2 Distributions

SUMMARIZING DISTRIBUTIONS
David M. Lane. et al. Introduction to Statistics : pp. 132181
ioc.pdf
margarita.spitsakova@taltech.ee ICY0006: Lecture 2 1 / 59

Descriptive statistics
Descriptive statistics is quantitatively describing the main features of a collection of
information.
It provides simple summaries about the observations that have been made. Such
summaries may be either quantitative, i.e. summary statistics, or visual, i.e.
simple-to-understand graphs.
It involves two kinds of analysis:
Univariate analysis: describing the distribution of a single variable, including

I central tendency (mean, median, and mode)
I dispersion (range and quantiles of the data-set, measures of
spread such as the variance and standard deviation)
I shape of the distribution (skewness and kurtosis
Bivariate analysis: more than one variable are involved and describing the relationship
between pairs of variables. In this case, descriptive statistics include:

I Cross-tabulations and contingency tables
I Graphical representation via scatterplots
I Quantitative measures of dependence
I Descriptions of conditional distributions
ioc.pdf

information.


ioc.pdf

information.


ioc.pdf

Contents
1 Central Tendency
2 Variability
3 Shape
4 Linear Transformations
5 Logarithms
6 Eects of Linear Transformations
7 Graphing Quantitative Variables
ioc.pdf

Next section
1 Central Tendency
2 Variability
3 Shape
5 Logarithms
ioc.pdf

What is central tendency?
A central tendency
... is a typical or central value for a probability distribution.
It is also called a measure of central tendency or a centre or a location of the distribution.
Conversationally, it is called average.
ioc.pdf

A central tendency
ioc.pdf

A central tendency
ioc.pdf

A central tendency
Measures of central tendency

The following may be applied to one-dimensional data:
Arithmetic mean (or simply, mean)
Median
Mode
But also
Geometric mean
Trimean
Truncated mean (or trimmed mean)
etc.
ioc.pdf

Arithmetic mean
Denition
The arithmetic mean is dened as being equal to the sum of the numerical values of each and
every observation divided by the total number of observations.
Symbolically, if we have a data set with values x1 , x2 , . . . , xn , then the arithmetic mean is
∑ni=1 xi
x=
n
ioc.pdf

Arithmetic mean
Denition
∑ni=1 xi
x=
n
If the data set is a statistical population (i.e., consists of every possible observation and
not just a subset of them), then the mean of that population is called the population
mean and denoted by µ = ∑ xi /n.
If the data set is a statistical sample (a subset of the population), we call the statistic
resulting from this calculation a sample mean and denote it by M = ∑ xi /N , where N is
the size of the sample.
ioc.pdf

Arithmetic mean
Denition
∑ni=1 xi
x=
n
Example
Let X = {2500, 2700, 2400, 2300, 2550, 2650, 2750, 2450, 2600, 2400} is a set of the monthly salary
of the employees of a rm. The population mean is
2500 + 2700 + 2400 + 2300 + 2550 + 2650 + 2750 + 2450 + 2600 + 2400
µ= = 2530.
10
Selecting a sample of four values, say 2500, 2300, 2550 and 2450, we can compute the mean of
this sample:
2500 + 2300 + 2550 + +2450 9800
M= = = 2450.
4 4
ioc.pdf

Balance Scale
Arithmetic mean is said to be the point at which the distribution is in balance
(a) An asymmetric distribution (b) The distribution is not balanced

balanced on the tip of a triangle
ioc.pdf

Median
The median is the 50th percentile of a distribution.
To nd the median of a number of values,

1 order them,
2 nd the observation in the middle: the median of 5, 2, 7, 9, and 4 is 5. (Note that
if there is an even number of values, one takes the average of the middle two: the
median of 4, 6, 8, and 10 is 7.)
ioc.pdf

Mode
The mode is the most frequent value in a distribution: the mode of 3, 4, 4, 5, 5, 5, 8 is 5.
Note that the mode may be very dierent from the mean and the median.
ioc.pdf

Mean, Median and Mode
ioc.pdf

Mean, Median and Mode
Example
Let X = {2500, 2700, 2400, 2300, 2550, 2650, 2750, 2450, 2600, 2400}
Then
Mean: 2530
Median: 2525
Mode: 2400
ioc.pdf

Other central tendencies
The mean, median, and mode are by far the most commonly used measures of central
tendency
But they are by no means the only measures
We consider here tree additional measures of central tendency: the trimean, the geometric
mean, and the trimmed mean.
ioc.pdf

Trimean
The trimean is a robust measure of central tendency;
it is a weighted average of the 25th, 50th, and 75th percentiles.
The trimean is computed as follows:
Q1 + 2Q2 + Q3
TM =
4
Example
Let X = {2500, 2700, 2400, 2300, 2550, 2650, 2750, 2450, 2600, 2400}
Then
2412.5 + 2 · 2525 + 2637.5 10100
TM = = = 2525
4 4
ioc.pdf

Trimean
The trimean is a robust measure of central tendency;
it is a weighted average of the 25th, 50th, and 75th percentiles.
The trimean is computed as follows:
Q1 + 2Q2 + Q3
TM =
4
Example
Let X = {2500, 2700, 2400, 2300, 2550, 2650, 2750, 2450, 2600, 2400}
Then
2412.5 + 2 · 2525 + 2637.5 10100
TM = = = 2525
4 4
ioc.pdf

Geometric mean
The geometric mean is dened as the n-th root of the product of n numbers,
Formally,
1/n √
n x ·...·x
G (x1 , . . . , xn ) = ∏ xi = 1 n
Example
Let X = {4, 1, 1/32}
Then
G (x) = 3 4 · 1 · 1/32 = 3 1/8 = 1/2
p p
Geometric mean can be computed as arithmetic mean from the data in logarithmic scale,
and then using the exponentiation to return the computation to the original scale:
" #
1/n n
1
∏ xi = exp ∑
n i=
xi
1

1
log2 4 + log2 1 + log2 2−5
For example,
G (4, 1, 1/32) = exp 2, =
3

1
= exp 2, (2 + 0 − 5) =
3
1
= exp (2, −1) = 2−1 =
ioc.pdf
2
Geometric mean
Formally,
1/n √
n x ·...·x
G (x1 , . . . , xn ) = ∏ xi = 1 n
Example
Let X = {4, 1, 1/32}
Then
G (x) = 3 4 · 1 · 1/32 = 3 1/8 = 1/2
p p
" #
1/n n
1
∏ xi = exp ∑
n i=
xi
1

1
log2 4 + log2 1 + log2 2−5
For example,
G (4, 1, 1/32) = exp 2, =
3

1
= exp 2, (2 + 0 − 5) =
3
1
= exp (2, −1) = 2−1 =
ioc.pdf
2
Geometric mean
Formally,
1/n √
n x ·...·x
G (x1 , . . . , xn ) = ∏ xi = 1 n
Example
Let X = {4, 1, 1/32}
Then
G (x) = 3 4 · 1 · 1/32 = 3 1/8 = 1/2
p p
" #
1/n n
1
∏ xi = exp ∑
n i=
xi
1

1
log2 4 + log2 1 + log2 2−5
For example,
G (4, 1, 1/32) = exp 2, =
3

1
= exp 2, (2 + 0 − 5) =
3
1
= exp (2, −1) = 2−1 =
ioc.pdf
2
Trimmed mean
A truncated mean or trimmed mean involves the calculation of the mean after discarding
given parts of a probability distribution at the high and low end
typically discarding an equal amount of both.
Terminology:
A mean trimmed 10% is a mean computed with 10% of the scores trimmed o: 5% from
the bottom and 5% from the top.
A mean trimmed 50% is computed by trimming the upper 25% of the scores and the
lower 25% of the scores and computing the mean of the remaining scores.
Example
Consider the data set consisting of:
{92, 19, 101, 58, 1053, 91, 26, 78, 10, 13, −40, 101, 86, 85, 15, 89, 89, 28, −5, 41}
(n = 20, mean = 101.5)
The 5-th percentile (-6.75) lies between -40 and -5, while the 95-th percentile (148.6) lies
between 101 and 1053 (values shown in bold). Then, a 10% trimmed mean would result in the
following:
{92, 19, 101, 58, 91, 26, 78, 10, 13, 101, 86, 85, 15, 89, 89, 28, −5, 41} (n = 18, mean = 56.5ioc.pdf
)

Trimmed mean
A truncated mean or trimmed mean involves the calculation of the mean after discarding
given parts of a probability distribution at the high and low end
typically discarding an equal amount of both.
Terminology:
A mean trimmed 10% is a mean computed with 10% of the scores trimmed o: 5% from
the bottom and 5% from the top.
A mean trimmed 50% is computed by trimming the upper 25% of the scores and the
lower 25% of the scores and computing the mean of the remaining scores.
Example
Consider the data set consisting of:
{92, 19, 101, 58, 1053, 91, 26, 78, 10, 13, −40, 101, 86, 85, 15, 89, 89, 28, −5, 41}
(n = 20, mean = 101.5)
The 5-th percentile (-6.75) lies between -40 and -5, while the 95-th percentile (148.6) lies
between 101 and 1053 (values shown in bold). Then, a 10% trimmed mean would result in the
following:
{92, 19, 101, 58, 91, 26, 78, 10, 13, 101, 86, 85, 15, 89, 89, 28, −5, 41} (n = 18, mean = 56.5ioc.pdf
)

Comparing Measures of Central Tendency
For symmetric distributions, the mean, median, trimean, and trimmed mean are equal, as
is the mode except in bimodal distributions.
Dierences among the measures occur with skewed distributions.
For example. Let the distribution of 642 scores of a test is as follows
(a) Distribution (b) Measures of central

tendency
ioc.pdf

Comparing Measures of Central Tendency (2)
Example 2. The salaries of major league baseball players (in thousands of dollars).

tendency
ioc.pdf

Next section
1 Central Tendency
2 Variability
3 Shape
5 Logarithms
ioc.pdf

What is Variability?
Variability
... refers to how spread out a group of scores is.
The terms variability, spread, and dispersion are synonyms, and refer to how spread out a
distribution is.
ioc.pdf

Variability
distribution is.
ioc.pdf

Variability
distribution is.
ioc.pdf

Variability
distribution is.
Measures of variability:
There are four frequently used measures of variability:
range
interquartile range
variance
standard deviation
But also
Absolute deviation from central tendencies
Squared deviation from central tendencies
etc.
ioc.pdf

Example: relative variability of two distributions
Bar charts of two quizzes:
(a) Quiz 1 (b) Quiz 2
ioc.pdf

Range
Range
... is simply the highest score minus the lowest score.
Examples: On Quiz 1, the lowest score is 5 and the highest score is 9. Therefore,
the range is 4.
The range on Quiz 2 was larger: the lowest score was 4 and the highest
score was 10. Therefore the range is 6.
The range of the group of numbers 10, 2, 5, 6, 7, 3, 4 is 10 − 2 =8
The range of 10 numbers 99, 45, 23, 67, 45, 91, 82, 78, 62, 51 is 99 − 23 = 76
ioc.pdf

Interquartile Range
Range
The interquartile range (IQR) is the range of the middle 50% of the scores in a
distribution.
It is computed as follows:
IQR = Q3 − Q1
Using terminology of box plots, the interquartile range is referred to as the H-spread.
Examples: For Quiz 1, Q3 = 8 and Q1 = 6. The interquartile range is therefore 2.

For Quiz 2, which has greater spread, Q3 = 9, and Q1 = 5, and the
interquartile range is 4.
ioc.pdf

Variance
Variability can also be dened in terms of how close the scores in the distribution are to
the middle of the distribution.
Using the mean as the measure of the middle of the distribution, the variance is dened as
the average squared dierence of the scores from the mean.
ioc.pdf

Variance
average squared dierence of the scores from the mean.
the
Example: the data from Quiz 1 (the mean is 7.0):
ioc.pdf

Variance
average squared dierence of the scores from the mean.
the
Example: the data from Quiz 1 (the mean is 7.0):
Averages:
Scores: 7.0 Absolute deviations: 1.0
Deviations from Mean: 0.0 Squared deviations: 1.5
ioc.pdf

Variance of a population
Suppose a population of numbers X consists of n members, and the mean of these

numbers is µ. The variance of these numbers is the average squared deviation from the
mean µ. The variance is typically designated as σ 2.
Formally,
1
σ2 = (X − µ)2
n∑
ioc.pdf

Formally,
1
σ2 = (X − µ)2
n∑
If you are computing variances with a hand calculator. the following formula is easier to
use:
(∑ X )2
!
1
σ2 = ∑X2 −
n n
For Quiz 1 example:

I ∑ X 2 = 1010
(∑ X )2 2
I
n = 140
20 = 980
I σ 2 = (1010 − 980)/20 = 30/20 = 1.5
ioc.pdf

Formally,
1
σ2 = (X − µ)2
n∑
Property
2
!
1 1 (∑ X )
(X − µ)2 = X2 −
n∑ n ∑ n
Proof
2
2= ∑X
∑(X − µ) ∑ X − =
n
2 1 2
= ∑X2 − X ∑X + 2 ∑ ∑X =
n∑ n
2 2 n 2 1 2
= ∑X2 − ∑X + 2 ∑X = ∑X2 − ∑X
n n n
ioc.pdf
m.o.t.t.

Variance of a sample
If the variance in a sample is used to estimate the variance in a population, then the
previous formula underestimates the variance and
the following formula should be used:
∑(X − M)2
s2 =
N −1
where s2 is the estimate of the variance and M is the sample mean, and N is the size of
the sample.
The use of the term N −1 is called Bessel's correction
ioc.pdf

Bessel's correction
To demonstrate the eect of the Bessel's correction
Let's recall that Quiz 1 has the mean µ = 7 and the variance of is σ 2 = 1.5
Suppose that we have the following sample of Quiz 1 scores:
The mean of this sample is M = 7.6

The variance of the sample computed without correction term is equal to 1.04.
The estimation the variance in the population accounting correction term is
∑(X − M)2 1.96 + 0.16 + 0.16 + 0.36 + 2.56 5.2

s2 = = = = 1.3
N −1 5−1 4
There is also the alternate formula to compute the estimate for the variance:
(∑ X )2
!
1
s2 = ∑X2 −
N −1 N ioc.pdf

Bessel's correction
To demonstrate the eect of the Bessel's correction
Let's recall that Quiz 1 has the mean µ = 7 and the variance of is σ 2 = 1.5
Suppose that we have the following sample of Quiz 1 scores:
The mean of this sample is M = 7.6

The variance of the sample computed without correction term is equal to 1.04.
The estimation the variance in the population accounting correction term is
∑(X − M)2 1.96 + 0.16 + 0.16 + 0.36 + 2.56 5.2

s2 = = = = 1.3
N −1 5−1 4
There is also the alternate formula to compute the estimate for the variance:
(∑ X )2
!
1
s2 = ∑X2 −
N −1 N ioc.pdf

Standard Deviation
The standard deviation is simply the square root of the variance.
This makes the standard deviations of the Quiz 1 equal to 1.225.
The standard deviation is an especially useful measure of variability when the distribution
is normal or approximately normal because the proportion of the distribution within a
given number of standard deviations from the mean can be calculated.
For example, 68% of the distribution is within one standard deviation of the mean and
approximately 95% of the distribution is within two standard deviations of the mean.
Therefore, if you had a normal distribution with a mean of 50 and a standard deviation of
10, then 68% of the distribution would be between 50 - 10 = 40 and 50 +10 =60.
Denitions:
The sample standard deviation of a set of N sample data is the number s given by the formula
(∑ X )2
s s
∑(X − M)2 ∑X2 − N
s= =
N −1 N −1
.
The population standard deviation of a set of n population data is the number σ given by the
formula
∑(X − µ)2
r
σ=
n
ioc.pdf
.

Standard Deviation
The standard deviation is simply the square root of the variance.
This makes the standard deviations of the Quiz 1 equal to 1.225.
The standard deviation is an especially useful measure of variability when the distribution
is normal or approximately normal because the proportion of the distribution within a
given number of standard deviations from the mean can be calculated.
For example, 68% of the distribution is within one standard deviation of the mean and
approximately 95% of the distribution is within two standard deviations of the mean.
Therefore, if you had a normal distribution with a mean of 50 and a standard deviation of
10, then 68% of the distribution would be between 50 - 10 = 40 and 50 +10 =60.
Denitions:
The sample standard deviation of a set of N sample data is the number s given by the formula
(∑ X )2
s s
∑(X − M)2 ∑X2 − N
s= =
N −1 N −1
.
The population standard deviation of a set of n population data is the number σ given by the
formula
∑(X − µ)2
r
σ=
n
ioc.pdf
.

Variance Sum Law I
If X and Y are independent (uncorrelated) variables, then
σX2 ±Y = σX2 + σY2
ioc.pdf

Next section
1 Central Tendency
2 Variability
3 Shape
5 Logarithms
ioc.pdf

Skewness
Skewness is a measure of the asymmetry of a probability distribution.
A distribution is skewed if one tail extends out further than the other.
A distribution has a positive skew (is skewed to the right) if the tail to the right is longer.
It has a negative skew (skewed to the left) if the tail to the left is longer.
There are two measures of skewness:
Pearson's measure:
3(Mean − Median)
σ
Third moment:
(X − µ)3
∑ σ3
ioc.pdf

Skewness (2)
Example. The baseball players' salaries data (in thousands of dollars).

tendency
The standard deviation of this data set is 133.
The Pearson's measure of skew 3(122.4 − 75)/133 = 1.07.

ioc.pdf

Skewness (3)
Comparison of mean, median and mode of two log-normal distributions with dierent skewness.
ioc.pdf

Kurtosis
Kurtosis is the sharpness of the peak of a frequency-distribution curve.
Kurtosis measure shows how fat or thin the tails of a distribution are relative to a normal
distribution.
It is commonly dened as:

(X − µ)4
∑ −3
σ4
The value 3 is subtracted to dene no kurtosis (0) as the kurtosis of a normal
distribution. Otherwise, a normal distribution would have a kurtosis of 3.
ioc.pdf

Next section
1 Central Tendency
2 Variability
3 Shape
5 Logarithms
ioc.pdf

Linear Transformations
Sometimes, it is necessary to transform data from one measurement scale to another.
Inches Metres City Degrees Centigrade Degrees Fahrenheit

60 1.52 Paris 12 53.6
75 1.91 New York 16 60.8
66 1.68 Moscow -6 21.2
69 1.75 Delhi 26 78.8
71 1.80 Tallinn 1 33.8
1 meter = 39.37007874 inches F = 1.8C + 32

1 inch = 0.0254 meters C = 0.5556F − 17.778
ioc.pdf

Linear Transformations (2)
A linear transformation is any transformation of a variable that can be achieved by
multiplying it by a constant, and then adding a second constant.
If Y is the transformed value of X, then Y = aX + b .
ioc.pdf

Some Nonlinear Transformations
Square root
Power
Logarithmic
Cosine
ioc.pdf

Next section
1 Central Tendency
2 Variability
3 Shape
5 Logarithms
ioc.pdf

Logarithms
The log transformation reduces positive skew.
This can make the data more interpretable.
Basics of Logarithms (Logs)

Logs are the opposite of exponents:
10
2 = 100 log10 100 = 2
A series of numbers that increase proportionally will increase in equal amounts when
converted to logs.
log10 100 =2.000 log10 150 =2.176

log10 100 =2.301 log10 300 =2.477
ioc.pdf
Dierence: 0.301 Dierence: 0.301

Arithmetic Operations
Rules for logs of products and quotients:
log(AB) = log(A) + log(B)

log(A/B) = log(A) − log(B)
For example
log(10 · 100) = log10 10 + log10 100 = 1 + 2 = 3
log(100/10) = log10 100 − log10 10 = 2 − 1 = 1
ioc.pdf

Linear vs Logarithmic
ioc.pdf

Next section
1 Central Tendency
2 Variability
3 Shape
5 Logarithms
ioc.pdf

Eects of Linear Transformations
If a variable X has a mean of µ , a standard deviation of σ , and a variance of σ 2, then a

new variable Y created using the linear transformation
Y = bX + A
will have
I a mean of bµ + A,
I a standard deviation of bσ , and
I a variance of b2 σ 2 .
ioc.pdf

Fahrenheit degrees vs Centigrade
To transform the degrees Fahrenheit to degrees Centigrade, the formula
C = 0.55556F − 17.7778
is used.
ioc.pdf

Next section
1 Central Tendency
2 Variability
3 Shape
5 Logarithms
ioc.pdf

Stem and Leaf Displays
The sorted set of data values:
44 46 47 49 63 64 66 68 68 72 72 75 76 81 84 88 106
The leaf contains the last digit of the number and the stem contains all of the other digits.
In the case of very large numbers, the data values may be rounded to a particular place
value.
key: 6|3=63
leaf unit: 1.0
stem unit: 10.0
4 |4 6 7 9
5 |
6 |3 4 6 8 8
7 |2 2 5 6
8 |1 4 8
9 |
10 |6 ioc.pdf

Histograms
Histograms are based on grouped frequency distributions
Example: scores of a psychology test (642 scores divided into 13 groups):
Suggested bin widths (numbers of class intervals):
Sturges' rule: number of intervals = 1 + log2 (N); gives 11 classes for 1000 observations.
Rice rule: twice the cube root of the number of observations; gives 20 classes for 1000
ioc.pdf
observations.

Histograms
Histograms are based on grouped frequency distributions
Example: scores of a psychology test (642 scores divided into 13 groups):
Suggested bin widths (numbers of class intervals):
Sturges' rule: number of intervals = 1 + log2 (N); gives 11 classes for 1000 observations.
Rice rule: twice the cube root of the number of observations; gives 20 classes for 1000
ioc.pdf
observations.

Frequency Polygons
Similar to histograms: a point is placed in the middle of each class interval at the height
corresponding to its frequency and the points are connected by the line.
One class interval below the lowest value in your data and one above the highest value
should be included.
Example: frequency polygon for the psychology test scores:
ioc.pdf

Frequency Polygons (2)
Cumulative frequency polygon for the psychology test scores:
ioc.pdf

Comparison of distributions by overlaying the frequency polygons drawn for dierent data
sets.
Example: a task in which the goal is to move a computer cursor to a target on the screen
as fast as possible. There are two data sets for targets of dierent sizes:
ioc.pdf

The same example: overlaid cumulative frequency polygons:
ioc.pdf

Box plots
There are dierent versions of box plots.
To introduce box plots, the following example is used:
An experiment with 16 men and 31 women to name as quickly as possible all the colours
of the 30 coloured rectangles shown.
Their times (in seconds) were recorded and in order to compare, were plotted for each
gender.
The data for the women in our sample are as follows:
14 17 18 19 20 21 29
15 17 18 19 20 22
16 17 18 19 20 23
16 17 18 20 20 24
17 18 18 20 21 24
For these data, the 25th percentile is 17, the 50th percentile is 19, and the 75th percentile
is 20.
For the men (whose data are not shown), the 25th percentile is 19, the 50th percentile is
22.5, and the 75th percentile is 25.5.
ioc.pdf

Box plots (2)
For the women, the 25th percentile is 17, the 50th percentile is 19, and the 75th
percentile is 20.
For the men (whose data are not shown), the 25th percentile is 19, the 50th percentile is
22.5, and the 75th percentile is 25.5.
ioc.pdf

Box plots (3)
The terminology used for proceeding further (using data for women as an example):
Name Meaning Value

Upper Hinge 75th Percentile 20
Lower Hinge 25th Percentile 17
H-Spread Upper Hinge - Lower Hinge 3
Step 1.5 x H-Spread 4.5
Upper Inner Fence Upper Hinge + 1 Step 24.5
Lower Inner Fence Lower Hinge - 1 Step 12.5
Upper Outer Fence Upper Hinge + 2 Step 29
Lower Outer Fence Lower Hinge - 2 Step 8
Upper Adjacent Largest value below Upper Inner Fence 24
Lower Adjacent Smallest value above Lower Inner Fence 14
A value beyond an Inner Fence but not
Outside Value 29
beyond an Outer Fence
Far Out Value A value beyond an Outer Fence None
ioc.pdf

Box plots (4)
The box plot for the women's data with detailed labels:
ioc.pdf

Box plots (5)
The completed box plots:
ioc.pdf

Box plots (6)
Statistical analysis programs may oer options on how box plots are created. For example, the
following box plots dier from the previous box plots in several ways:
1 It does not mark outliers.
2 The means are indicated by green lines rather than plus signs.
3 The mean of all scores is indicated by a grey line.
4 Individual scores are represented by dots. Subjects with the same score are jittered (the
exact horizontal position of a dot is determined randomly).
ioc.pdf

Bar Charts
Percent increase in three stock indexes from May 24th 2000 to May 24th 2001.
ioc.pdf

Line Graphs
A line graph of the percent change in ve components of the CPI (Consumer Price Index) over
time.
ioc.pdf

Dot Plots
The number of people playing various card games on a Sunday and on a Wednesday.
ioc.pdf

2 Distributions

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

2 Distributions

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

SUMMARIZING DISTRIBUTIONS

David M. Lane. et al. Introduction to Statistics : pp. 132181

margarita.spitsakova@taltech.ee ICY0006: Lecture 2 1 / 59

It involves two kinds of analysis:

Univariate analysis: describing the distribution of a single variable, including

between pairs of variables. In this case, descriptive statistics include:

margarita.spitsakova@taltech.ee ICY0006: Lecture 2 2 / 59

It involves two kinds of analysis:

Univariate analysis: describing the distribution of a single variable, including

between pairs of variables. In this case, descriptive statistics include:

margarita.spitsakova@taltech.ee ICY0006: Lecture 2 2 / 59

It involves two kinds of analysis:

Univariate analysis: describing the distribution of a single variable, including

between pairs of variables. In this case, descriptive statistics include:

margarita.spitsakova@taltech.ee ICY0006: Lecture 2 2 / 59

margarita.spitsakova@taltech.ee ICY0006: Lecture 2 3 / 59

margarita.spitsakova@taltech.ee ICY0006: Lecture 2 4 / 59

It is also called a measure of central tendency or a centre or a location of the distribution.

Conversationally, it is called average.

margarita.spitsakova@taltech.ee ICY0006: Lecture 2 5 / 59

It is also called a measure of central tendency or a centre or a location of the distribution.

Conversationally, it is called average.

margarita.spitsakova@taltech.ee ICY0006: Lecture 2 5 / 59

It is also called a measure of central tendency or a centre or a location of the distribution.

Conversationally, it is called average.

margarita.spitsakova@taltech.ee ICY0006: Lecture 2 5 / 59

It is also called a measure of central tendency or a centre or a location of the distribution.

Conversationally, it is called average.

Measures of central tendency

Arithmetic mean (or simply, mean)

Truncated mean (or trimmed mean)

margarita.spitsakova@taltech.ee ICY0006: Lecture 2 5 / 59

margarita.spitsakova@taltech.ee ICY0006: Lecture 2 6 / 59

margarita.spitsakova@taltech.ee ICY0006: Lecture 2 6 / 59

margarita.spitsakova@taltech.ee ICY0006: Lecture 2 6 / 59

Arithmetic mean is said to be the point at which the distribution is in balance

(a) An asymmetric distribution (b) The distribution is not balanced

margarita.spitsakova@taltech.ee ICY0006: Lecture 2 7 / 59

The median is the 50th percentile of a distribution.

To nd the median of a number of values,

margarita.spitsakova@taltech.ee ICY0006: Lecture 2 8 / 59

The mode is the most frequent value in a distribution: the mode of 3, 4, 4, 5, 5, 5, 8 is 5.

margarita.spitsakova@taltech.ee ICY0006: Lecture 2 9 / 59

margarita.spitsakova@taltech.ee ICY0006: Lecture 2 10 / 59

margarita.spitsakova@taltech.ee ICY0006: Lecture 2 10 / 59

But they are by no means the only measures

margarita.spitsakova@taltech.ee ICY0006: Lecture 2 11 / 59

The trimean is a robust measure of central tendency;

it is a weighted average of the 25th, 50th, and 75th percentiles.

The trimean is computed as follows:

margarita.spitsakova@taltech.ee ICY0006: Lecture 2 12 / 59

The trimean is a robust measure of central tendency;

it is a weighted average of the 25th, 50th, and 75th percentiles.

The trimean is computed as follows:

margarita.spitsakova@taltech.ee ICY0006: Lecture 2 12 / 59

typically discarding an equal amount of both.

margarita.spitsakova@taltech.ee ICY0006: Lecture 2 14 / 59

typically discarding an equal amount of both.

margarita.spitsakova@taltech.ee ICY0006: Lecture 2 14 / 59

Dierences among the measures occur with skewed distributions.

For example. Let the distribution of 642 scores of a test is as follows

(a) Distribution (b) Measures of central

David M. Lane. et al. Introduction to Statistics : pp. 132181

To nd the median of a number of values,

Dierences among the measures occur with skewed distributions.

It is commonly dened as:

Dierence: 0.301 Dierence: 0.301