LECTURE TWO

TERMS USED IN HIGHWAY SCHEME

Users of the Road

A road user is anyone who uses a road, whether it is a driver, passenger, pedestrian, cyclist,
motorcyclist, or even an animal. Road users are an important consideration in highway
engineering, as their behavior and characteristics can have a significant impact on traffic safety
and efficiency. Here are some of the different types of road users:

 Drivers: Drivers are the most common type of road user. They are responsible for
operating a motor vehicle on the road. Drivers need to obey traffic laws and be aware of
their surroundings in order to operate their vehicles safely.
 Passengers: Passengers are people who are riding in a motor vehicle. Passengers should
always wear a seat belt and follow the instructions of the driver.
 Pedestrians: Pedestrians are people who are walking or running on the road. Pedestrians
should always use crosswalks and obey traffic signals.
 Cyclists: Cyclists are people who are riding bicycles on the road. Cyclists should always
ride in the designated bike lanes and obey traffic laws.
 Motorcyclists: Motorcyclists are people who are riding motorcycles on the road.
Motorcyclists should always wear a helmet and obey traffic laws.
 Animals: Animals can also be road users. Animals should always be kept on a leash
when they are on the road.

DRIVER, VEHICLE AND PEDESTRIAN CHARACTERISTICS

Driver, vehicle, and pedestrian characteristics are all important considerations in highway
engineering. By understanding the different characteristics of each type of road user, highway
engineers can design roads that are safer and more efficient for everyone.

Driver characteristics
Driver characteristics include things like age, gender, experience, and level of alertness. These
characteristics can all affect how a driver behaves on the road. For example, younger drivers are
more likely to be involved in accidents than older drivers. Male drivers are also more likely to be
involved in accidents than female drivers. Experienced drivers are generally better at avoiding
accidents than inexperienced drivers. And drivers who are tired or distracted are more likely to
make mistakes that can lead to accidents. Driver characteristics are related to the physical,
mental, and psychological abilities of drivers. They include:

 Vision: The ability to see clearly and perceive objects on the road.
 Hearing: The ability to hear and respond to auditory cues, such as sirens or honking.
 Reaction Time: The time it takes for a driver to react to a given situation.

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  Skill: The proficiency in operating a vehicle and following traffic rules.
 Experience: The level of familiarity and exposure to different traffic situations.
 Knowledge: Understanding of vehicle characteristics, driving practices, and traffic
regulations.

Psychological Factors: Emotional and psychological factors that influence driver behavior, such
as fear, anger, impatience, and maturity.

Pedestrian characteristics
Pedestrian characteristics include things like age, gender, and visibility. These characteristics can
also affect the safety of a pedestrian. For example, young children are more likely to be struck by
vehicles than adults. Female pedestrians are also more likely to be struck by vehicles than male
pedestrians. And pedestrians who are not visible to drivers are more likely to be struck by
vehicles. Pedestrian characteristics are related to the physical, mental, and psychological
abilities of pedestrians. They include:
 Vision: The ability to see clearly and perceive objects on the road.
 Hearing: The ability to hear and respond to auditory cues, such as sirens or honking.
 Mobility: The physical ability to walk or move on foot.
 Awareness: The level of awareness of traffic rules and the surrounding environment.
 Psychological Factors: Emotional and psychological factors that influence pedestrian
behavior, such as fear, impatience, and distraction.

Vehicle characteristics
Vehicle characteristics include things like size, weight, and speed. These characteristics can also
affect the safety of a road user. For example, larger vehicles are more likely to cause serious
injuries in an accident than smaller vehicles. Heavier vehicles are also more likely to cause
damage to property in an accident. And vehicles that are traveling at high speeds are more likely
to be involved in accidents than vehicles that are traveling at slower speeds, Vehicle
characteristics are related to the physical and mechanical properties of vehicles. They include:
 Size and Weight: The size and weight of the vehicle affect its handling and stopping
distance.
 Braking System: The braking system affects the vehicle's ability to stop quickly and
safely.
 Acceleration and Speed: The vehicle's acceleration and speed affect its ability to merge
and maneuver in traffic.

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 DESIGN REQUIREMENT FOR A HIGHWAY SCHEME
Geometric Design
This is the process of establishing the visible (physical) elements of the road. It is the process of
relating the physical element to the vehicle, driver and pedestrian characteristics as well as to
merge with the natural terrain. The main criteria that guide the highway design procedure
include:-

 Traffic characteristics i.e. traffic volume or roadway capacity.

 Design speed
 Road alignment including horizontal and vertical profile.
 Cross –sectional elements
 Sight distance
Other factors to varying degree affect the design standard adopted for the geometric element.
They are the functional classification of the roadway, topography, cost and available funds,
safety consideration (signing), society cum environmental factors. Possibly the most important
single rule in highway design is consistency. Only by making every element conform to the
driver’s expectations and by avoiding abrupt changes in standard can a smooth flowing, accident
free facility be produced.

Traffic Characteristic for Design

Traffic characteristics are the properties of traffic that can be used to describe the flow of
vehicles on a road. They are important for traffic engineers to understand in order to design and
manage roads safely and efficiently. Some of the most important traffic characteristics include:

 Traffic volume: The number of vehicles that travel a particular road segment in a given
period of time.
 Traffic speed: The average speed at which vehicles travel on a particular road segment.
 Traffic density: The number of vehicles per unit length of a road segment.
 Traffic composition: The types of vehicles that travel on a particular road segment, such
as cars, trucks, buses, and motorcycles.
 Traffic flow characteristics: The patterns of traffic flow, such as free flow, congested
flow, and stop-and-go flow.

Traffic characteristics can be measured using a variety of methods, including traffic counts,
speed surveys, and video analysis. The results of these measurements can be used to determine
the need for improvements to the road, such as widening lanes, adding traffic signals, or
improving intersections.

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Design Speed
Design speed is the speed that a vehicle can travel safely on a particular road under ideal
conditions. It is used to determine the width of lanes, the sight distance needed, and the type of
pavement to use. The design speed is not necessarily the same as the posted speed limit. The
posted speed limit is the maximum speed that is legally allowed on a road. However, it is
important to note that even if the posted speed limit is higher than the design speed, it is still not
safe to drive at that speed if the road conditions are not ideal. Here are some factors that are
considered when determining the design speed of a road:

 Traffic characteristics Road alignment

 Cross-sectional elements
 Sight distance:

The design speed is an important factor in roadway design because it helps to ensure the safety
of all road users. By considering all of the factors that affect the design speed, engineers can
design roads that are safe and efficient for everyone.

Road Alignment
Road alignment is the arrangement of a road's horizontal and vertical curves. It is an important
factor in roadway design because it affects the speed and safety of vehicles on the road. The
horizontal alignment of a road refers to the way that it curves from side to side. Horizontal
curves are designed to provide a smooth transition between straight sections of road. The radius
of a curve is the distance from the center of the curve to the edge of the pavement. The sharper
the curve, the smaller the radius. The vertical alignment of a road refers to the way that it
changes in elevation. Vertical curves are designed to provide a smooth transition between
changes in elevation. The grade of a curve is the amount of slope in the road. The steeper the
grade, the more difficult it is for vehicles to climb. The design of the horizontal and vertical
alignment of a road is based on a number of factors, including:

 Design speed
 Traffic characteristics:
 Topography:
 Environmental factors

The design of the horizontal and vertical alignment of a road is a complex process that requires
the expertise of a civil engineer. By carefully considering all of the factors involved, engineers
can design roads that are safe and efficient for all users.

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Cross Sectional Elements
Cross-sectional elements are the features of a road that are visible when viewed from the side.
They include the pavement, shoulders, medians, and curbs. The design of these elements is
important for the safety and efficiency of the road.

 Pavement: The pavement is the surface of the road that vehicles travel on. It is made of a
variety of materials, such as concrete, asphalt, or gravel. The type of pavement used
depends on the traffic volume, speed, and climate of the area.
 Shoulders: Shoulders are the areas of land on either side of the pavement. They are used
for parking, emergency stopping, and pedestrian and bicycle use. The width of the
shoulders depends on the traffic volume and speed of the road.
 Medians: Medians are the areas of land that separate opposing traffic lanes. They can be
raised, depressed, or level. Medians are used to prevent head-on collisions and to provide
a refuge for wildlife.
 Curbs: Curbs are the raised edges of the pavement that separate it from the shoulders and
sidewalks. They are used to prevent vehicles from leaving the road and to direct water
away from the pavement.

The design of the cross-sectional elements of a road is based on a number of factors, including:

 Traffic characteristics
 Design speed
 Topography
 Environmental factors

Sight Distance
Sight distance is a critical concept in transportation engineering and road design. It refers to the
distance a driver can see ahead on the road, allowing them to safely react to potential hazards,
make decisions, and maintain control of their vehicle. Sight distance plays a crucial role in
determining the design of roads, intersections, and other traffic facilities to ensure safe and
efficient travel.

Types of Sight Distance:

 Stopping Sight Distance (SSD): Stopping sight distance is the minimum distance
required for a driver to see an obstruction ahead and come to a complete stop before
reaching that obstruction. It takes into account the driver's perception-reaction time,
braking time, and deceleration rate.

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  Decision Sight Distance (DSD): Decision sight distance is the distance required for a
driver to perceive a potential hazard, make a decision to take appropriate action (such as
changing lanes or slowing down), and then execute that action safely.
 Passing Sight Distance (PSD): This is the distance required for a driver to overtake a
slower-moving vehicle safely, without interfering with oncoming traffic.
 Intersection Sight Distance (ISD): This is the sight distance required at intersections to
allow drivers to see approaching vehicles on the intersecting road and make safe
decisions while entering or crossing.

SIGHT DISTANCE EQUATION

Stopping Sight Distance (SSD): The formula calculates the Stopping Sight Distance (SSD),
which is the distance a vehicle travels during the time it takes the driver to perceive a hazard,
react to it, and bring the vehicle to a complete stop.

SSD = 1.47ut + _____u2_____

30({a/g} ± G)

Where:

 u is the initial speed of the vehicle (in meters per second).

 t is the driver's perception-reaction time (in seconds).
 a is the vehicle's deceleration rate (in meters per second squared).
 g is the acceleration due to gravity (approximately 9.81 m/s29.81m/s2).
 G is the gradient of the road (expressed as a decimal value).

EXAMPLE 1

The road has an initial speed of 30 meters per second, a driver's perception-reaction time of 2
seconds, a vehicle deceleration rate of 6 meters per second squared, an acceleration due to
gravity of 9.81 meters per second squared, and a road gradient of 2% uphill.

EXAMPLE 2

An initial speed of 20 meters per second, a driver's perception-reaction time of 1.5 seconds, a
vehicle deceleration rate of 5 meters per second squared, an acceleration due to gravity of 9.81
meters per second squared, and a road gradient of 0.01 (1% downhill).

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 LECTURE THREE
SOIL COMPACTION AND CONSOLIDATION
Soil compaction: is a process in which soil particles are compressed and closely packed
together, reducing the pore spaces between them. This results in increased soil density and
reduced permeability. The advantages which occur through compaction of the soil mass are:-
 Increase in density and bearing capacity
 Roadway immobility of soil.
 Reduction in settlement under repeated loading due to reduced void ratio.
 Reduction in shrinkage.

Consolidation: is a natural process that occurs over time due to the gradual expulsion of water
from the void spaces within a soil mass. When a load is applied to a saturated soil, water is
initially forced out of the soil pores, causing a decrease in volume. This process is known as
primary consolidation. Over time, excess water is gradually dissipated, and the soil particles
rearrange themselves to accommodate the reduced water content. This results in a decrease in
settlement and a increase in soil strength over time. Consolidation is a significant factor in the
settlement of structures built on saturated soils. Consolidation is thus the process whereby soil
particles are packed closely together by the explosion of pure water from the soil through the
application of load transfer.

Compaction Equipment

The various types of compaction equipment

 Sheep foot roller – with projecting feet and used to compact cohesive and are pushed –
pulled by crawler tractors.
 Pneumatic roller – to compact send base for highway.
 Vibratory compactor with pads or drum used where soil has cohesion.
 Smooth wheel roller – compacting the base course for a roadway.

Standard Compaction Tests

These are standard methods of simulating field conditions in the laboratory to determine the
compaction characteristics of a given soil. The most widely applied method of laboratory
compaction test is the Protor’s density test. In this rest the standard compaction effort used is a
2.5kg hammer that falls through a distance of 30cm to compact the soil. The test specimen (soil)
is placed is a 10cm diameter mould with a capacity of 0.01m 3. The specimen in the mould are
compacted in 3 layers with the hammer falling through the specified fall height and with a
regulated number of blows per layer 27 blows.

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The soil after compaction is struck off the top of the mould and the density of the specimen is
determined by weight the sample. Dry density is then obtained and is plotted against different
M.C. The highest point on the curve is indicated as OMC & Maximum Dry Density.

Dry Density = W /1 + 100 b = Bulk density

The Vibrating Hammer Method
The test is carried out on soil in the 152mm diameter mould with capacity of 2305cm3. It is
compacted in 3 layers by pushing the tamper firmly down the soil and operating for 60 secs per
layer. It is used for fine grained soils and for fraction of medium and coarse grained granular
soils passing the 37.5mm sieve. This gives more dependable results for uniformly graded coarse
sands and clean gravels

PAVEMENT CONSTRUCTION.
A pavement is a hard surface, often made of materials like asphalt or concrete that is constructed
to provide a durable and safe road for vehicles and pedestrians. Pavements are a critical part of
transportation infrastructure, providing a smooth and reliable surface for vehicles to travel on.
There are two main types of pavements:

 Flexible pavements and,

 Rigid pavements.

1. Flexible Pavements: Flexible pavements are composed of multiple layers, each contributing
to the pavement's load distribution and structural integrity. The layers are designed to work
together to distribute the load from traffic, while allowing flexibility to accommodate
temperature-related expansion and contraction. Key components of flexible pavements include:

Surface Course: This is the top layer of the pavement that directly interacts with traffic. It is
typically made of hot-mix asphalt (HMA) and provides a smooth riding surface and skid
resistance.

Binder Course: The binder course is located beneath the surface course and provides additional
structural support and load distribution. It also contributes to the overall pavement flexibility.

Base Course: The base course, made of stronger aggregate material, spreads loads across a
wider area and helps to prevent deformation of the underlying layers.

Sub base: The sub base layer improves the load-bearing capacity of the sub grade and helps in
distributing loads from the pavement layers.

Sub grade: The sub grade is the natural soil or compacted fill material on which the pavement
layers are constructed.

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2. Rigid Pavements: Rigid pavements are constructed using a single, thick layer of concrete that
serves as both the wearing surface and the structural layer. Unlike flexible pavements, rigid
pavements rely on the inherent strength of the concrete to distribute loads and withstand stresses.
Key characteristics of rigid pavements include:

Concrete Slab: The main component of rigid pavements is a thick layer of reinforced or plain
concrete. This slab distributes loads effectively and minimizes deformation under traffic.

Joints: Rigid pavements are designed with control joints and expansion joints to accommodate
temperature-related expansion and contraction of the concrete. These joints prevent cracking and
maintain the integrity of the pavement.

Differences Between Flexible and Rigid Pavement

S/N Flexible Pavement Rigid Pavement

1 Build with several layers over the
sub-grade (natural soil), base, sub-
base and surface layers
2 Layers dispersed and distribute
loads to the sub-grade
3 Considerable thickness
4 Strength requirement of sub-grade
not too stringent as the upper layers
bears substantial load
5 Provide fairly good riding surface
Usually one layer (concrete surfacing) is
built over sub-grade
Concrete surface bears and distribute load
to the sub-grade
Lesser thickness
Strength requirement of the sub-grade is
higher as there are no layered structures
Provide enhanced riding surface and
reduces the operating cost of vehicles

Preparation and Construction of a Road Base

The natural soil upon which the road would be built serves as the foundation of the road. This is
the typical sub-grade of the pavement structure.

Specifically, for flexible and rigid pavements the road base upon which the surface course is
built comprises the base and sub-base layer over a well prepared sub-grade.

In flexible pavement construction, the different layers that made up the base are constructed in
stages. The sub-grade is compacted for enhanced strength or stabilized using admixtures where
necessary. The base is built using material hauled to site usually granular, compacted properly is
layers to the specified thickness. In cases where the sub-grade soil is entirely suited as a road
base, only proper compaction and drainage are necessary before building the concrete wearing
surface.

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The base constructed should provide uniform foundation support for the roadway and free from
deleterious substances. Soils of low shearing strength, high volume change, organic and alkali
soils should not be used for foundation of road pavements. The road base is finally brought to
shape and dimension by the use of suitable fine grading machines.

Burrow-pits:
Refer to areas where soil, sand, gravel, or other construction materials are excavated or dug out
for use in construction projects such as road construction, landscaping, or building foundations.
These pits are essentially holes or depressions in the ground created by removing materials for
use elsewhere on the construction site.

Burrow pits serve as sources of construction materials, and the materials excavated from these
pits are used to fill other areas, level surfaces, or create foundations. They are commonly used in
civil engineering and construction projects to obtain local materials that can be repurposed for
various construction activities, thus reducing the need to transport materials from distant
locations.

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