Earthquake Engineering and Engineering Seismology

Earthquake Resistant
Design of Structures
Dr. GOVARDHAN BHATT

DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
NIT RAIPUR
CONTENTS
➢Engineering Seismology
➢Risk, Hazard and Vulnerability
➢Principles of ERD of Structures
➢Design Procedure
➢RCC Structures
➢Masonry Structures
➢Steel Structures
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY RAIPUR

Continental Drift Theory
1. Plate Tectonics
2. What did Plate Tectonics replace?
3. Alfred Wegener and Continental Drift.
Evidence
Theory
Outcome

Plate: The
Earth’s crust
consists of a
number of
mobile plates,
masses of crust
that move
independently
of adjacent
plates.

Tectonics: dealing with structural features
of the Earth (e.g., mountains, ocean basins).
Plate Tectonics: The process that involves
the interaction of moving crustal plates and
results in major structural features of the
Earth.
A unifying theory in geology that explains a
wide range of geologic phenomena
Contracting Earth Theory:
Continental Drift
First evidence: The jigsaw fit of the outline of
the continental margins.
Frances Bacon (1620): while reviewing the
first maps of the coastlines of Africa and
South America noted that the outlines of the
continents appear as if they could fit together.
This “jigsaw” fit of continental
margins is best when the outline
is the edges of the continental
shelves.

Wegener’s Evidence:
The presence of fossils
only over small areas of
now separate continents
(how did they get from
continent to continent?).
Wegener’s Conclusions:
1. The continents were once
joined. Therefore, they must
have moved apart over time.
2. Contracting Earth theory was
not consistent with the facts.

FAULTS
➢The interface between two plates is fault.
➢Tectonic plates move in different directions
and at different speeds.
➢Rocky material in the interface fractures
and causes sudden slip and energy release.
➢Sudden slip causes earthquake.

Types of Faults

Boundaries
Boundary regions between plates are
aptly called plate boundaries.
Boundaries are classified based upon
the movement of the plates.
➢Convergent
➢Divergent
➢Transform

SEISMIC WAVES
Large strain energy released during an earthquake
travels as seismic waves in all directions through
different layers of earth ,reflecting and refracting at
each interface.

Body waves
Travel through the interior (body)of the earth.
Arrive before the surface waves.
Have higher frequencies than surface waves.
Amplitude decays as 1/(distance travelled)

Surface waves
Travels through surface of the
earth (crust).
Arrive after the body wave.
Have lower frequencies.
Surface waves are larger in
amplitude and longer in
duration than body waves.
Amplitude decays as 1/(square
root of distance travelled).
Almost entirely responsible
for the damage due to
earthquake.

Love waves Rayleigh waves
Particle motion is Particles oscillating in an
transverse and horizontal. elliptical path in the vertical
plane with horizontal motion
Cause surface motion
in the direction of energy
similar to S –waves but
transmission.
with no vertical component.
Has the lowest speed.
Has speed less than that of
body waves and greater Similar to ocean wave.
than the speed of Rayleigh
waves.

FOCUS /HYPOCENTER
The point on the fault where slip
starts is the focus or hypocentre.
EPICENTRE
The point vertically above the
focus or hypocentre is called
epicentre.
FOCAL DEPTH
The depth of focus or
hypocentre from the epicentre is
called focal depth.
Epicentral distance
The distance from epicentre to
any point of interest is called
epicentral distance.

Seismograph
An instrument used to
measure ground
displacement during
earthquake is called
seismograph ,and the record
obtained is called
seismogram.

An instrument used
to record variation of
Accelerograph ground acceleration
with time at a point
on ground during an
earthquake is called
accelerograph ,and
the record is called
accelerogram.
It captures ground
shaking even in the
near field of
earthquake fault ,
where the shaking is
violent.

Seismic
Zones
Depending on
the perceived
maximum
seismic risk
characterized
by maximum
considered
earthquake.

MAGNITUDE Vs INTENSITY
➢Magnitude is a scalar quantity. ➢Intensity is a vector quantity.

➢Magnitude is a number that
characterizes the relative size of ➢Intensity is a measure of
an earthquake. ground shaking obtained
➢Magnitude is based on damage of structure.
measurement of max motion
recorded by a seismograph. ➢The intensity is a number
Various scales to determine magnitude they are: explaining the severity of an
1. Local magnitude (Ml) earthquake.
2. Surface wave magnitude (Ms)
3. Moment magnitude (Mn)
4. Body wave magnitude (Mb)

MAGNITUDE, INTENSITY &
ENERGY RELEASE
Energy release(E)=10ˆ(4.8+1.5Ms)
Ms=Surface wave magnitude.
Guttenberg and Richerds given magnitude
in terms of intensity.
Ms=1.3+0.6 Imax
Imax = Max. intensity

Important points to
understand
➢Risk
➢Hazard
➢Vulnerability
➢Relation with each other

RISK
➢Risk is probability or
threat of damage, injury,
liability, loss, or any other
negative occurrence.
➢Seismic risk is the probable
building damage, and
number of people that are
expected to be hurt or killed
if a likely earthquake
occurs.

Hazard
➢Hazard is a source of
danger.
➢Seismic Hazard is
anything associated with an
earthquake that may affect
the normal activities of
people.
➢Examples - surface
faulting, ground shaking,
landslide, liquefaction,
tsunamis etc.

Relation with each other
• Risk is the function of Hazard and vulnerability along with
exposure. Risk = f(Hazard, Vulnerability & Exposure)

Courtesy: TED Ed

Basic Thought
Capacity/Demand > 1
Capacity > Demand
• The earthquake causes inertia forces proportional
to the product of the building mass and the
earthquake ground accelerations. As the ground
accelerations increases, the strength of the
building, the capacity, must be increased to avoid
structural damage.

Design Steps
➢Demand
➢Planning
➢Modeling
➢Analysis
➢Interpretation of Results
➢Grouping of Results
➢Design
➢Checks for design
RCC is the most widely used
construction material
Well designed and well constructed
RCC is suitable for most structures in
earthquake prone areas
Stiffness of RCC can be used to
minimize seismic deformations
Introduction It reduces the damage to non-
of RCC structural members in earthquake
prone areas
Minimum concrete strength
recommended for eq resistant building
structures is 20 N/𝑚𝑚2
Grade of steel is used as Fe-415

Failures of RC section
➢Yielding of tension bars
1. Ductile
2. Tension failure
3. Under – reinforced section
➢Crushing of compressive concrete
1. Brittle
2. Compressive failure
3. Over – reinforced section

Tension failure more likely if :
1.Less tension reinforcement

2.More compression reinforcement
3.Higher grade of concrete
4.Lower grade of steel
5.Lower value of axial compression

Principles of ERD
❖Failures should be ductile rather than brittle – ductility
with large energy dissipation capacity must be ensured
❖Flexure failure should precede shear failure
❖Beams should fail before columns
❖Connections should be stronger than the members

which fit into them

DUCTILITY
❖Ability of a member to undergo large inelastic
deformations with little decrease in strength is
called ductile behavior
❖Ductility of a member increases with an increase
in compression steel content , concrete compressive
strength and ultimate concrete strain
❖RC buildings that are properly designed in
accordance with IS 456:2000 and IS 13920:2016
❖These provisions are used to get the desired
strength and ductility to resist major earthquakes
Ductility
Ductility=
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑌𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
△𝑚𝑎𝑥
μ =
△𝑦

To ensure adequate
structural ductility,
Need adequate
member ductility Structure
No direct relationship Ductility
between structural
ductility and member
versus
ductility Member
For same value of structural
ductility, need much higher
Ductility
value of member ductility
for irregular structural
configuration.

Strong column – weak beam
design : Avoid yielding of
columns
Regular configuration
For Good
Structural Avoiding failure of foundations
Ductility
Increasing member ductility
More redundancy

Interaction b/w concrete and
steel
❖Reinforcing bars make the concrete a ductile
material which otherwise is brittle. Bond between
steel and surrounding concrete ensures strain
compatibility
❖Some considerations made the concrete and
reinforcing bars achieve desired ductility are
1. Bond b/w reinforcing bars and concrete
2. Confining effect of transverse reinforcement
3. Buckling of reinforcing bars

CONCRETE DETAILING
RCC buildings should be governed by the provisions of IS
456:2000
➢Cover : To develop the required bond strength and protect
the reinforcement against corrosion , minimum cover for
reinforcement should comply with tables 16 & 16A of IS
456:2000
➢Concrete quality : Minimum 2characteristic strength for
structural concrete is 20 N/𝑚𝑚 , buildings which are more
than four storeys in zones Ⅳ & Ⅴ , min grade of concrete
should be M – 25
➢Reinforcement quality : Grade2 of steel with characteristic
strength in excess of 415 N/𝑚𝑚 are not permitted
➢Ratio of actual ultimate strength to the actual yield
strength should be at least 1.25

: It should be staggered and located away from
the sections of maximum tension , in columns of
buildings the splices should be positioned in the mid –
height region between floors
: Satisfactory anchorage may be achieved

/
by straight lengths or by using 90 &180 degree bends ,
tensile reinforcement should not be anchored in zones
of high tension
: Ductility and the strength of the

concrete is greatly enhanced by confining the
compression zone with closely spaced steel

Flexural members
To get sufficient ductility in beams , good design
details are necessary
If the factored axial stress exceeds 0.1 𝑓𝑐𝑘 member
will be in significant compression
Dimensions : Three limitations are imposed on
dimensions of beams
1. b/D not less than 0.3
2. b not les than 200mm
3. D not more than ¼ of the clear span

Reinforcement
To ensure adequate ductility in RCC beams , the amount of
longitudinal reinforcement must be limited to the dimensions
of the beam
Minimum reinforcement on any face:
𝑓𝑐𝑘
ρ𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 0.24
𝑓𝑦
➢Minimum bar diameter permissible is 12mm

➢Upper limit of the reinforcement ratio is 0.25 , above which
the ductility is inadequate
➢Positive steel at a joint face must be equal to at least half the
negative steel at the face , the seismic moments are reversible
Steel provided at each of the top and bottom faces of the
member at any section should be equal to at least one – forth
of maximum negative moment provided at face of either joint
REVERSAL OF MOMENTS DUE TO LONGITUDINAL REINFORCEMENT
EARTHQUAKE LOADING AT THE JOINTS IN A BEAM

Anchorage of beam bars in
an external joint
➢In external joint both the top

and bottom bars of the beam
should be provided with
anchorage length as shown in
the figure
➢In internal joint both face bars
of the beam should be taken
continuously throughout the
column

Lap
splices
Not reliable under
cyclic inelastic
deformations , should
not be provided in
critical regions
Longitudinal bars
should be spliced
only if the hoops are
provided over the
entire spice length as
shown

Web
reinforcement :
Sufficient transverse web
reinforcement in beams of an
earthquake – resistant frame
will be governed by flexure
and not by shear
It consist of vertical hoops , it
is a closed stirrup having a
135° hook and a 6 diameter
extension at each end

Special Confining It must be provided over a length of 𝐿0
Reinforcement from each joint face toward mid span ,
It is essential to 𝐿0 should not be less than
provide adequate 1. Larger lateral dimension of
rotational ductility the column
in potential plastic 2. 1/6 of the clear span of
hinge regions of member
columns
3. 450mm

Provision of special confining
reinforcement in Shear wall and
footing
➢During severe earthquake , a

plastic hinge may form at the
bottom of a column , special
confining reinforcement of the
column must be extended at least
300 mm into the foundation
➢Special confining
reinforcement of columns under
discontinued walls

STEEL STRUCTURES
➢Provides large ductility and high strength-to-
weight ratio – ideal for earthquake resistance.
➢Provides more flexibility than R.C.C structures,
but they also display more lateral displacement.
➢Care should be taken to ensure beams should yield
prior to the columns, and the strength of the
connection should be greater than strength of beams
and columns.

Causes for instability of Steel Structures
➢Local buckling of plate elements due to large
width-to-thickness ratio - “enables to reach its yield
strength”
➢Flexural buckling of long columns and braces.
➢Lateral-torsional buckling of beams
➢P-delta effects in frames when subjected to large
loads - “if lateral stiffness is not enough”.
➢Connection failure – “welded areas(brittle) and
lack of maintenance of bolts”.

Behavior of steel
➢Under strong earthquakes steel structures
generally been satisfactory from strength point of
view.
➢Medium height buildings(<40m) are designed for
vertical loads with flexible connections.
➢Lateral stiffness is inadequate, the windows and
non structural partitions will suffer considerable
damage.
➢Ultimate stress(fu) is used for steel sections, yield
stress(fy) is used for reinforcing bars.

Hysteretic behavior of steel
➢Stress-strain curve of steel structure under fatigue
loads(earthquake).

Steel Frames
On the basis of inelastic rotation capability,
steel-moment-resistant frames may be
classified as
i)Special-moment-frames(S.M.F)
ii)Intermediate-moment-frame(I.M.F)
iii)Ordinary-moment-frames(O.M.F)
SMF,IMF,OMF are designed to accommodate
inelastic rotation of 0.3, 0.2, 0.1 radians
respectively.
Steel Frames
These moment frames provide inelastic rotation
capabilities.
These can be braced and unbraced.
Another type of moment frame is “truss-girder

moment frame”.

Ductile Design of Frame members
It is neither practical or economically feasible to
design for maximum earthquake load.
Thus, structure is designed to sustain post-yield
displacement without collapse. By providing
special ductile detailing.
Can be designed by 3 approaches
i) Allowable stress design(ASD)
ii)Plastic design methods
iii)Load and resistance factor design(LRFD).
Allowable Stress Method: Derive a set of
equivalent lateral forces, and design the
structure on the basis of elastic analysis, but
provide appropriate levels of ductility.
1.2D+- E + 0.5L + 0.2S
0.9D+- (1.3W OR E)
Plastic Design Method: Generally suitable
for rigidly connected structures of up to four
storeys. *Care to be taken to ensure that local
collapse mechanisms .
1.7(D+W or E)
1.3(D+I+W or E)

Load and resistance factor design(LRFD):
Factored load should be less or equal to the
factored strength.
1.2D + 0.5L + 0.2S + HQe
0.9D – HQe
D- dead load; E- Earthquake loads; L- live
load; S-snow load; H-horizontal seismic over
strength factor.

Masonry Buildings
Till twentieth century, most buildings were
masonry constructions.
Reinforced concrete and steel gradually become
popular because of their inherent advantage.
However, since it is economical, good for insulation,
has a good finishing, and easy to procure, masonry
is still in use.
Masonry covers a wide range of materials like
bricks, stones, blocks, etc., jointed with different
types of mortars such as lime mortar, cement
mortar etc.

Categories of Masonry Buildings
As per IS 4326: 1993, masonry buildings have
been categorized in five classes from A to E
from the view point of earthquake-resistant
features.
Classification is based on the value of the
design seismic coefficient(αh).
αh = α0 *I*β
where, I – importance factor
β– soil foundation factor

Poor performance of Masonry Buildings
➢The material itself is brittle and its strength degradation due
to load repetition is severe.
➢Masonry has great weight because of thick walls.
Consequently the inertia forces are large.
➢Large stiffness of the material, which leads to large
response to earthquake waves of short natural period.
➢Quality of construction is not consistent because of quality
of the locally manufactured masonry units(bricks), unskilled
labour etc., that leads to large variability in strength.
➢Masonry structures are characterized by high stiffness and
great weight, as a result energy dissipation can be assumed
to occur as a result of ductile behavior.

Behavior of Unreinforced Masonry Wall
➢Masonry buildings are vulnerable to strong earthquake
shaking.
➢Masonry buildings has three components – the roof, the
wall and the foundation.
➢Inertia forces travel through roof, wall and foundation.
These forces develop in both x and y direction.
➢Out-of-Plane failure: A wall topples down eaisly if
pushed horizontally at the top in direction perpendicular
to its plane(weak direction).
➢In-Plane resistance: Wall offers much greater resistance
if pushed along its length. Since the wall’s large
dimension in the plane of bending. Such wall is known
as shear wall.

Behavior of ➢The seismic capacity for
unreinforced masonry is most
Unreinforced commonly based on stability and
energy considerations rather than
Masonry Wall stress levels.
➢Neither elastic, nor ultimate
strength analysis adequately
predicts the seismic capacity – both
methods produce over conservative
results.

Behavior of Reinforced Masonry walls
➢The reinforced masonry walls are used and designed for
lateral out-of-plane loads and axial loads.
➢Most reinforced masonry walls are designed to span
vertically and transfer the lateral loads to the roof, floor,
or foundation.
➢A reinforced masonry wall may fail in flexure or shear.
➢Flexural failure : When the ratio of height to length of
masonry wall is large and the vertical reinforcement is
small, flexural failure takes place.
➢Shear failure : In masonry walls without openings,
shear failure often takes place.

Likely to occur in wall elements with small height-to-
length ratio. Shear failure tends to brittle, with low
energy dissipation capacity and severe strength
degradation due to load repetition.

Box action and Bands
The walls support

vertical loads and
also act as shear walls

Box action and Bands
➢For previous slide lateral loading case, wall A acts as
shear wall and wall B topples down.
➢Wall A resists the collapse of wall B, if wall A and B are
properly tied up like a box.
➢Near vertical edges the walls will carry bending
moments in the horizontal plane for which the masonry
strength may not be adequate. This may result in
cracking and separation of walls.
➢If, flexural member is introduced at suitable levels(say
lintel level) in walls, it will take care of the bending
tensions. This flexural member is known as band.

Seismic Design of Masonry Buildings
➢The specifications and limits specified in IS: 1905 apply
to the design and construction of masonry to improve its
performance when subjected to earthquake loads.
➢Procedure :
➢ i) The lateral loads are determined, then the base
shear is calculated and distributed vertically to different
floors.
➢ ii) In case of rigid diaphragms, the storey shear is
distributed to the vertical-resisting elements in direct
proportion to their relative rigidities, where as for
flexible diaphragm the exterior vertical-resisting
elements share half the shear of that shared by interior
ones
Seismic Design of Masonry Buildings
➢iii)Since the vertical load-resisting elements are
masonry shear walls, it becomes imperative to
calculate the relative wall rigidities. For this
purpose, the masonry shear wall may be assumed to
behave like a cantilever.
➢ The deflection of wall fixed at bottom and free at
top is given by
➢Rigidity Rc of this cantilever pier by

➢
Similarly, for fixed pier deflection and rigidity is
given by ;
If the masonry shear wall segments are combined

horizontally, the combined rigidity is given by
For combining the rigidities of segments vertically,

the expression for the combined rigidity is given by

The shear walls are also checked for in-plane bending
and the transverse or flexural walls are checked for out-
of-plane forces along with gravity loads.
Vertical reinforcement at jambs of windows and door

openings as shown in next slide and in RCC bands (as
shown in next slide) is to be provided.

04-Aug-20 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY RAIPUR

Earthquake Engineering and Engineering Seismology

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Earthquake Resistant

Dr. GOVARDHAN BHATT

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY RAIPUR

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY RAIPUR

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY RAIPUR

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY RAIPUR

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➢Magnitude is a scalar quantity. ➢Intensity is a vector quantity.

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY RAIPUR

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY RAIPUR

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY RAIPUR

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY RAIPUR

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1.Less tension reinforcement

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❖Flexure failure should precede shear failure

❖Beams should fail before columns

❖Connections should be stronger than the members

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY RAIPUR

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY RAIPUR

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY RAIPUR

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: Satisfactory anchorage may be achieved

: Ductility and the strength of the

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➢Minimum bar diameter permissible is 12mm

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➢In external joint both the top

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➢During severe earthquake , a

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Another type of moment frame is “truss-girder

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NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY RAIPUR

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY RAIPUR

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