HAPTER 24

TCP/IP Protocol Suite:

Part I

The Transmission Control Protoco/Internetworking Protocol (TCP/IP) is a set

of
protocols, or a protocol suite, that defines how all trans1missions are exchanged across
the Internet. Named after its two most popular protocols, TCP/IP has been in active use
for many years and has demonstrated its effectiveness on a worldwide scale.

24.1 OVERVIEW OF TCP/IP

In 1969, a project was funded by the Advanced Research Project Agency (ARPA), an
arm of the U.S. Department of Defense. ARPA established a packet-switching network
of computers linked by point-to-point leased lines called Advanced Research Project
Agency Network (ARPANET) that provided a basis for early research into network
ing. The conventions developed by ARPA to specify how individual computers could
communicate across that network became TCP/IP.
As networking possibilities grew to include other types of linksand devices. ARPA
adapted TCP/IP to the demands of the new technology. As involvement in TCP/IP
grew, the scope of ARPANET expanded until it became the backbone of an internet
work today referred to as the Internet.

TCP/IP and the Internet

1CPMP and the concept of internetworking developed together, each shaping the
growth of the other. Before moving more deeply into the protocols, however, we need
o understand how TCP/IP relates to the physical entity of any internet t Serves.
An internet under TCP/IP operates like asingle network connecting many computers
of any size and type. Internally, an internet (or, more specifically, the Intemet) is an inter-
onof independent physical networks (such as LANS) linked together by internet
working devices. Figure 24.1 shows the topology of a possible intemet. In this example,
the letters A, B. C, and so on represent hosts. Ahost in TCP/IP is a computer. The solid
circles in the figure, numbered 1.2,,3, and so on, are routers or gateways. The larger ovals
containing roman numerals (I, II, III, etc.).)represent separate physical networks.
705
706 CHAPTER 24 TCPAP PROTOCOL SUITE: PART I

Figure 24.1 An internet according to TCP/IP

G
G

B B

2
Internet
C

a. An actual internet
b. An internet
seen by TCP/P
To TCP/P, the same internet
TCP/P considers all interconnectedappears quite differently (see again Figure
siders all of the hosts to be connectedphysical networks to be one huge network. It24.1),
con
to this larger logical
individual physical networks. network rather than to their

TCP/IP and OSI

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) was developed before the OSI
fore, the layers in the TCP/AP protocol do not model. There
match exactly
model. The TCP/IP protocol is made of five layers: physical, data with those in the OSI
port, and application. The application layer in TCP/IP can be link, network, trans
nation of session, presentation, and application layers of the equated with the combi
OSI model.
At the transport layer, TCP/P defines two protocols: TCP and User
Protocol (UDP). At the network layer, the main protocol defined by TCP/IPDatagram
1S
networking Protocol (P), although there are some other protocols that support ae
movement in this layer.
At the physical and data link layers, TCP/IP does not define any specific protocol.
It supports all of the standard and proprietary protocols discussed earlier inthis book
Anetwork in a TCP/P internetwork can be a local area network (LAN), a metropolitan
area network (MAN),or a wide area
network (WAN).

Encapsulation the TCP/IP

pro
Figure 24.2 shows the units at different layers of TCPor
tocol suite. The data unitencapsulation of data message. TheIP
created at the application layer is called'a
datagram.
UDP Creates a data unit that is called either a a user ofthedatagram
segment or
layer in turn will create a data unit called a The movement ableto
be
across the Internet is the datagram. protocol. However, to
encapsulatedina
move physically from oneresponsibility of the TCP/IP signals
be
to another, the datagram musttransmitted as
network
frame in the data link layer of network and finally
along the transmission mnedia. the underlying
 SECTION 24.2 NETWORK LAYER 707

TCP/IP and OSI model

Figure24.2

Applications
Application

Presentation DNS SNMP TFTP

SMTP FTP TELNET
Message
Session

Transport TCP UDP

Segment
I or ser
datagram

IGMP CMP
Network IP
Datagram
ARPRARP|

Data link

Physical
Protocols defincd by
the underlying networks
Frame
(
Bits

24.2 NETWORK LAYER

At the network layer (or, more accurately, the internetwork layer), TCP/IP supports the
inICMP,
ternetwandorkIGMP.
Protocol (IP). IP, in turn, contains four supporting protocols: ARP, RARP,
Each of these protocols is described in detail later in this chapter.

nternetWork Protocol (P)

IP isthe transmission mechanism used by the TCP/P protocols. It is an unreliable and
Connect ionleIPss datagram
means that provides noprotocola
best-effort delivery service. The term best-effort
error checking or tracking. IP assumes the unreliability of
the underlying layers and does its best to get atransmission through to its destination,
but wih no guarantees. As we have seen in previous chapters, transmissions along
physi
duringcaltraansmission be destroyed for a number of reasons. Noise can
networks canacross cause bit errors
a medium; acongested router may discard adatagram if it is
unable to relay it before atime limit runs out; routing quirks can endin looping and the
ultimate destruction of a datagranm; and disabled links may leave no usable path to the
destination.
CHAPTER N TCPIP PROTOCOL SUITE PART !

Ifreliability is important. IP must be paired with a

An example of a more commoniy understood best-effort reliable protocol Such
ofhce. The post ofice does its best to deliver the
an unregistered letter is lost. it is mail but
does nct
delivery service the TCP.
is
as
loss and rectify the problem. The post
up to the sender or
ofice itself does to always succeed.ps
would-be recipient If
und cannot notify asender of loss
ing IP with a
protocoi
postcard included in aletter
or
that contains damage. An
not keep track of
example
of a
reliability functions is a
the
situation similar
dievery
scoverleter
mailed to pair-
ered. the receiver maiis
the through the post office.
ender never recerves the postcard back to the sender to When the letter 0s
another copy. postcard. he or she
selindicate
f-addressed, stamped
deliv-
assumes the letter was lostsuccess. If the
IP
transports data in packets
tofransported separat called
and sends t
ely. Datagrams may travel
sequence or duplicated. IP does not
datagrams
along (destribed beiow), each of which is
reorderi n g
not create datagrams once they keep different routes
track of the routes and
virtuai circuits for arrive. Because it is a and has may
no
arrive out
incomiTheng transmission. delivery. There is no call facility for
IP limited
funct ional ity connect
setup toioalert
nless servir,
the
IP does
itiesprovi des bare-bones of IP receiver to an
should not be
necessary for a giventransmission functions that freeconsidered a
appl icat ion and thereby the user to weakness, however.
DatPacketagrasmin the IP allows for add only those
maxi m um faci
mat. A
parts. header
layer are
datagraandrn is a called efficiency.
essent ia l t0 dat
variable-lengthagr
data. Theams. header packet Figure 24.3 shows the IP
byte
sections.rouiAnbriefg and delivery. Itofcanis be from 20 to 6065,536 (up to
bytes) datagram for-
consisting of two
4
Version.The description customary
first
(1Pv4), with a binary defines the
field each field is
in
in TCP/NP
order.
bytes
to
and
contains information
show the header in four-
Headerof length value of 0100.version nuumber of the IP.
iples
multiplhed (HIEN),
when four bytbyes. The fourThe HLEN feld
bits
The current version is
IlService type. The gives a can
4, defi nes the length of the header in mul-
speci maximumrepresent
incllyudeshe typebils thatof serdefivicene lype field of 60 bytes.number between 0 and 15, which.
abiTotaliatyl , and delay. service thethe prioritdefiy nofesthehow the
a

two-byle lengthfi,eldThe total sender desires suchdatagram. datagram should be handle.

It also Contains bits that
(16 bitsl)ength field as the level of
lSedequentneinfcitcweaOrtiokn, throughidentification
he passing The and can defdefineinesupthe
twhen
frame size, WN feld is used65,5in35 bytes.
throughput,
to total length of the IP datagram. It is
reli-

numberÌn dif erent

this fieldhen netNorhappens
ks, , fragmentation.
this may A datagram.
. be
divided into to match
each
fragment isfragments
identified with a
 SECTION 24.2 NEIWORK LAYER 709

datagram
Figure 24.3 IP

20-65536 bytes

20-60 bytes

Header Data

VER HLEN Service type Total length

4 bits 4 bits 8 bits 16 bits
Identification Flags Fragmentation offset
16 bits 3 bits 13 bits
Time to live Protocol Header checksum
8 bits 8 bits 16 bits

Source IP address

Destination IP address

Option

Flags. The bits in the flags-field deal with fragmentation (the datagram can or can
not be fragmented; can be the first, middle, or last fragnent; etc.).
Fragmentation offset. The fragmentation offset is a pointer that shows the offset
of the data in the original datagram (if it is
fragmented).
ne to live, The time-to-live field defines the number of hops a datagram can
travel before it is discarded. The source host, when it creates the datagram, sets this
field to an initial value.
Then, as the datagram travels through the Internet, router
by Touter, each router decrements
the this value by 1. If this value becomes 0 before
datdatagram
agramfrom back and forth forever between routers.
a reaches its final destination, the datagram is discarded. This prevents
going
Prot o
ated in col. The protocol field defines which upper-layer protocol data are encapsu-
the datagram(TCP, UDP, ICMP, etc.).
Header checksum. This is a16-bit field usedto check the integrity of the header.
notthe rest of the
Source address. Thepacket.source address field is afour-byte (32-bit) Internet address. It
idDestentifiineats itheon address.
original source
of the datagram.
The destination address field is afour-byte (32-bit) Internet
address. It tidentifies the final destination of the datagram.
fiOpteldsiothatns. The options field gives mormanagement,
e functionality to the IP datagram. It can carry
control routing, timing, and alignment.