Type of Intervention: Humanitarian Intervention

Context: The intervention was a response to the violence and humanitarian crisis that erupted in East Timor
after a referendum on independence from Indonesia.
Objective: The intervention aimed to protect civilians, restore order, and facilitate the transition to
independence.
Intervention Technique: A multinational force, led by Australia, was deployed to provide security,
humanitarian assistance, and support for East Timor's independence.
Outcome: The intervention effectively stabilized the situation, facilitated the establishment of a United
Nations mission, and eventually led to East Timor's independence.
These case studies illustrate the diverse motivations, approaches, and outcomes of interventions in different
contexts, highlighting the complexities and challenges involved in international interventions.
4.6 Explain varieties of intervention using Military intervention of Iraq-Kuweit intervention as an
example. Make a detailed analysis to the Iraq-Kuweit intervention and use examples when necessary.

The Iraq-Kuwait intervention, also known as the Gulf War or Operation Desert Storm, provides an example
of military intervention and demonstrates several varieties within this category. Let's analyze the Iraq-
Kuwait intervention in detail to understand these varieties:

Interstate Conflict Intervention:

The Iraq-Kuwait intervention involved a military intervention by a coalition of states to address an interstate
conflict. In 1990, Iraq, under the leadership of Saddam Hussein, invaded and occupied Kuwait, citing
territorial and economic disputes. The intervention aimed to restore Kuwait's sovereignty and deter further
aggression.

Collective Security Intervention:

The intervention in Iraq-Kuwait was undertaken by a coalition of states, primarily led by the United States
and authorized by the United Nations Security Council. The coalition was formed under the principle of
collective security to address Iraq's violation of international law and to maintain regional stability.

Offensive Military Intervention:

The military intervention in Iraq-Kuwait involved offensive military operations aimed at liberating Kuwait
and repelling Iraqi forces. The coalition forces launched a large-scale air campaign followed by a ground
offensive to oust Iraqi troops from Kuwait. Offensive military intervention involves actively engaging and
neutralizing the opposing forces.

Multilateral Intervention:
The intervention in Iraq-Kuwait was a multilateral effort involving multiple states. The coalition included
countries from different regions, such as the United States, United Kingdom, France, Saudi Arabia, and
several other Arab and non-Arab nations. Multilateral interventions often enhance legitimacy and burden-
sharing among participating states.

Humanitarian Intervention:
Although the primary objective of the Iraq-Kuwait intervention was to restore Kuwait's sovereignty and
regional stability, humanitarian considerations also played a role. The Iraqi occupation resulted in
widespread human rights abuses and a humanitarian crisis. The intervention aimed to alleviate the suffering
of the Kuwaiti population and protect civilians from further violence.
Counter-Aggression Intervention:
The Iraq-Kuwait intervention was a counter-aggression intervention, aiming to halt Iraq's expansionist
ambitions and aggression against its neighbor. By intervening militarily, the coalition forces sought to deter
future acts of aggression by demonstrating the resolve of the international community to protect the
sovereignty of smaller states.

Coalition Intervention:
The intervention in Iraq-Kuwait was conducted by a coalition of states rather than a single state acting
unilaterally. The diverse coalition allowed for the pooling of military capabilities, resources, and political
support. It also demonstrated collective action against aggression and provided a broader international
mandate for the intervention.

Limited Intervention:
The intervention in Iraq-Kuwait was primarily focused on liberating Kuwait and restoring its sovereignty,
rather than seeking regime change in Iraq. While the coalition forces achieved their specific objectives, they
did not advance further into Iraq or attempt to overthrow Saddam Hussein's regime. This limited scope of
intervention was designed to achieve specific goals without entering into broader conflicts.

The Iraq-Kuwait intervention demonstrates the complexities and various dimensions of military
intervention. It involved a multilateral coalition undertaking offensive military operations to counter
aggression, restore sovereignty, protect civilians, and maintain regional stability. The intervention showcased
different varieties of military intervention, highlighting the diverse motivations, strategies, and objectives
that can be associated with such interventions.

4.6.2 Explain varieties of intervention using Political Intervention of Sudan-Arab intervention as an

example. Make a detailed analysis to the Sudan-Arab intervention and use examples when necessary.

Political intervention refers to the deliberate interference of one state or group of states in the internal affairs
of another state for political purposes. It can take various forms and can be motivated by different factors,
such as regional stability, economic interests, ideological alignment, or humanitarian concerns. To illustrate
this, let's delve into the Sudan-Arab intervention as an example of political intervention.

The Sudan-Arab intervention refers to the involvement of Arab states in the internal conflicts of Sudan,
particularly during the Darfur crisis. The Darfur conflict, which started in 2003, was a violent conflict
between rebel groups and the Sudanese government. It led to widespread violence, displacement, and
humanitarian crises in the region.
The Sudan-Arab intervention in Darfur can be analyzed through different varieties of political intervention:

Military Intervention: Arab states, particularly Sudan's neighboring Arab countries, such as Egypt, Libya,
and Chad, provided military support to the Sudanese government during the Darfur conflict. This assistance
included weapons, training, and logistical support, aimed at helping the government suppress the rebellion
and maintain its authority. For instance, Libya and Chad were accused of supporting different rebel groups,
thereby exacerbating the conflict.

Diplomatic Intervention: Arab states played a significant role in diplomatic efforts to resolve the Darfur
crisis. They engaged in negotiations, facilitated peace talks, and acted as mediators between the Sudanese
government and rebel groups. For example, the Arab League, an organization composed of Arab states, took
part in peace negotiations and sought to find a political solution to the conflict. These diplomatic
interventions aimed to promote stability in Sudan and the broader region.

Humanitarian Intervention: Humanitarian intervention involves providing assistance, aid, and protection to
affected populations during a crisis. In the case of Sudan-Arab intervention, Arab states contributed
humanitarian aid to alleviate the suffering caused by the conflict in Darfur. This assistance included
providing food, medical supplies, and shelter to displaced people and refugees. Arab countries such as Saudi
Arabia and Qatar have been involved in funding humanitarian projects and initiatives in Sudan.

Economic Intervention: Economic factors can also motivate political intervention. In the context of Sudan,
Arab states have significant economic interests, including investment in Sudan's natural resources, such as
oil and minerals. The Sudanese government's alignment with Arab states has facilitated economic
cooperation, trade agreements, and investment flows. Economic interests may influence the extent of Arab
intervention in Sudan's internal affairs.

It's important to note that the Sudan-Arab intervention has drawn criticism and international attention due to
the complexities of the conflict and the allegations of human rights abuses committed by all parties
involved. The intervention by Arab states has been seen as supporting the Sudanese government's actions
against rebel groups, which led to a prolonged conflict and humanitarian crisis.

In summary, the Sudan-Arab intervention in Darfur showcases different varieties of political intervention,
including military, diplomatic, humanitarian, and economic interventions. These interventions aimed to
influence the outcome of the conflict, maintain regional stability, protect economic interests, and address
humanitarian concerns. However, the intervention has been highly controversial, highlighting the challenges
and ethical dilemmas associated with political interventions in complex conflicts.
4.6.3 Explain varieties of intervention using Humanitarian Intervention of Afghanistan intervention as
an example. Make a detailed analysis to the Afghanistan intervention and use examples when
necessary.

Humanitarian intervention refers to the use of military force or other measures by external actors to protect
individuals or populations from severe human rights abuses, particularly in situations where the host
government is unable or unwilling to do so. While the concept of humanitarian intervention is complex and
controversial, one example that can be analyzed in detail is the intervention in Afghanistan.

The intervention in Afghanistan, which began in 2001, was primarily driven by the United States and its
allies in response to the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, carried out by the extremist group Al-Qaeda,
which had found safe haven in Afghanistan under the Taliban regime. While the initial motivation for the
intervention was to target Al-Qaeda and dismantle their operational infrastructure, it also took on a
humanitarian dimension aimed at addressing the dire human rights situation in the country.

Military Intervention: The primary form of intervention in Afghanistan was a military operation. The United
States and its allies launched a military campaign, known as Operation Enduring Freedom, with the
objective of removing the Taliban regime from power and disrupting Al-Qaeda's operations. The military
intervention aimed to protect Afghan civilians from further atrocities, restore stability, and create conditions
for the provision of humanitarian aid.
Example: The fall of the Taliban regime allowed for the establishment of a new government in Afghanistan,
which introduced reforms and provided greater protection for human rights. The intervention led to the
removal of oppressive policies, such as the severe restrictions imposed on women and girls by the Taliban,
thereby improving their access to education, healthcare, and basic freedoms.

Humanitarian Aid and Development Assistance: In addition to military intervention, significant efforts were
made to provide humanitarian aid and development assistance to the Afghan people. This included
delivering food, medical supplies, and other essential items to address immediate humanitarian needs, as
well as supporting long-term development projects aimed at rebuilding infrastructure and improving social
services.
Example: Various organizations and countries, including the United Nations and its agencies, NGOs, and
donor nations, contributed to humanitarian aid efforts in Afghanistan. They provided food assistance to
combat widespread malnutrition, established healthcare facilities to address public health challenges, and
supported educational programs to rebuild the education system that had been severely disrupted by conflict.

Diplomatic and Political Intervention: The intervention in Afghanistan also involved diplomatic and political
efforts to facilitate the establishment of a stable and inclusive government. International actors engaged in
negotiations and mediation processes to bring together different Afghan factions, ethnic groups, and political
stakeholders to foster a more inclusive political system.
Example: The Bonn Agreement, signed in 2001, brought together various Afghan factions and international
actors to establish an interim government in Afghanistan. This agreement provided a framework for political
transition, power-sharing arrangements, and the drafting of a new constitution, with the aim of creating a
more representative and inclusive political system in the country.
Human Rights Monitoring and Accountability: Another aspect of intervention in Afghanistan was the focus
on human rights monitoring and accountability for human rights abuses. International organizations and
human rights groups played a crucial role in documenting violations, advocating for justice, and supporting
efforts to establish accountability mechanisms.
Example: The United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan (UNAMA) was established to monitor and
report on the human rights situation in the country. It documented human rights abuses, provided support for
justice and accountability initiatives, and advocated for the protection of human rights in Afghanistan.

Overall, the intervention in Afghanistan involved a range of interventions, including military action,
humanitarian aid, development assistance, diplomatic efforts, and human rights monitoring. While the initial
motivation was to address security concerns and dismantle terrorist networks, humanitarian considerations
played a significant role in the intervention, aiming to protect Afghan civilians, improve their human rights
situation, and promote stability and development in the country.