BLD207 (Building Services)

BLD214: Building Services 2023
JIGAWA STATE
POLYTECHNIC,
DUTSE
COLLEGE OF ENVIRONMENTAL
STUDIES
DEPARTMENT OF BUILDING TECHNOLOGY
BLD214: BUILDING SERVICES
LECTURE NOTES
Prepared by: Suleiman Salisu
2022/2023 Academic Session
COURSE CONTENTS
1. THE SOURCES, QUALITY AND CLASSIFICATION OF WATER
Suleimain salisu Page 1

1.1 Course Introduction
1.2 Water and its Sources
1.3 Quality of Water
1.4 Two classes of Water (Hard water and Soft water)
1.5 Methods of Water Purification/treatment
2. WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS FOR DOMESTIC COLD WATER SUPPLY.
2.1 Methods of Water Supply in Buildings (Direct and Indirect Water Supply)
2.2 The Sizes and Types of Pipes Used Along the Distribution System
2.3 The Cold Water Supply System in Building (with sketches)
2.4 The Means of Providing Drinking Water
2.5 Difference between Service, Communication and Other Pipes
2.6 Differences between Distribution Lines in water supply.
2.7Water Connection/Distribution Details in Drawings
3. HOT WATER SUPPLY
3.1 The hot water supply in buildings
3.2 Precaution against Dead Leg
4. SANITARY APPLIANCES AND FITTINGS
4.1 Sanitary Appliances descriptions and functions
4.2 Sanitary Fittings
4.3 Taps and Valves
4.4 Construction requirements for installing sanitary appliances
5. DRAINAGE SYSTEM USED IN BUILDINGS
6. DAYLIGHT AND ARTIFICIAL LIGHTING
7. ELECTRICAL FITTINGS AND CONTROL
1. THE SOURCES, QUALITY AND CLASSIFICATION OF WATER

1.1 Course Introduction:
Building Services is a course that deals with the provision of facilities to buildings to make
such buildings comfortable for human use. A building as a basic structure only offers
protection against adverse weather conditions, such as rainfall, snowfall, sunshine, wind etc.
The primary function of buildings is to provide shelter to its occupants but in our modern
world, all building should be designed in such a way to provide an environment where
peoples can feel comfortable, work, live and achieve. Basically “building services” is what
make the building comes to life i.e. what makes the building work. They contribute largely to
the sustainability of the building. There are many types of building services, as mentioned
below, and each of these provide for a different function. For examples imagine yourself in
your dream house and now take away the lighting, heating and ventilation, the lifts and
escalators, acoustics, plumbing, power supply and energy management systems, the security
and safety systems...and you are left with a cold, dark, uninhabitable shell (Dublin Institute of
Technology 2012). How willyou feel????
Building services include:
· Energy supply – gas, electricity and renewable sources
· Heating and ventilating
· Water, drainage and plumbing
· Day lighting and artificial lighting
· Escalators and lifts
· Security and alarm systems
· Fire detection and protection
· Air conditioning and refrigeration
Building should be design with features to provide better lighting, comfortable space,
temperature and air quality, convenient power and communication capability, high quality
sanitation and reliable systems for the protection of life and property.

Building services are mainly divided into mechanical, electrical and building operation
system. They are all very important and should be put into consideration during planning,
designing and construction.
Mechanical systems include:
1- HVAC Systems: heating, ventilation and air conditioning.
2- Plumbing: water distribution, water treatment, sanitary facilities.
3- Fire protection: water supply, fire and smoke detection.
Electrical systems include:
1- Electrical power: normal, standby, emergency power supply and distribution.
2- Lighting: interior, exterior, emergency light.
3- Auxiliary: telephone, data, audio and video sound
Building operation systems include:
1- Transportation: elevators, escalators, moving walkways.
2- Processing: food, services.
3- Automation: environmental control and management.
1.2 Water and its Sources
Water by definition is said to be any liquid substance that is odourless and colourless and
general free of impurities.
Water is said to be defined chemically as a chemical compound that is made up of two

molecules of hydrogen and one molecule of oxygen. Water is one of the abundant available
substances in nature. Water forms about 75% of the matter on earth’s crust.It is an essential
ingredient to both plant and animal life. Moreover it also enjoys a unique position in
industries.
Life is possible on earth due to the presence of water. Nearly three-fourths of the earth’s
surface is covered with water. Water is also found below the earth’s surface. It is present in

air in the form of water vapour. About 70 per cent of the human body is water. The bodies of
all plants and animals contain water.
The Hydrological cycle (Water cycle):
Hydrologic cycle definition is the sequence of conditions through which water passes from
vapour in the atmosphere through precipitation upon land or water surfaces and ultimately
back into the atmosphere as a result of evaporation and transpiration.
Fig 1.1 The hydrological cycle
Water cycle description:
The water cycle has no starting or ending point. The sun, which drives the water cycle, heats
water in the oceans. Some of it evaporates as vapour into the air.
The different hydrological cycle processes are as follows:

 Precipitation is condensed water vapour that falls to the Earth's surface. Most
precipitation occurs as rain, but also includes snow, hail, fog drip, graupel, and
sleet. Approximately 505,000 km³ of water fall as precipitation each year, 398,000
km³ of it over the oceans. Most precipitation falls back into the oceans or onto
land. The precipitation flows over the ground as surface runoff. A portion of
runoff enters rivers and streams and flow into the oceans. Not all runoff flows into
rivers, much of it soaks into the ground as infiltration.
 Snowmelt refers to the runoff produced by melting snow.
 Runoffcan be defined as the portion of the precipitation that makes its way
towards rivers or oceans etc., as surface or subsurface flow.
 Infiltration is the flow of water from the ground surface into the ground. Once
infiltrated, the water becomes soil moisture or groundwater. Some water infiltrates
deep into the ground and replenishes aquifers (saturated subsurface rock), which
store huge amounts of freshwater for long periods of time. While some infiltration
stays close to the land surface and can seep back into surface-water bodies (and
the ocean) as ground-water discharge, and some ground water finds openings in
the land surface and emerges as freshwater springs.
 Evaporation is the transformation of water from liquid to gas phases as it moves
from the ground or bodies of water into the overlying atmosphere.
 Transpiration is the process in which plants release the water inside it to the
atmosphere in the form of moisture or water vapour. Plant roots consume some
amount of water from the soil and the rest evaporates in the atmosphere.
 Condensation is the transformation of water vapour to liquid water droplets in the
air.
SOURCES OF WATER
Water is obtained generally within the hydrological cycle of water. The largest source of
water is the oceans, accounting for 97% of the Earth's water. The remaining 3% is the fresh
water we use for domestic consumption and plants use.
The main sources of water are as follows:

i) Rain water
ii) Rivers
iii) Oceans/Sea
iv) Lakes and streams
v) Dams
vi) Underground water which include springs and water wells.
i) Rain water: It is the main source of water obtained as a result of evaporation of

seawater. Rainwater may be the purest form of water. It is made impure by polluted
atmosphere. It contains a considerable amount of industrial gases and suspended solid
particles, both of organic and inorganic origin.
ii) River: It is the water that flows over the surface of the land.River water starts from spring
water and fed by rainwater. It flows through different kind of terrain and dissolves the soluble
minerals of the soil. Chlorides, sulphates, bicarbonates of sodium, calcium, magnesium and
iron are some of the major mineral salts present in river water. River water also contains
organic matter, produced by the decomposition of plants and small particles of sand and rock
suspension.
Fig 1.2 Part of River Nile
iii) Oceans/seas: Ocean is a large sea. It is a large expanse of salt water and the most impure
form of natural water because it contains sodium chloride, sulphates of sodium and other
compounds. The oceans occupy huge regions of the Earth's surface, and their boundaries are
usually established by continental land masses and ridges in the ocean floor. There are five
major oceans in the world which are:Atlantic Ocean, PacificOcean, IndianOcean,
ArcticOcean, and Antarctic Ocean.
Fig 1.3 Part of Pacific Ocean
iv) Lakes and Streams: Lake Water contains fewer amounts of dissolved materials and
Stream is simply described as a small river: a narrow and shallow river.
v) Dams:
A dam is an artificial source of water. A dam is a hydraulic structure of fairly impervious

material built across a river structure to prevent the flow of water and accumulates it in a
reservoir for various purposes.
Fig 1.4 The Aswan High Dam, Egypt
vi) Underground Water

About 9.86% of the total fresh water resources are in the form of ground water.Some of the
rainwater seeps through the soil on to the non-porous rocks below. This is underground
water. Sometimes due to high pressure, this water sprouts out in the form of springs. The
groundwater include the water from the following:
1. Springs
2. Water well
Spring Water
A spring is a point where groundwater flows out of the ground, and is thus where the aquifer
surface meets the ground surface. Water issuing from an artesian spring rises to a higher
elevation than the top of the confined aquifer from which it issues. Sometimes a spring is
termed a seep.
Fig 1.5 Spring Water
Water wells: Water wells are means by which assess to ground water is achieved. It involves
digging by different means into the ground, the pressure difference created by the space
within the ground lead to the movement of water from the surrounding into the well. The
depth of well depends on the water level, the degree of saturation of the ground and the water
table position.
Types of water wells
a. Dug well:

Historically, dug wells were excavated by hand shovel to below the water table until
incoming water exceeded the digger’s bailing rate. The well was lined with stones, bricks,
tile, or other material to prevent collapse, and was covered with a cap of wood, stone, or
concrete tile.
Fig 1.6: Dug well
b. Driven wells:
Driven wells are constructed by driving a small-diameter pipe into shallow water-bearing
sand or gravel. Usually a screened well point is attached to the bottom of the casing before
driving. These wells are relatively simple and economical to construct, but they can tap only
shallow water and are easily contaminated from nearby surface sources because they are not
sealed with grouting material. Hand-driven wells usually are only around 30 feet deep;
machine-driven wells can be 50 feet deep or more.
Suleimain salisuwell
Fig 1.6 Driven Page 10
c. Drilled wells:
A drilled well consists of a hole bored into the ground, with the upper part being lined
with casing. The casing prevents the collapse of the borehole walls and (with a drive shoe
or grout seal) prevents surface or subsurface contaminants from entering the water
supply. The casing also provides housing for a pumping mechanism and for the pipe that
moves water from the pump to the surface.
Fig 1.6 Drilled well construction
1.3 Water Quality
Water quality describes the condition of the water, including chemical, physical, and
biological characteristics, usually with respect to its suitability for a particular purpose such
as drinking, washing, swimming etc.It’s a term used to express the suitability of water to
sustain various uses.
1.4 Hardness and Softness of water:

Hardness of water: It is the state of water that make it impure as a result bad taste feeling
and behaviour in the presence of soap. It usually make it impossible for soap to lather (make
foam)and this compromises its ability to clean.
Softness of water:It is the state of water that make it more pure and also wash or soap
friendly. Softness on the other hand is almost the opposite of hardness of water.
Differences between Hard Water and Soft Water
Hard Water Soft Water

Hard water is water that has high mineral Hard water is water having a less mineral
content. content.
Contain magnesium and calcium ions Contain sodium ions.
Have a characteristic taste. Tastes salty.
Formed when water flows through limestone Produced by passing hard water over an ion
and chalk exchange resin.
Soap has less effect on hard water. When Soap has good effect on soft water. Foam is
soap is applied, a film is formed rather than formed when soap is applied.
foam.
1.5 Water Purification
Water purification is the removal of contaminants from untreated water to produce drinking
water that is pure enough for its intended use, most commonly human consumption.
Substances that are removed during the process of drinking water treatment include bacteria,
algae, viruses, fungi, minerals such as iron and sulphur, and man-made chemical pollutants.

Water from almost all the sources is said to be impure for human consumption, therefore
steps are usually taken to make water pure, which means to get rid of the dissolved/suspended
physical and chemical impurities.
The following methods are usually adopted for water purification:
1. Sedimentation
2. Filtration
3. Aeration
4. Heat Treatment
5. Chemical Treatment
Filtration – This is the process of straining out something: the process of passing or putting
something through a filter. Water is passed through a special filter to remove suspended and
dissolved impurities.
Sedimentation: is a common way of treating water. It is a process that removes solids that
float and settle in the water. The process relies on the use of sedimentation tanks that remove
larger solids. Sedimentation is one of the methods that municipalities use for treating water. It
is a physical water treatment process. Gravity is used to remove suspended solids from water.
•Aeration – This is the exposure of water to air to dissolve the chemical impurities in the
surrounding air, this is done to reduce the cost of artificial purification that involve the
addition of chemical for stabilization and biological purification.
• Heat treatment can also be used to purify water. This help to kill biological impurities and
possible facilitate sedimentation of dissolved particles.
• Chemical Treatment – This involve the use of chemical for purification. When chemical in
form of alum is added to water, it causes the coagulation of dissolved impurities giving it
weight that makes it to settle by forming a floc. Also chlorine is one of the chemical added to
water to kill germs and other microorganisms by a process called chlorination.
2.0 WATERDISTRIBUTIONFOR DOMESTIC COLD WATER SUPPLY.

Water Distribution involves the transportation of treated water to end user’s building. This
aspect of services is what is referred to as pipe-work in plumbing, in this case for domestic
cold and hot water supply. Water distribution systems convey water drawn from the water
source or treatment facility, to the point where it is delivered to the user.
Originally water is treated at a central place which is the treatment station, and then
transported to various locations with boosters and reservoirs along the distribution lines.
From the reservoir in a given location it is finally distributed to each household or building.
Each building connects to the distribution network via the water mains. Water consumption is
highest during the hours that water is used for personal hygiene and cleaning, and when food
preparation and clothes washing are done. Water use is lowest during the night.
As previously discussed drinking water is supplied after treatment. The process of drinking
water supply is as shown in the flow chart below:
Raw water collection - Holding in Holding Tank Sedimentation in Tank
Aeration Flocculation Chlorination Storage in Reservoir
Pumping to location Storage in Overhead tanks distribution to

mains by force of gravity connection from main directly or indirectly to private
reservoirs.
2.1 Methods of Water Supply in Buildings
There are two main water supply methods in buildings which are: Direct and Indirect
Water Supply methods.
Direct Water Supply:

Direct supply to the house means that the plumbing/sanitary fittings in the house draw water
from the main directly without reservoir or water tank. It means that the water used in the
house comes directly from the area reservoir by gravity or pumping. In direct supply, all the
household appliances (fixtures) receive water directly from the mains (i.e. direct water
supplies from the authorities that collects water from source, treats it and distribute it. These
water supply authorities may be either a municipality or city government or local authorities
or private supply companies).
Fig 2.1 Direct Water Supply
Indirect Water Supply:

In Indirect water supply, the water from the mains is first connected to a water tank in the
house before finally getting into the plumbing and sanitary fittings.
In indirect water supply system, water is first filled into cistern (tank located inside the
building which is either overhead or underground) from mains and the appliances receive
water from the cistern (tank) mostly overhead water tank.
Indirect water supply system is the most common type in modern houses, in countries like
India, Pakistan, and countries in Asia and Africa and other developing countries where there
is no 24 x 7 water supply by city government. Here, water enters house from the rising main
(main pipe from where water enters house), which is branched off into kitchen sink and
storage tank either underground or overhead. Only kitchen sink receives potable water
directly from municipal mains. All the other appliances receive water from the storage tank.
The storage tank is kept at height so that water comes down into fixtures through gravity at
sufficient pressure.
Fig 2.2 Indirect Water Supply

Advantages:
 Indirect water supply system, impose less pressure on distribution network, as rising
main is not connected to all fixtures directly.
 There is no threat of pipe burst.
 If main is damaged or when water supply is stopped during certain time period; water
can still be made available to users from the storage tanks.
 Less wear and tear of all fixtures because of less pressure and plumbing materials.
 Water leakages are less because water pressure will be less from tank and less water
will escape and have less loss.
Disadvantages:
 Normally, storage water tanks are kept on roof top due to which there is not enough
pressure on immediate lower floor causing problem in working of showers and flush
valves in particular.
 Water stored in storage tank degraded over a period of time from quality point of
view.
 Additional pipe network is required for carrying water to storage tank and from
storage tank to appliances, increasing cost of pipe works and of course of pumps.
 Potable water may not be available at all taps.
 If sufficient pressure is not available, booster pumps are required for getting water at
pressure. i.e 7 to 10m heat.
 You have to regularly operate and maintain pumps.
 The tank will always need maintenance and may create problem of leakages.
 The tank adds cost to the building.
 The tank also adds to the dead weight of the building

Differences between Direct and Indirect Water Supply in Buildings
Direct Water Supply Indirect Water Supply

All appliances of a house are directly connected to Only the kitchen sink and storage tank is
the main supply line of Municipality/city connected to the main supply line. All other
government/ supply company. appliances are fed with water from the storage
tank on the terrace of the house.
Better water quality as water directly comes after Water quality is affected as water is stored in
treatment. storage tanks and then supplied to appliances.
Water directly comes from main, it has high In order to get sufficient pressure, water
pressure and sometimes a pressure reducing valve storage tank has to be at some height, which is
is required to save from damage due to higher not always achieved and hence the user on the
pressure. floor just below suffer from lower pressure,
due to which shower, flush, etc. do not work
efficiently.
More water is wasted compared to indirect water Minimal wastage of water.
supply system.
Requires less maintenance compared to indirect Tanks (overhead at some level/underground
water supply system. with pumps) require regular maintenance,
cleaning, protection from UV rays.
Water enters house from main supply pipe and is Water enters house from main supply pipe and
branched off to all fixtures and hence less length is branched off to kitchen sink and water
and cost. storage tank either overhead or underground.
Then all other fixtures receive water from
storage tank.
Pipes may leak due to high pressure water flowing Chances of water leakages from water storage

through them. tank
Economical as less pipe works and no storage Extra cost of pipes and tanks.
tanks.
Below are diagrams showing the differences between Direct and Indirect Water Supply in
buildings.
Fig 2.3 Direct water supply Fig 2.4 Indirect water supply
2.2 Pipes used along distribution lines
A pipe is a tube or hollow cylinder used to convey materials or as a structural component.

The terms pipe and tube are almost interchangeable. A pipe is generally specified by the
internal diameter (ID) whereas a tube is usually defined by the outside diameter (OD) but
may be specified by any combination of dimensions (OD, ID, wall thickness). A tube is often
made to custom sizes and may often have more specific sizes and tolerances than pipe. The
term tube is more widely used in the United States, whereas pipe is more common elsewhere
in the world.
Both pipe and tube imply a level of rigidity and permanence, whereas a hose is usually
portable and flexible. Pipe may be specified by standard pipe size designations, such as

nominal pipe size (in the United States), or by nominal, outside, or inside diameter and wall
thickness. Many industrial and government standards exist for the production of pipe and
tubing.
Uses of pipes
• For domestic water systems
• For pipelines containing high pressure gas or fluid
• For scaffolding
• As components in mechanical systems such as:
o Rollers in conveyor belts
o Compactors (Eg: steam rollers)
o Bearing casing
• Is used in the petroleum industry for oil well casing or as oil refinery equipment.
Types of pipes
The medium of transportation/distribution of water is pipes. Pipes are of various types, the
types are based on sizes and materials as follows:
1. Polyvinyl Chloride Pipes.(PVC)
2. Ultra Polyvinyl Chloride Pipes.(UPVC)
3. Cement Asbestos Pipes
4. Galvanized Iron Pipes
5. Others - Steel
6. - Copper
Sizes of Pipes

Pipes comes in various sizes, the sizes of pipes used are dependent of the volume of water,
the distance and the method of pumping the water. Below are some of the common sizes of
pipes:
(1) 12mm pipes (2) 18mm pipes (3) 25mm pipes (4) 38mm pipes (5) 50mm pipes
(6) 100mm pipes (7) 150mm pipes
2.3 Means of Providing Drinking Water
Water for drinking in domestic building is provided by the provision of different means that
supply either cold or hot water and a combination of the two with a provision for mixing
where desired.
Tap water (running water) is part of indoor plumbing, which became available in the late
19th century and common in the mid-20th century.
The availability of clean tap water brings major public health benefits. Usually, the same
administration that provides tap water is also responsible for the removal and treatment
before discharge of wastewater
. In Africa means of drinking water provision include storage in earth pots kept
within/around the house, where temperature control of the stored water is achieved. The
water ‘fetched’ from well, stream, river or collection from rainfall. The water is kept in these
pots and taken for drinking using cups or any other such means. In other places water is
poured into bottles and kept in the fridge, for temperature regulation, for drinking.
2.4 Difference between Service, Communication and Other Pipes in distribution Lines
1. Communication Pipes - Length of pipe from the main to the boundary stop.
2. Service Pipes - Length of pipe from the main to any point of use/connection to
appliance

3. Supply Pipe - Length of pipe from the boundary stop valve to the point of
use/connection to appliance/fittings
4. Distribution Pipes - Pipes from the overhead reservoir via which water is supplied to
various households’ fixtures and fittings
5. Overflow pipes - Pipes used to release water that is beyond the desired level in reservoirs,
tanks and sanitary fittings such as wash basin and sink.
3.0 HOT WATER SUPPLY
Domestic hot water is provided by means of water heater appliances. The hot water from
these units is then piped to the various fixtures and appliances that require hot water, such as
lavatories, sinks, bathtubs, showers, washing machines, and dishwashers.
Hot water is needed in building for comfort during or in low temperature region. The supply
is usually separate from the cold water supply even though it source its cold water from the
cold water supply lines.
Usually a medium of heating the water is introduced to heat the water collected from the cold
water supply lines. The heating is usually done in a special reservoir that stores and reserve
the hot water for sometimes. The heating medium makes for the different system of hot water
supply. The current method of hot supply involves the use of water heater with electrical
element. Before now coal and other fuel were used to heat the water. The need to preserve
the heat gained by the water for a reasonable time requires the use of special tanks. The
tanks are usually lagged and sealed to disallow escape of heat from the heated water.
Direct and Indirect Hot water supply
Like cold water supply, hot water is supplied either directly or indirectly.
Direct Hot Water Supply
In the direct hot water supply a unit of water heater is connected to the point of use either
shower or kitchen sink.

Hot Water
Hot water can be produced by a wide variety of appliances, using a whole range of fuels to
heat the water. Water heaters are part of the plumbing system. If your home is equipped with
a boiler, the boiler supplies heat to your home through the use of a hydronic
system. Boilers are part of the heating system. Water heaters and boilers are two different
appliances that serve two separate systems.

Direct Hot Water Supply graphic
Indirect Hot Water Supply
In the indirect water supply, a general heating point/tank is used to supply hot water to
several point or part of a building. This is usually more applied in hotels, hostels or
Dormitory and other common service buildings.

Indirect Hot Water Supply graphic
The Domestic Water heating Systems
1.Central systems: usually consist of water in a storage vessel being heated from the same
boilers which heat the building.
2. Local systems: the water heating equipment is situated close to a group of sanitary
appliances. These are often electrical systems to avoid the need for lots of flues from gas
powered heaters.
Types of Water Heaters and Boilers
Combination (or ‘combi’) Boiler:.
Combination boilers provide both instant hot water and central heating, but not at the same
time. They are “hot water priority” which means when hot water is being run there is no heat
output to the radiators. These boilers are ideal in smaller homes where space is at a premium
or where the demand for hot water is not too great. These are not recommended for houses
with more that one bathroom due to the low hot water flow rate which can only feed one tap
at a time.
Advantages
– Cheap to run
– Easy to install
Disadvantages
– Can only feed one hot tap at a time
– Can be troublesome and expensive to maintain
– Shorter design life
Storage water heaters
Storage water heaters are the most common type of water heating system in homes today. A
storage water heater installed in a single-family home can hold and provide 20 gallons to 80
gallons of hot water around the clock.

When hot water is needed in the home for activities such as bathing, laundry or dishwashing,
water is released from the top of the tank when you turn on the hot water tap. As hot water is
released, cold water enters the bottom of the tank to keep the tank full. To keep hot water
constantly available to the home, water is continuously heated in the tank even when a hot
water tap isn't running.
This results in standby heat loss. Some storage water heater models have heavily insulated
tanks that can reduce heat losses and reduce the demand for fuel to heat the water.
Tankless water heaters
Tankless water heaters are also known as instantaneous water heaters. They provide hot
water only when it is needed. They don't produce the standby energy losses associated with
storage water heaters, which can save you money.
Tankless water heaters heat water directly without the use of a storage tank. When a hot
water tap is turned on, cold water travels through a pipe into the unit. Either a gas burner or
an electric element heats the water. As a result, tankless water heaters deliver a constant
supply of hot water.
DEAD LEG

The term dead leg, or dead end is typically used to describe a run of pipework that is no
longer in use or a pipe that has become isolated from the regular flow of water.
The term can also refer to a run of pipework that is only used very occasionally. In such
instances, this lack of use can lead to stagnation and increase the risk that the water inside the
pipe becomes contaminated with potentially dangerous bacteria, including legionella.
This contamination can lead to problems within the rest of the water system and should be
avoided.
Dead leg in hot water supplyis described as a length of pipe between a hot-water cylinder
and a hot tap in which standing water cools when the tap is off thereby wasting water and
energy.
Dead legs should be as short as possible and the storage cylinder should be situated close to
the hot tap which is in most constant use.
Moreover, dead legs are pipes with low or infrequent flow and they are one of many causes
of stagnation in domestic water systems.
. General Caution: .
Below are some specific ways of minimizing stagnation in domestic water system:
1.Remove dead-legs:
a. Remove accessible dead legs: In equipment rooms and other areas where dead legs are
accessible, the cost of removal will typically be minimal, so remove themb. Establish a policy
of removing dead legs during plumbing renovations. This should be added to any project
specifications.
b. If a dead leg cannot be removed without tearing out a wall, then leave it in the wall but cut
and cap it where it tees into the main. For example, if a sink is removed, cut and cap the
water lines serving the sink where they tee into the main, rather than at the wall.
2. Do not use showers from storage unless the unused piping is removed.
3. Keep backup lines open, or flush them before use. For water lines that split into two

branches and then come back into one (e.g., to have a backup), both branches should ideally
be kept open at all times. If one branch is valved off, it should be flushed thoroughly to the
drain before each use, so that none of the potentially contaminated water is distributed to the
building. This may require adding a valve and drain at the downstream end of each branch.
4. Design bypass lines to minimize the domestic water system's exposure to stagnant
water, and flush before each use.
5. Use all pumps regularly, preferably everyday: If two pumps are installed on the
domestic hot water return line, but only one is operating at a given time, they should ideally
be rotated so that neither is offline for more than 24 hours. The same principle applies to cold
water booster pumps. Stagnant water in the pumps and the piping associated with them can
provide a habitat for Legionella and other bacteria that can enter the system when the pumps
are turned on.
6. Flush vacant buildings, floors and rooms regularly: If a building or wing is completely
out of use, requiring no water, the water system serving it should ideally be valved off and
drained. On vacant floors with undrained systems, an employee in generally good health
should periodically-at least twice a week, but preferably daily-run water at all outlets at full
flow for 30 seconds and flush all toilets. This applies also to infrequently used sinks, showers
or toilets in rooms that have been converted from patient to office or storage use (occupants
of these rooms should be encouraged to operate the fixtures daily)..
7. Store water for no longer than 24 hours: If hot water storage tanks are used, or if tank-
type water heaters are used instead of instantaneous heaters, then design and operate the
system so that water remains in the tanks for no longer than 24 hours. The same is true for
cold water storage tanks, unless they are treated.
8. Use water heaters daily: If removing backup water heaters is not a reasonable option,
then they should be used regularly, preferably daily. If they are not used, they should be
drained and isolated from the rest of the system and disinfected before use.
SANITARY APPLIANCES AND FITTINGS
Sanitary appliances are the appliances provided in building for the purpose of cleaning and
washing need of building users. They are fittings used for collection and discharge of soil or

waste matter. These appliances may be grouped under soil appliances and waste water
appliances.
Soil appliances are used for collection and discharge of excreta matter including water
closet, urinal etc.
A sanitary appliance used for collection and discharge of water after use is called waste
water appliances and includes drinking water fountains, wash basin, kitchen sink, Bathtub
etc. These appliances are generally made from vitreous chinaware and glazed fire clay
sanitary ware. In some cases sink is made from marble stone or stainless steel.
The common appliances are as listed below:
1. Water Closet:A Water Closet (WC) or flush Lavatory is a toilet that disposes of human waste by
using water to flush it through a drainpipe to another location.
– It is use for solid waste collection.

2. Wash hand Basin: Use for hand washing, mouth washing.

3. Bath Tub:A sanitary appliance in which the human body can be immersed and cleansed.
Bath tub should be fixed as low as possible to assist getting in and out. The standard length of
a rectangular bath tub is 1.7m.
- It is used for bathing and body water cooling.
3. Sink:Sink of all types are in wide use in a multitude of different applications such as
Surgeon’s scrub sinks, Lavatories sinks, bar sinks, bar sinks, kitchen sink. Sinks can be made

of porcelain, stainless steel, plastic, fibreglass e.t.c. Sinks can be wall mounted, floor
mounted, or free standing with legs.
5. Shower Tray:Use for bathing under a shower.

6. Urinal:A urinal is a specialized toilet for urinating only, generally by men and boys. It has
the form of a container or simply a wall, with drainage and automatic or manual flushing.
• There are two types of urinals, single person or multiple persons.
• A single urinal is designed for one man standing upright.
• The multiple man urinal is in a trough style and can accommodate more people.
- Urinal is used for male urinating.


More figures showing different types of Urinals.
7. Bidet:A sanitary appliance primarily designed to wash the excretory organs and may also
be used as footbath. Bidets which are fitted to main supply must be of a design which is not
equipped with a submersible ascending spray, but must be of the over-rim type, i.e. piller
taps.Use for wash after use of WC.

Water Valves, Showers and Taps
Shower: A shower (also called shower bath) is a booth for washing, usually in a bathroom,
having an overhead nozzle that sprays water down on the body.
Taps: A tap is a valve for controlling the release of a liquid or gas. In some contexts,
depending on location, a "tap" may be a "faucet", "valve" or "spigot. In a building, a tap can
be indoor or outdoor depending on the need.Taps and valves are used extensively in water
supply and distribution essentially for control and access.
Water Valves
A valve is a mechanical device that blocks a pipe either partially or completely to change the
amount of fluid that passes through it. When you turn on a faucet (tap) to brush your teeth,
you're opening a valve that allows pressurized water to escape from a pipe.
Valves are used to stop and regulate the flow of water. Most valves in a residential plumbing
system are part of the water supply system and are used to control the flow of pressurized
water from the water utility or a private well. Depending on the design of the valve, they may
be best suited for simple ON-OFF control of the water flow, or they may be designed instead
for adjusting the volume of the water flow.
Most valves are available in different materials, including bronze, brass, and PVC plastic.
Twist-type handle Lever-type handle
Figures showing different types of valves handles.
Types of Valves

Below are different types of valves with their functions:
Gate Valve
Gate valves are among the most commonly used valves in plumbing applications. Gate valves
control water flow by raising or lowering an internal gate by use of a twist-type handle or
knob located at the top of the valve. Gate valves should never be used to control the
volume of flow. They are designed to be fully open (allowing full flow) or fully closed
(stopping the flow entirely). Using them to adjust water flow can wear out these valves. Gate
valves are very reliable for closing off the water supply, and they are commonly used as
shutoff valves.
Ball Valve
Ball valves are commonly used for main water shutoffs and for branch line shutoffs. Like
gate valves, a ball valve is designed as an all or nothing valve. They should be either fully
open to allow full flow, or fully closed to stop all water flow. Internally, these valves have a
ball with a hole in the middle, which is connected to a lever-type outer handle. This handle
serves as a handy visual aid so you know at a glance whether the water is ON or OFF.
Globe Valve
Globe valves are used to regulate the flow of water in plumbing applications. Globe valves
are usually installed when the flow of water needs to be regulated or when it needs to be
adjusted regularly. Because globe valves are good for regulating flow, they are often used for
outdoor faucets and similar utility faucets.
Butterfly Valve
Externally, butterfly valves resemble ball valves, since they have a lever-type handle that
opens and closes the valve. Butterfly valves can precisely adjust the volume of flow.
Butterfly valves are used primarily in industrial applications and are not commonly found in
household plumbing systems.
Stop Valve (Fixture Shutoff Valve)

Stop valves are small valves with small twist handles or knobs, used to control water flow to
individual plumbing fixtures, such as faucets and toilets. Shutoff valves allow you to work on
a faucet or other fixture without having to shut off the water to the whole house at the main
shutoff valve.
Pressure-Reducing Valve
Water pressure-reducing valves are installed to reduce the overall water pressure in a
plumbing system to the desired or accepted limits. Pressure-reducing valves are not used to
open or close the water flow, but rather to throttle it down to reduce overall water pressure.
They are commonly used in homes that receive relatively high-pressure water from the
municipal water supply, where the pressure might be sufficient to damage house plumbing
systems and appliances.They normally have a spring and diaphragm that is adjusted to a
specific limit, depending on the pressure of the water supply.
Check Valve
A check valve is a specialty valve used to keep water flowing in one direction only and
prevent flow in the opposite direction. Most types are not operational, and therefore do not
have control handles. A back-flow preventer, of the type often found on outdoor faucets
and on lawn sprinkler systems, is one example of a check valve.
DRAINAGE SYSTEM USED IN BUILDINGS
Drainage Systems
Drainage systems are systems that are designed and used collect and transport surface water,
storm water, and foul water (soil water from toilets and waste water from basins, baths
showers e.t.c) in buildings, mainly to get rid of the water to convenient discharge points such
as nearby streams or rivers.Drainage schemes for buildings are necessary to remove waste
water, foul water and surface water.
Foul water is the soil water from toilets and waste water from basins, baths, showers, etc.
Waste water and foul water join together and are disposed in a septic tank in rural areas or to
a foul water sewer in urban areas. The foul water sewer discharges the sewerage to a
treatment plant where it is settled, filtered and chemically treated.

Surface water can be discharged into a soakaway, to a river or lake in rural areas or to the
surface water (or Storm Water) drain in urban areas. The storm water drain discharges water
safely to a river or lake.
Drainage systems constitutes various forms of collection methods and transportation medium
ranging from open drainage channel, covered drainage channels and the necessary
maintenance/cleaning points – manholes/inspection chambers.
Types of Drainage System

1. Separate systems
In this system, the sanitary sewage and storm are collected separately in two different set of
sewers (drain pipe) which convey the the sewage to a waste water treatment plant (WWTP)
and storm water is discharged into rivers without treatment. A separate system of drainage is
used where foul water and surface water are separated at source and piped individually to a
surface water drain or foul water drain.
2. Combined Systems
Combined Sewer systems are sewers that are designed to collect and convey rainwater runoff,
domestic sewage all through same pipe.

Most of the time, combined sewer systems transport all their wastewater to a sewage
treatment plant where it is treated and then discharged to a water body.
Types of Drainage
a. Surface drainage
Refers to the removal of excess water off site or from the land. This is normally
accomplished by shallow ditches, also called open drains. The shallow ditches discharge into
larger and deeper collector drains. Most effective method of surface drainage is the field
drain. The field is given an artificial slope by means of land grading in order to facilitate the
flow of xecess water towards the drain.
b. Subsurface drainage
Removal of the excess water in the subsoil from the rootzone with the aim of lowering or
controlling the water table depth below the crop root zone. It is accomplished by by deep
open drains or burried pipe drains.

c. Slope drainage
Slope drainage systems are built to allow water to flow from a structure in a downward
direction. It is done with the aid of pipes that move down through the slope. A pipe is
anchored into a small incline which causes water to flow through the pipe and away from the
structure.
d. Downspout/gutters
Downspouts and gutter systems are structure’s first defence against over-saturation from
stormwater. Downspouts collect water from gutters and divert it to the ground. They are often
drained into an aluminum extension, burried drainpipe or other solution. The purpose is to
move water away and route water to other drainage on the street.
The different types of drainage are:
 Open drainage
 Covered drainage
 Buried drainage pipes
Types of Drainage Materials
The different types of drainage materials include among others:
1. Ring culvert
2. Box culvert
3. Open concrete channels
4. Stone pitched V channels
5. Cement Asbestos drainage pipes
6. Coated steel drainage pipes
7. UPVC drainage pipes

DAYLIGHT AND ARTIFICIAL LIGHTING
DAYLIGHT:
Daylight is also referred to as Natural lighting and it derives its illumination ability from the
sun. The sunshine illuminates the environment within which the building is and the openings
under fenestration in building allowed controllable amount of natural lighting into buildings.
Natural lighting in building is provided by making provision in building to admit adequate

daylight into it. This provision is referred to as FENESTRATION or commonly known as
Openings in Building. The openings include among others windows, doors, roof light,
lighting glass blocks etc.
Window location, shape and size will determine the amount of light from outside that enters a
building and how far that light penetrates into the core of the building. To assess the
influence of window size, shape and position the daylight at a point in a room is quantified by
use of the daylight factor.
DAYLIGHT FACTOR
The Daylight Factor is defined as the ratio of the illuminance at a particular point within an
enclosure to the simultaneous unobstructed outdoor illuminance under the same sky
conditions, expressed as a percentage. It is the ratio of internal illuminance at a point in a
room to the external illuminance.

The table below gives some daylight factor recommendations.
Therefore:
Internal illuminance = ( Daylight factor x External illuminance ) /100%
Internal illuminance = (5 x 9500 ) /100%
Internal illuminance = 475 lux
Example 2:
Calculate the illuminance at a point in a domestic kitchen if the average external illuminance
is 5000 lux.
From the above table the recommended daylight factor for a kitchen is 2%.
Internal illuminance = (Daylight factor x External illuminance)/ 100%
Internal illuminance = (2 x 5000) /100%
Internal illuminance = 100 lux

ARTIFICIAL LIGHTING
Artificial lighting derives its source of lighting from electrical or solar illuminants through
incandescent lamps, bulbs or fluorescent lights and they are provided under electrical
provision in buildings.
Artificial lighting is provided by the use of incandescent lamps or fluorescent lights. The
lights are powered by various sources of energy but most commonly by electrical energy.
This is part of the electrical engineering design of buildings. They form part of electrical
installation in buildings.
The integration of Lighting: Natural and Artificial in building:
The two lighting method are usually combined effectively to minimize the use of artificial
lighting that is usually costly to use. This is achieved by architectural design provisions in
conjunction with electrical engineering design provisions.

ELECTRICAL FITTINGS AND CONTROL
Cables
Cables are used for electrical wiring in building to conduct current to various fittings. Various
fittings require different level or amount of current to run or drive them. The flow of current
is dependent on the size, type and quality of cable use. An improper use of cables result in
heat generation and possibly fire hazard hence the importance proper cable type and size
selection and use for the different types of fittings in buildings.
The following are the different types of cables based on form, material and sizes:
1. Single core cables
2. Double core cables
3. Multiple core cables
4. Armoured cables
5. Copper cables
6. Aluminum cables
7. 1.0 mm2
8. 1.5 mm2
9. 2.5 mm2
10. 4.0 mm2
11. 6.0 mm2
12. PVC insulated cables etc.

List of Electrical Fittings and Controls
The following are the list of electrical fittings and controls showing their uses:
1. Socket outlet: Use for 13A and 15A power sockets. Also used for plugging and providing
power or charge to electrical applainces.

2. Switches: Use for putting on/off light.
3. Wall Bracket: Use for lighting fitting.
4. Bulk head fitting: Use for external lighting.

5. Ceiling Rose: Use as power point terminal.
6. Cooker Control Unit: Use for socket and power supply to cooker in kitchen.
7. Distribution Board: Use for current distribution to various points in buildings.

8. Change over switch: Use for controls in double source power supply
9. Others

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BLD214: Building Services 2023

DEPARTMENT OF BUILDING TECHNOLOGY

BLD214: BUILDING SERVICES

Prepared by: Suleiman Salisu

2022/2023 Academic Session

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1.1 Course Introduction

1.2 Water and its Sources

1.3 Quality of Water

1.4 Two classes of Water (Hard water and Soft water)

1.5 Methods of Water Purification/treatment

2. WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS FOR DOMESTIC COLD WATER SUPPLY.

2.3 The Cold Water Supply System in Building (with sketches)

2.4 The Means of Providing Drinking Water

2.5 Difference between Service, Communication and Other Pipes

2.6 Differences between Distribution Lines in water supply.

2.7Water Connection/Distribution Details in Drawings

3. HOT WATER SUPPLY

3.1 The hot water supply in buildings

3.2 Precaution against Dead Leg

4. SANITARY APPLIANCES AND FITTINGS

4.1 Sanitary Appliances descriptions and functions

4.2 Sanitary Fittings

4.3 Taps and Valves

4.4 Construction requirements for installing sanitary appliances

5. DRAINAGE SYSTEM USED IN BUILDINGS

6. DAYLIGHT AND ARTIFICIAL LIGHTING

7. ELECTRICAL FITTINGS AND CONTROL

1. THE SOURCES, QUALITY AND CLASSIFICATION OF WATER

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1.1 Course Introduction:

Building services include:

· Energy supply – gas, electricity and renewable sources

· Heating and ventilating

· Water, drainage and plumbing

· Day lighting and artificial lighting

· Escalators and lifts

· Security and alarm systems

· Fire detection and protection

· Air conditioning and refrigeration

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Mechanical systems include:

1- HVAC Systems: heating, ventilation and air conditioning.

2- Plumbing: water distribution, water treatment, sanitary facilities.

3- Fire protection: water supply, fire and smoke detection.

Electrical systems include:

1- Electrical power: normal, standby, emergency power supply and distribution.

2- Lighting: interior, exterior, emergency light.

3- Auxiliary: telephone, data, audio and video sound

Building operation systems include:

1- Transportation: elevators, escalators, moving walkways.

2- Processing: food, services.

3- Automation: environmental control and management.

1.2 Water and its Sources

Water is said to be defined chemically as a chemical compound that is made up of two

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The Hydrological cycle (Water cycle):

Fig 1.1 The hydrological cycle

Water cycle description:

The different hydrological cycle processes are as follows:

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The main sources of water are as follows:

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iv) Lakes and streams