6 April 2022

Current International Issues II – Week 7 (ASIA-PACIFIC)

Summary of this week’s topics
Regional security architecture: The US due to the existence of bilateral security guarantees of the US to the regional
players and being a leading figure in establishing intergovernmental frameworks in terms of security, trade and
economic cooperation.
Regional powers: Changes depending on the geographical definitions. Primarily, the US, China, Japan, South and
North Korea, Taiwan are main actors. The others can be included depending on the naming of the region.
Organizations/Values: ASEAN, QUAD, AUKUS, SCO. There are not common values and norms to be acted together
while solving disputes due to diversity among political systems of the states.

Geographical Definition of the Region

“East Asia”, “Far East”, “Asia-Pacific”, “Indo-Pacific”
Geographical definitions have ideological baggage and, they are constructed based on some geographical notions.
Cartography (or geography) is not a neutral discipline. For that reason, name of the same region can differ with
regards to changing dynamics in the international politics and ideologies. All definitions comes with different
perspectives For example, the same territory in China was called East Turkestan by Turkey but Xinjiang by China. It
is the construction of different ideologies. China is using map in which China in the centre of the world.
West Asia & Africa: Chinese and most probably Indian denotation of Middle East and Africa.
The term Indo-Pacific was used by Donald Trump to emphasize the significance of India in the region. India matters
as well as China. Why India matters?
Non-Aligned Movement (NAM): is a forum of 120 countries that are not formally aligned with or against any
major power bloc. After the United Nations, it is the largest grouping of states worldwide. The movement originated
in the aftermath of the Korean War, as an effort by some countries to counterbalance the rapid bi-polarization of the
world during the Cold War, whereby two major powers formed blocs and embarked on a policy to pull the rest of the
world into their orbits. In 1961, drawing on the principles agreed at the Bandung Conference of 1955, with the
initiative of Tito (Yugoslavia), Nehru (India) and Nasser (Egypt). Emphasis was on struggle against imperialism,
colonialism, neo-colonialism, racism, and all forms of foreign aggression, occupation, domination, interference or
hegemony as well as against great power and bloc politics.
When was the change started in India in terms of economy and political position? Because today’s India is not similar
to Nehru’s and Shastri’s India. With Charan Singh’s (1979-1980 as PM) economic policies (which was pro-Soviet
before), change in India has started in 1980s. India was pro-Soviet despite being during the Cold War and still has
close relationship with Russia. India is the biggest democracy in the world in terms of population. India is sceptical
about China despite their common support to Russia.
Belt and Road Initiative (Kuşak Yol Girişimi - BRI): is a global infrastructure development strategy adopted
by the Chinese government in 2013 to invest in nearly 70 countries and international organizations. The BRI forms a
central component of Xi's "Major Country Diplomacy" strategy, which calls for China to assume a greater leadership
role for global affairs in accordance with its rising power and status. Examples of Belt and Road Initiative
infrastructure investments include ports, skyscrapers, railroads, roads, bridges, airports, dams, coal-fired power
stations, and railroad tunnels. Supporters praise the BRI for its potential to boost the global GDP, particularly in
developing countries. However, there has also been criticism over human rights violations and environmental impact,
as well as concerns of debt-trap diplomacy resulting in neo-colonialism and economic imperialism.
The term East Asia is a construction of Cold War period (1950s). It was originated by the US. The US did not want to
be seen as if they hegemonize the countries thus, changed geographical terms as a great power in a more neutral sense.
East Asia is more favourable term for usage (and also Asia-Pacific but it is more pro-US than East Asia). In 1950s
Europe was diminished and the US ruled the world and totally changed the intuition regarding to the past colonized
regions decolonization period.
The term Far East is a Euro-centric term and old-fashioned understanding of European (especially French and British)
imperialism. The usage is not favourable.
The term Asia-Pacific refers to more extensive territories which includes the US, New Zealand, Australia and some
other Latin American countries which have shores in Pacific Ocean.

Difference between Asia-Pacific, Indo-Pacific, East Asia

Asia-Pacific includes the US, New Zealand, Australia and some other Latin American countries which have shores in
Pacific Ocean.
Indo-Pacific includes India to the region.
East Asia consists of only Asian countries such as China, Japan, Koreas (South & North).

Organizations
 Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC): is an inter-governmental forum for 21 member economies in the
Pacific Rim that promotes free trade throughout the Asia-Pacific region APEC started in 1989, in response to the
growing interdependence of Asia-Pacific economies and the advent of regional trade blocs in other parts of the
world; it aimed to establish new markets for agricultural products and raw materials beyond Europe. APEC is
recognized as one of the highest-level multilateral blocs and oldest forums in the Asia-Pacific region, and exerts a
significant global influence Members are Australia, Brunei, Canada, Chile, China, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Japan,
South Korea, Malaysia, Mexico, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Peru, Philippines, Russia, Singapore, Taiwan,
Thailand, the US and Vietnam. The US pushes these kinds of organizations to lead the region. It is not a security
organization, only established for economic purposes.

There is not a NATO-like security organization currently. Historically there was SEATO during the Cold War
period.
 SEATO: was an international organization for collective defence in Southeast Asia created by the Southeast Asia
Collective Defence Treaty, or Manila Pact, signed in September 1954 in Manila, the Philippines. Eight members
joined the organization (Australia, France, New Zealand, Pakistan, Philippines, Thailand, the UK, and the US).
Primarily created to block further communist gains in Southeast Asia, SEATO is generally considered a failure
because internal conflict and dispute hindered general use of the SEATO military. In the early 1970s, the question
of dissolving the organization arose. Pakistan withdrew in 1972, after East Pakistan seceded and became
Bangladesh on 16 December 1971. SEATO was dissolved on 30 June 1977 after many members lost interest and
withdrew.
SEATO is historical experience of NATO like organization which was established during Cold War period but was
not successful and did not live long. Pakistan was the key member of SEATO but during Indo-Pakistani War in 1970s
was left alone by West bloc. Other members of SEATO were Thailand and Philippines which have looser ties with the
US compared to Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan.
Indo-Pakistani War of 1971: was a military confrontation between India and Pakistan that occurred during
the Bangladesh Liberation War in East Pakistan from 3 December 1971 to the fall of Dacca (Dhaka) on 16 December
1971. The war began with Operation Chengiz Khan's pre-emptive aerial strikes on 11 Indian air stations, which led to
the commencement of hostilities with Pakistan and Indian entry into the war for independence in East Pakistan on the
side of Bengali nationalist forces, expanding the existing conflict with Indian and Pakistani forces engaging on both
eastern and western fronts. 13 days after the war started, India achieved a clear upper hand, the Eastern Command of
the Pakistan military signed the instrument of surrender on 16 December 1971 in Dhaka, marking the formation of
East Pakistan as the new nation of Bangladesh. Officially, East Pakistan had earlier called for its secession from
Pakistan on 26 March 1971.
Bangladesh Liberation War: was a revolution and armed conflict sparked by the rise of the Bengali
nationalist and self-determination movement in erstwhile East Pakistan which resulted in the independence of
Bangladesh. The war began when the Pakistani military junta based in West Pakistan under the orders of Yahya Khan
launched Operation Searchlight against the people of East Pakistan on the night of 25 March 1971, initiating the
Bangladesh genocide. It pursued the systematic annihilation of nationalist Bengali civilians, students, intelligentsia,
religious minorities and armed personnel. The war ended on 16 December 1971 when the military forces of West
Pakistan that was in Bangladesh surrendered. India joined the war on 3 December 1971, after Pakistan launched pre-
emptive air strikes on North India. The subsequent Indo-Pakistani War witnessed engagements on two war fronts. The
war changed the geopolitical landscape of South Asia, with the emergence of Bangladesh as the seventh-most
populous country in the world. Due to complex regional alliances, the war was a major episode in Cold War tensions
involving the United States, the Soviet Union and the People's Republic of China. The majority of member states in
the United Nations recognised Bangladesh as a sovereign nation in 1972.
Japan is the third biggest economy in the world but has no military (of course it has military troops but just for self-
defence purposes). How Japan maintain its security in the region despite the conflicts among all actors? Bilateral
treaties with the US are the basis for security guarantees in the region which was signed with Japan, Taiwan, South
Korea. There are no multilateral treaties. The US is part of every treaty in the region (security, trade, economic
cooperation…)
Shanghai Cooperation Organization is also part of the region due to the existence of China in the organization and also
Russia which has territories in Asia (Siberia etc.) and territorial disputes (islands) with Japan. SCO is not de facto pro-
US but this is not written in anywhere.
The US is outside player but important player in the region. Japan sees North Korea as a threat due to existence of
nuclear weapons. Who concerns the US? Russia, North Korea, China are direct threat to the US.
Regional studies in terms of modern understanding also started back to 1950s. An example from Turkish Foreign
Policy -> Myanmar policies of Turkey (2010s): To increase regional influence Turkey uses soft power, humanitarian
policy and economic cooperations (in Southeast Asia and Africa especially)

 QUAD: is the new organization for regional security, security diamond, India, Japan, the US, Australia (mixed
neighbourhood), the most recent security arrangement. It is a strategic security dialogue between Australia, India,
Japan, and United States that is maintained by talks between member countries. The dialogue was paralleled by
joint military exercises of an unprecedented scale, titled Exercise Malabar. The diplomatic and military
arrangement was widely viewed as a response to increased Chinese economic and military power, and the Chinese
government responded to the Quadrilateral dialogue by issuing formal diplomatic protests to its members, calling
it "Asian NATO". During the 2017 ASEAN Summits in Manila, all four former members led by Abe, Australian
Prime Minister Malcolm Turnbull, Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi, and US President Donald Trump agreed
to revive the quadrilateral alliance in order to counter China militarily and diplomatically in the "Indo-Pacific"
region, particularly in South China Sea. Tensions between Quad members and China have led to fears of what was
dubbed by some commentators as "a new Cold War" in the region. The Quad pledged to respond to COVID-19,
and held a first Quad Plus meeting that included representatives from New Zealand, South Korea, and Vietnam to
work on its response to it.
Is there a political regime, norms and values in the region? No. The reason is that there are no common values
between states some of them more liberal (Japan) and some of them authoritarian some of them communist some of
them monarchical some of them democracies… They cannot reach a consensus in terms of common values for
security and regional integration except economic cooperations.
Japanese cars in 1980s were more favourable all around the world due to the oil efficient natures which affected
primarily the US after the Oil Crisis in 1973. Japanese economic boom in the 20 th century was between years of 1950s
and 1980s. Division of labor in Asia (Japanese economic production distributed to other countries which costs less
than Japanese labour such as Hong Kong, Taiwan). Taiwanese and Chinese economies are integrated since 1990s.
1990s Japan economic stagnation, recession and still not recovered due to China’s rise.
1973 Oil Crisis: began in October 1973 when the members of the Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting
Countries led by Saudi Arabia proclaimed an oil embargo. The embargo was targeted at nations that had supported
Israel during the Arab-Israeli War of 1973. The initial nations targeted were Canada, Japan, the Netherlands, the
United Kingdom and the United States with the embargo also later extended to Portugal, Rhodesia and South Africa.
By the end of the embargo in March 1974, US prices were significantly higher. The embargo caused an oil crisis, or
"shock", with many short- and long-term effects on global politics and the global economy.
Taiwan has threat perception from Mainland China. Taiwan is known as the Nationalist China. But it was not a
democracy. Up until 1970s Taiwan was recognized by most of the world including Turkey as opposed to Peoples’
Republic of China (Mainland, Communist). Ideological reasons, Cold War politics (communism vs. anti-
communism). Today, great majority of the world recognizes Mainland China (Taiwan is still recognized by some
island and African countries for pragmatic reasons). States cannot be recognized both at the same time due to “One
China” policy of both sides.
One China Principle: is the position held by the People's Republic of China (PRC) that there is only one
sovereign state under the name China, and Taiwan is a part of China, as opposed to the idea that there are two states
upholding the name "China", the People's Republic of China (PRC) and the Republic of China (ROC).
1953- Korean Peninsula divided after armistice and still not has a peace treaty which means South and North are still
on war. Asian Tigers becoming new members of rich club in 1980s.
Asian Tigers: are the economies of South Korea, Taiwan, Singapore and Hong Kong. Between the early
1960s and 1990s, they underwent rapid industrialization and maintained exceptionally high growth rates of more than
7 percent a year. By the early 21st century, these economies had developed into high-income economies, specializing
in areas of competitive advantage. Hong Kong and Singapore have become leading international financial centres,
whereas South Korea and Taiwan are leaders in manufacturing electronic components and devices. Their economic
success has served as role models for many developing countries, especially the Tiger Cub Economies (Indonesia,
Malaysia, Thailand…) of Southeast Asia.
Economic development chronology: Japan -> Asian Tigers -> China and some argues that next ones are Vietnam,
Indonesia and so on.
Territorial dispute between Japan and China (Senkaku Island Dispute as case study in the reading)
For centuries China was the hegemonic power until 1900s.
Sino-Japanese War of 1937 (Second Sino-Japanese War): was a military conflict that was primarily waged
between the Republic of China and the Empire of Japan. This full-scale war between the Chinese and the Empire of
Japan is often regarded as the beginning of World War II in Asia. China fought Japan with aid from the Soviet Union
and the United States. Some scholars consider the European War and the Pacific War to be entirely separate, albeit
concurrent, wars. Other scholars consider the start of the full-scale Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937 to have been
the beginning of World War II. The Second Sino-Japanese War was the largest Asian war in the 20th century. In
1931, the Mukden Incident helped spark the Japanese invasion of Manchuria. From 1931 to 1937, China and Japan
continued to skirmish in small, localized engagements, so-called "incidents". Following the Marco Polo Bridge
Incident, the Japanese scored major victories, capturing Beijing, Shanghai and the Chinese capital of Nanjing in 1937,
which resulted in the Rape of Nanjing.
Nanjing Massacre (1937): The Nanjing Massacre or the Rape of Nanjing was the mass murder of Chinese
civilians in Nanjing, the capital of the Republic of China, immediately after the Battle of Nanjing in the Second Sino-
Japanese War, by the Imperial Japanese Army. Beginning on December 13, 1937, the massacre lasted for six weeks.
The perpetrators also committed other atrocities such as mass rape, looting and arson. The massacre was one of the
worst atrocities committed during World War II. Because of the myriad of factors, death toll estimates vary from
40,000 to over 300,000, with rape cases ranging from 20,000 to over 80,000 cases. However, the most sophisticated
and credible scholars in Japan, which include a large number of authoritative academics, support the validity of the
International Military Tribunal for the Far East and its findings, which estimate at least 200,000 casualties and at least
20,000 cases of rape. During Mao and Deng period, China was not putting on the agenda. In 1990s came into surface
as agenda by China.
Term World War II is not used generally in Asia because war had started before 1939.
Japan is not a conventional security actor but still effective.
Impediments for Russia to not become a leading actor in the region: Not economically strong
Global warming affects Arctic Ocean as well. Icebergs in the sea are melting and new alternative trade route will
emerge which can be beneficial for Russia
Siberia region, few Russians is living. There is demographic pressure from China

 Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN): is a political and economic union of 10 member states in
Southeast Asia, which promotes intergovernmental cooperation and facilitates economic, political, security,
military, educational, and sociocultural integration between its members and other countries in Asia. ASEAN's
primary objective was to accelerate economic growth and through that social progress and cultural development.
 A secondary objective was to promote regional peace and stability based on the rule of law and the principle of
United Nations charter. With some of the fastest growing economies in the world, ASEAN has broadened its
objective beyond the economic and social spheres. In 2003, ASEAN moved along the path of the European Union
by agreeing to establish an ASEAN community comprising three pillars: the ASEAN security community, the
ASEAN economic community, and the ASEAN socio-cultural community. A major partner of Shanghai
Cooperation Organisation, ASEAN maintains a global network of alliances and dialogue partners and is
considered by many as a global powerhouse, the central union for cooperation in Asia-Pacific, and a prominent
and influential organization. It is involved in numerous international affairs, and hosts diplomatic missions
throughout the world. Members are mostly Southeast Asian countries which are Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia,
Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam There are different platforms for East Asian
countries. It is a Cold War organization but broadened its agenda by time. ASEAN is recognized by its members
to be one of the main forums to discuss security issues; based on the principles in its charter, its main aim is to
provide an environment of common understanding and cooperation between the member states to "respond
effectively to all forms of threats, transitional crimes and transboundary challenges". Accordingly, ASEAN has
embraced the idea of cooperative security which means that ASEAN's approach to security issues is through
confidence-building measures and transparency for reducing the tension and conflict between its members.
Security policies and plans are concerted by the ASEAN Political-Security Community to envision "a concert of
Southeast Asian nations, outward looking, and living in peace, stability and prosperity, bonded together in
partnership in dynamic development and in a community of caring societies. ASEAN is not irrelevant in the
security through summits and platforms, dialogue between disputed countries can be provided.
Other Platforms for Other Regional Actors:
The Comprehensive Economic Partnership for East Asia (CEPEA) is a Japanese led proposal for trade co-operation,
free trade agreement, among the 16 present member countries of the East Asia Summit. All those movements and
efforts were taken over by the following Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership. Members are China, South
Korea, Japan, India, Australia, New Zealand.
The East Asia Summit (EAS) is a regional forum held annually by leaders of, initially, 16 countries in the East Asian,
Southeast Asian, South Asian and Oceanian regions, based on the ASEAN Plus Six mechanism. Membership
expanded to 18 countries including Russia and the United States at the Sixth EAS in 2011. Since its establishment,
ASEAN has held the central role and leadership in the forum.

 Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO)

 AUKUS: is a trilateral security pact between Australia, the United Kingdom, and the United States, announced
on 15 September 2021 for the Indo-Pacific region. Under the pact, the US and the UK will help Australia to
acquire nuclear-powered submarines. The pact also includes cooperation on "cyber capabilities, artificial
intelligence, quantum technologies and additional undersea capabilities". The pact will focus on military
capability, separating it from the Five Eyes intelligence-sharing alliance that also includes New Zealand and
Canada. The deal has been subject to both praise and disapproval. The government of China was vocal in its
contempt for the deal, accusing the three western powers of having a "cold-war mentality", as the deal was
widely seen as being, at least in part, a response to China's status as an increasingly assertive emerging
superpower.
East China Sea Dispute: The dispute between the Peoples Republic of China (PRC) and Japan concerns the
different application of the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), which both nations
have ratified. China proposed the application of UNCLOS, considering the natural prolongation of its continental
shelf, advocating that the EEZ extends as far as the Okinawa Trough. Its Ministry of Foreign Affairs has stated that
"the natural prolongation of the continental shelf of China in the East China Sea extends to the Okinawa Trough and
beyond 200 nautical miles from the baselines from which the breadth of the territorial sea of China is measured,"
which is applicable to the relevant UNCLOS provisions that support China's right to the natural shelf. In 2012, China
presented a submission under the UNCLOS concerning the outer limits of the continental shelf to the UN. Japan,
based on UNCLOS, proposed the Median line division of the EEZ.
[Kısa bir tarihi arkaplan için: https://www.cfr.org/global-conflict-tracker/conflict/tensions-east-china-sea]
South China Sea Dispute: The South China Sea disputes involve both island and maritime claims within the
region by several sovereign states, namely Brunei, the People's Republic of China (PRC), Taiwan (Republic of
China/ROC), Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Vietnam. An estimated US$3.37 trillion worth of global trade
passes through the South China Sea annually, which accounts for a third of the global maritime trade. 80 percent of
China's energy imports and 39.5 percent of China's total trade passes through the South China Sea. The disputes
involve the islands, reefs, banks, and other features of the South China Sea, including the Spratly Islands, Paracel
Islands, Scarborough Shoal, and various boundaries in the Gulf of Tonkin. There are further disputes, such as the
waters near the Indonesian Natuna Islands, which many do not regard as part of the South China Sea. Maritime
security is also an issue, as the ongoing disputes present challenges for shipping. In 2013, the PRC began island
building in the Spratly Islands and the Paracel Islands region. According to Reuters, island building in the South China
Sea primarily by Vietnam and the Philippines has been going on for decades; while China has come late to the island
building game, its efforts have been on an unprecedented scale as it had from 2014 to 2016 constructed more new
island surface than all other nations have constructed throughout history and as of 2016 placed military equipment on
one of its artificial islands unlike the other claimants. China's actions in the South China Sea have been described as
part of its "salami slicing" or "cabbage wrapping" strategies, and since 2015 the United States and other states such as
France and the United Kingdom have conducted freedom of navigation operations (FONOP) in the region. In July
2016, an arbitration tribunal constituted under Annex VII of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
(UNCLOS) ruled against the PRC's maritime claims in Philippines v. China. The tribunal did not rule on the
ownership of the islands or delimit maritime boundaries. Both the People's Republic of China and Taiwan stated that
they did not recognize the tribunal and insisted that the matter should be resolved through bilateral negotiations with
other claimants. On 17 September 2020, France, Germany, and the United Kingdom issued a joint note verbale
recognizing the PCA ruling and challenging China's claims. In January 2022, the United States Department of State
called China's claims in the South China Sea "unlawful."
[Kısa bir tarihi arkaplan için https://www.cfr.org/global-conflict-tracker/conflict/territorial-disputes-south-china-
sea]
Briefly, China has taken on military character in the South China Sea dispute. China does not care of international
norms, international law (which requires justifiable claim for militarization). China has historical artefacts for
disputes.
In 2013, China air defence identification zone which means air traffic restrictions including Senkaku islands (which is
Japanese authorized island). Since it is a unilateral claim and not compatible with international law.
Some players accept the US because of the Chinese threat for their national interest. For example, Vietnam has long
periods of war (with France –First Indochina War, the US –Second Indochina War aka Vietnam War) but currently
accepts presence of the US because of Chinese pressure in this issue.
Xi Jinping: The foreign policy of Xi Jinping concerns other nations. Xi has reportedly taken a hard-line on
security issues as well as foreign affairs, projecting a more nationalistic and assertive China on the world stage. His
political program calls for a China more united and confident of its own value system and political structure. Xi
Jinping's "Major Country Diplomacy" doctrine has replaced the earlier Deng Xiaoping era slogan of "keep a low
profile" and has legitimized a more active role for China on the world stage, particularly with regards to reform of the
international order, engaging in open ideological competition with the West, and assuming a greater responsibility for
global affairs in accordance with China's rising power and status. He also claims that Taiwan will be reunified with
Mainland China.
Vietnam War: was a conflict in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia from 1 November 1955 to the fall of Saigon on
30 April 1975. It was the second of the Indochina Wars and was officially fought between North Vietnam and South
Vietnam. North Vietnam was supported by the Soviet Union, China, and other communist allies; South Vietnam was
supported by the United States and other anti-communist allies. The war is widely considered to be a Cold War-era
proxy war. It lasted almost 20 years, with direct U.S. involvement ending in 1973. The conflict also spilled over into
neighbouring states, exacerbating the Laotian Civil War and the Cambodian Civil War, which ended with all three
countries becoming communist states by 1975.
The US President Nixon withdraws from South Vietnam and the war and later North Vietnam invaded South Vietnam.
There was big migratory movement in 1970s. Vietnam is still under a communist regime.
North Korea was to be said by China to reform economically but refused capitalist reforms and sticked to communist
economic style.
How Korean unification would happen? First option is regime collapse in North. Secondly and more optimistic option
is Kim Jong-un choosing to reunification. But there is bigger difference in terms of economic development
East – West Germany Unification: West Germany was advanced economy and there was a huge gap between
economic developments of these two countries. When unification process was completed, West Germany invested
money to compensate the gap in the East.
In a potential unification of North and South Korea, South Korea will be the one that will be responsible to
compensate the economic and infrastructural development of North Korea. Additionally, there is much bigger gap in
terms of development in Koreas than Germanies. Also public opinion in South Korea does not care about reunification
due to the costs. Probably, public opinion was different 30-40 years before.
Carrots and Sticks Policy: refers to the realist concept of soft and hard power. The carrot in this context could
be the promise of economic or diplomatic aid between nations, while the stick might be the threat of military action. A
casual survey of international news confirms that the tactic is still in common use today, by people in power up to and
including the presidents of the United States and NATO.
North Korea nuclear programme was accelerated after “Axis of Evil” speech of Bush Jr. after the 9/11.