Review of the Seismic Process

Review of the
Seismic Process

Ancient Seismic Recorder

• 2000 years old (from China)

• Ball drops from dragon’s mouth

into frog’s mouth when seismic
waves reach the device

• Directional

(Tarbuck and Lutgens, 1999)

1
Typical Earthquake Seismogram

 Much of our initial understanding of the

propagation of seismic energy through the
Earth was derived from earthquake studies.
 Three general waveforms are generated:
 Primary (P) waves – first arrival;
compressional/dilational.
Secondary or shear (S) waves – second
arrival; shear motion; propagate through
matrix only.
 Surface waves – various forms (e.g.,
Love, Rayleigh); in seismic industry, surface
waves appear as ground roll, a form of
coherent noise; in wellbore industry,
Stoneley waves, a type of leaky Rayleigh
wave, can aid fracture and permeability
studies.
 All types are important for understanding
subsurface relations.
(Tarbuck and Lutgens, 1999)

Seismic Wave Propagation

Wavefront versus Raypath

 During a seismic event (natural or manmade),

seismic waves of various forms propagate
outward from the source.
 Often we describe the pathways of the
propagating waves (drawn perpendicular to the
wavefront) because of geometrical
simplification.
 Raypath modeling, for example, is used to
predict raypaths in complex geological
environments to understand better potential
issues with acquisition and other aspects.
 More sophisticated algorithms and enhanced
computing technology is allowing for wavefront
models to be developed.
(top right, Keary et al., 1999; top left, Brown, 1999; bottom left, http://web.utah.edu/thorne/movies/Two_Layer.mov)

2
 Seismic Wave Propagation
Body versus Surface Waves
 Body waves - These are elastic waves that propagate
through the Earth's interior. In reflection and refraction
prospecting, body waves are the source of information used
to image the Earth's interior. Like the ripples on the surface
of the pond example described previously, body waves
propagate away from the source in all directions. If the
speed at which body waves propagate through the Earth's
interior is constant, then at any time, these waves form a
sphere around the source whose radius is dependent on the
time elapsed since the source generated the waves. Shown
below is a cross section through the earth with body waves
radiated from a source (red circle) shown at several different
times. In the figure below, ms stands for milliseconds. One
millisecond equals one one-thousandth of a second (i.e.,
there are one thousand milliseconds in a second).

Surface Waves - Surface waves are waves that propagate

along the Earth's surface. Their amplitude at the surface of
the Earth can be very large, but this amplitude decays
exponentially with depth. Surface waves propagate at
speeds that are slower than S waves, are less efficiently
generated by buried sources, and have amplitudes that
decay with distance from the source more slowly than is
observed for body waves. Shown below is a cross section
through a simplified Earth model (the speed of wave
propagation is assumed to be constant everywhere)
showing how surface waves would appear at various times
in this medium.

(http://www.earthsci.unimelb.edu.au/ES304/MODULES/SEIS/NOTES/swaves.html)

Seismic Wave Types (Body Waves)

P and S Waves

 P (Primary) Waves
 Fastest wave (1st arrival)
 Compressional/dilational
 Vibrate in direction of travel
 Transits through solids, liquids,
and gases

 S (Secondary or Shear) Waves

 Slower wave
 Shearing motion
 Vibration perpendicular to
direction of travel; shown here is Sv
 Transits only through solids
 Fluid type however does influence
propagation due to different “ease”
of vibrating grains across from
different fluids in the pore system.
(Animations courtesy of L. Braile, Purdue University;
http://web.ics.purdue.edu/~braile/edumod/waves/WaveDemo.htm)

3
Seismic Wave Types (Body Waves)

Body waves travel through the interior of the Earth.

P-waves S-waves
• Fastest waves • Slower than P
waves
• First (primary)
arrival • Secondary arrival

• Compressional/ • Shearing motion

Dilational motion
• Travel through
• Travel through Solids
Solids, Liquids,
and Gases

(from Tarbuck and Lutgens, 1999)

P-Waves versus S-Waves

 P-Waves (Compressional), vibrate in direction of travel

 S-Waves (Shear), vibrate perpendicular to direction of travel

4
Solid Earth Geophysics
P-wave Shadow Zone

 P-waves are capable of traveling

through solids, liquids, and gases, and
as such they are capable of transiting
through the entire Earth.
From an earthquake epicenter, P-
wave energy propagates outwards.
 Curved raypaths in the solid/semi-
solid crust and mantle reflect a general
increase in velocity with depth.
 At the core-mantle boundary,
raypaths refract inward due to the
liquid outer core, with outerward
refraction upon reemergence from the
core.
 A “shadow zone” in initial P-wave
energy forms as a result of the liquid
outer core, allowing tomographic
mapping of that important interior Earth
boundary.

(Tarbuck and Lutgens, 1999)

Solid Earth Geophysics

P-wave and S-wave Shadow Zones

 S-waves not capable of being

transmitting through fluids.
 The large S-wave “shadow zone”
was a key indicator of the liquid form
of the outer core of the Earth.
 Detailed investigation of primary
P- and S-waves, as well as mode-
converted waves generated at key
boundaries, has allowed for a
remarkable understanding of the
Earth’s overall interior.
 In seismic exploration for oil and
gas, we are simply focusing similar
efforts in smaller areas, but many of
the underlying principles remain the
same.

(Tarbuck and Lutgens, 1999)

5
Solid Earth Geophysics
Body Wave Velocity Changes with Depth

(Tarbuck and Lutgens, 1999)

Solid Earth Geophysics

Seismic Wave Propagation—
Denali Earthquake, M7.9, Nov. 3, 2002

(courtesy of U.S. Geological Survey)

6
Solid Earth Geophysics
Seismic Tomography

Mantle δVs Variations Mantle Isotherms

(left, http://www.geophysik.uni-muenchen.de/~bernhard/figures/Research; right, http://geon.unavco.org/unavco/IDV_datasource_geodyn.html)

Earthquakes and Crustal Divisions

Concentration along Plate Boundaries

RED – Earthquake Epicenters (M>5, 1980-1990)

YELLOW – Plate Boundaries
(www.smate.wwu.edu/teched/geology/globe.html)

7
Seismic Wave Types
Surface Waves—Rayleigh and Love Waves

 Rayleigh Waves
 Ground roll
 Retrograde elliptical movement
in vertical plane of propagation.
 Stoneley waves, a type of
“leaky” Rayleigh wave, are
important in acoustic logging.

 Love Waves
 Horizontal shearing motion
 Vibration perpendicular to
direction of travel
 Nothing lovely about them in
major earthquakes—they destroy
things! (Animations courtesy of L. Braile, Purdue University;
http://web.ics.purdue.edu/~braile/edumod/waves/WaveDemo.htm)

Surface Waves

Rayleigh Waves  Confined to near-surface layers.

 Many different forms, but two types
predominate in earthquake/seismic studies.
(a) Rayleigh waves – particle motion follows
complex elliptical path (simplified at left); in
Love Waves seismic exploration surveys, Rayleigh
waves form ground roll, a coherent source
of noise, which is removed through
acquisition design and processing.
(b) Love waves – horizontal shear
component; very destructive form of
seismic energy.
Stoneley Waves  In the borehole environment, a special form of
“leaky” Rayleigh waves called Stoneley waves
develops during acoustic logging which transits
at the solid-liquid interface between the
formation and the mud; important for fracture
and permeability studies.

8
Typical Seismogram

Direct wave arrival

Reflection hyperbolae

Ground roll—a form

of coherent noise

(from Kearey et al., 2002)

Fracture Characterization
Image Log and Stoneley Waveform Data

Image log Filtered Stoneley waveform

9
 Physical Properties

Force, Stress, and Strain

• Force = Mass * Acceleration

• Stress = Force / Area

• Strain = Deformation
• Forces and Stresses can vary in space and
time (e.g., 4-D evolving stress field).

• Resultant Strain can similarly exhibit 4-D

variations.

10
 Stress-Strain Curve

Elastic Field Ductile/Plastic Field

(all strain is (some strain is nonrecoverable) Ultimate stress
recoverable) and strength

Yield
limit Rupture

Stress
Proportional point
limit
If stress released here,
path follows dashed line;
note permanent strain at
zero stress.

Permanent Strain Strain

 As stress is applied, a linear relationship between stress and strain exists to the
proportional limit. Hooke’s law describes this relationship—specific elastic moduli
represent the slope of the stress-strain curve for a given description of strain (e.g., bulk
modulus relates to bulk volumetric strain).
 In the elastic field, all strain is recoverable upon stress release, whereas beyond the yield
limit in the ductile/plastic field an increasing amount of nonrecoverable (permanent strain)
occurs.

Hooke’s Law
A description of the linear portion of the
stress-strain curve

 Force 
Stress ( σ ) = 
 Area 
 σ ≈ε  Change in shape 
Strain ( ε ) = 
 Original shape


 Δl   ΔV 
e.g.,   or   etc.

σ = kεConstant of Proportionality
Hooke’s Law describes  l   V 
the linear proportion of
the stress-strain curve.
(slope of the linear relationship)
 Specific Elastic Moduli represent the constant of proportionality (slope
of the linear relationship) for a given description of strain (bulk,
longitudinal, shear, etc.).
 Hooke’s Law and Elastic Moduli are only applicable in the elastic field;
as deformation progresses into the ductile/plastic field the stress-strain
curve is nonlinear. Rock rheology and confining pressure largely control
the elastic to nonelastic transition.

11
The Elastic Moduli

Bulk Modulus, K Young’s Modulus, E

Solids, liquids, and gases Solids only
P l

F F

P
l + ∆l
P longitudinal stress F/A
E=
volumetric stress P longitudinal strain Δl/l
K=
volumetric strain Δv/v
Axial Modulus, ψ
Shear Modulus, μ Solids only
Solids only ll
τ
F FF
θ
l l++ ∆l
∆l

shear stress τ longitudinal stress F/A

μ= ψ=
shear strain tanθ longitudinal strain Δl / l
(no transverse strain)

Mechanical Stratigraphy
Stress versus Strain

12
Mechanical Stratigraphy
Environmental Aspects Influence
Rock Behavior
• In addition to lithologic control
on rock behavior, environmental
aspects must also be considered.
• For example, as shown on
diagram at right, changing the
confining pressure changes the
rock behavior—under low
confining pressures rock breaks
in a brittle manner, whereas at
high confining pressure the rock
behaves in a more ductile manner
(swarms of microfractures)
• Temperature also changes mode
of deformation—lower temps
favor brittle behavior whereas
higher temps enhance ductility.
• Strain rate can change mode of
deformation as well—high strain
rate favors brittle behavior,
whereas low strain rate favors
ductile behavior.

Seismic Velocities and Relation to

Elastic Moduli
restoring force
velocity of waves =
appropriate mass
 The velocity depends on two main things – the restoring force (analogous to the
strength of a spring), and the mass (analogous to the mass of the spring). As the
restoring force increases, the velocity increases. However, as the mass increases,
this will slow the spring, reducing the velocity. The mass in the case of a rock is
replaced by the invariant property density (mass per unit volume).
 S-waves involve a change in shape – this requires a shear force. The size of the
force depends on the shear, or rigidity modulus, μ. A P-wave also involves a
change in size, so the compressibility modulus κ is also involved.
P
4
κ+ μ ρ = density τ

vp = 3 K = bulk modulus θ
μ= shear modulus
ρ P

In a fluid, μ is zero, P
μ
vs = so vs is always zero. volumetric stress P shear stress τ
ρ K=
volumetric strain Δv/v
μ=
shear strain tanθ
(Mussestt and Khan, 2000)

13
 Elastic Moduli
Seismic-Derived Poisson’s Ratio

vp / vs = [ 2(1-ν) / (1-2ν) ] 1/2  Poisson’s ratio measures how a material

strains (deforms) in one direction in
response to strain in another direction.
 It is a measure of incompressibility or
“stiffness” of a material, related to key
elastic moduli (bulk, shear, and Young’s).
 It also affects the speed and propagation
of seismic energy and reflection strength.
 The ratio vp / vs (p-wave velocity / shear-
wave velocity) relates to ν (nu), Poisson’s
ratio. Note that sometimes Poisson’s ratio
is designated as σ (confusing because
effective stress is also designated as σ).
 Poisson’s ratio for consolidated rocks is
typically about 0.25, thus vp ≈ 1.7 vs. Note
that this is only an average estimate!
 Poisson’s ratio is independent of density
and can be a diagnostic lithologic indicator,
thus knowing the ratio vp / vs can be useful.

(Uden et al., SEG, 2003)

Pre-Stack Elastic
Seismic Inversion

 In this reservoir, the inversion of

ultra-far offsets has been used to
characterize sand injection
features with the bulk (top) and
shear (bottom) moduli.
 The bulk modulus is sensitive to
fluid and clearly shows the
hydrocarbon in both the main
reservoir interval and a steeply
dipping sand injection feature
(indicated by arrows).
 By contrast, the injection
feature does not appear on the
shear modulus section which is a
lithology indicator.

(courtesy of CGGVeritas)

14
 Elastic Moduli
Well Derived Measurements

 A gravel-pack completion was recommended for this pay zone to avoid sand production problems
predicted by a rock failure model incorporating compressional and shear slowness data.
 Note determination of various moduli (based on density and velocity data) and Poisson’s ratio.

Stresses around the Wellbore

Variations in Mud Pressure (or ECD)
and Rock Strength

Induced Fractures Only

 Failure under Tension

No Induced Failure

Both Induced Fractures and

Breakout  Failure under
Tension and Compression /
Shear (Mud Pressure / ECD
variations)
There are cases where even a 0.5 ppg
variation in ECD can cause, in the same
rock even, shear failure (loss of
compressive strength) at the low end of
ECD, and tension failure (exceeding tensile
strength) at the high of ECD.

15
Frequency Dependence
on Seismic Velocities…

(Diao, 2003, Core Laboratories)

…and therefore Frequency Dependence

on Elastic Moduli

(Diao, 2003, Core Laboratories)

16
Mechanical Stratigraphy
Different Elastic Moduli under Compression
versus Tension
PHU PHAN (PP) SANDSTONE SARABURI (SB) LIMESTONE

(Klanphumeesri and Fuenkajorn, 2011, Rock Mechanics)

Seismic Velocities and Layer

Thickness Determination
n

v
 In our previous example, we started with interval (layer)
2
INT ,i i t
where,
n is the number of layers,
velocities and used them to calculate RMS velocities. In
practice, we extract RMS velocities from the seismic
v 2
RMS , n = i =1
n
vi is the interval velocity
for a given ith layer, and
dataset and then use them to calculate iteratively interval

t
velocities, layer thicknesses, and interface depths.
ti is the time of travel in
i that ith layer.  RMS (Root Mean Square) velocity is the general term
i =1 used for the “average” velocity to a given interface reflector,
and is routinely obtained during the stacking process.

v 2
RMS , n nt −v 2
t
RMS , n −1 n −1
 For the first interface, the RMS velocity equates to the

,n =
interval velocity of the first layer (that layer above the first
vINT
2
interface). From RMS velocities of successively deeper
t −t
n n −1 interfaces, we can progressively calculate the interval
velocities of successively deeper layers by the use of Dix’s
equation at left.
v (t − t )
h =
n
n n n −1  Once an interval (layer) velocity is determined, then by

2 incorporating the time taken to transit the layer it is possible

to be able to calculate the height (h) or vertical thickness of
that given layer. The equation at right utilizes the two-way
n travel time, hence the division by 2 in the equation.

zn =  hi  Finally, depth (z) to a given interface can be determined

by the sum of the layer thicknesses (heights) above that
i =1 interface.

17
Velocity Analysis – Uncorrected Gathers

(Young, 2008)

Velocity Analysis – NMO’d Gathers

(Young, 2008)

18
 Velocity Analysis
Automated Residual Velocity Analysis

Residual Velocity

(Young, 2008)

Velocity Analysis
Vintage 2D Line

stacking velocities

 Shown here is a vintage 2D line

(and still a very valuable source of
seismic data!).
 Stacking velocities are shown at
several positions across the line.
 Dix’s Equation can be used to
determine the interval velocities
between desired interfaces and their
respective depths.

19
Velocity
Typical P-wave Velocities

(Kearey et al., 1999)

Interval Velocity vs.

Age of Clastic Rocks

(Faust, 1951)

20
Velocity vs. Bulk Density

(left, Gardner et al., 1974; right, Kearey et al., 1999)

Density and Velocity Relations with Depth

Tertiary sands and shales, Gulf of Mexico

(Gardner et al., 1975)

21
 Velocity vs. Porosity
Wyllie’s Time-Average Equation

1−φ
Rock Matrix

φ
Fluids

Rock Volume
Sensor Response Equation:
1/Vb = φ ( 1/Vfl ) + ( 1 – φ ) ( 1/Vma ) Δtlog = bulk transit time from log (μsec/ft)
Δtma = rock matrix (grain) transit time
Δtlog = φ (Δtfl ) + ( 1 – φ ) (Δtma ) (μsec/ft)
Δtfl = fluid transit time (μsec/ft)
Rearranging yields Wyllie’s Time-Average Eqn.,
φs = porosity from acoustic measurement
φs = ( Δtlog - Δtma ) / ( Δtfl - Δtma )

 Wyllie’s equation works well for most consolidated sandstones and carbonates.
 Additional correction is necessary for unconsolidated and/or shaly units.
(after Wyllie et al., 1956, 1958)

P and S Wave Velocities

P
4
k+ μ K=
volumetric stress P
Vp = 3 P volumetric strain Δv/v

ρ P

μ τ

Vs = θ μ=
shear stress τ
shear strain tanθ
ρ
 As noted before, in a pure fluid, μ is zero, so vs is always zero.
 This idea often leads people to think that there is no effect of fluids on vs.
 Shear waves transit through the matrix only, thus vs is largely controlled by the type of matrix
(lithology), the amount of matrix (and thus porosity, as porosity increases the grain-to-grain transit
becomes more tortuous and the net vs decreases), and the effective stress (grain-to-grain contact stress,
thus low effective stress equates to a more tortuous pathway and lower net vs).
 THE TYPE OF FLUID ALSO MATTERS IN S-WAVE PROPAGATION AS SHOWN ON THE NEXT SLIDE!!!

22
 Effect of Gas Saturation

 Plots of (a) P-wave velocity, (b) S-wave velocity, (c) Poisson’s ratio, and (d) Vp/Vs ratio as a function of gas saturation.
 Note that the addition of 5-10% gas has the most significant response on Vp, causing a significant drop. Thereafter, additional gas
causes a slight increase in Vp (easier for grains to vibrate against gas).
 Increasing gas saturation also causes a slight increase in Vs. Although the S waves do not propagate through the fluid component,
it becomes easier for grains to vibrate against gas versus a liquid.
 Note the commonly used Vp/Vs ratio for gas determination is influenced mainly by 5-10% gas. Lame parameters (λ = κ – 2μ/3,
and μ) combined with density (e.g., λ−ρ and μ−ρ) generally are better discriminators.
(Ostrander, 1984)

Multicomponent Survey
P-wave and S-wave Imaging

(from Century ad, AAPG Expl., Dec. 1999)

23
 Vp/Vs Ratio and Poisson’s Ratio
Crossplot Analysis for Hydrocarbon Identification

 The cross plot of Vp /Vs vs. Δt shear has proven to be a useful hydrocarbon indicator in
homogeneous clastics.
Compressional slowness travel times are increased where the rock pore space is occupied by
more compressible fluid. (Williams, 1990, SPWLA)

LMR Analysis
Lambda/Mu Ratio Display

 Example of 4 wells located using

LMR interpretation.
 Top example shows a migrated
seismic amplitude section.
 Observe the absence of a
consistent seismic amplitude or
character anomaly, particularly for
the well locations on the flanks
and outside the main valley cut
(wells C and D).
 The bottom example shows the
same wells on the corresponding
Lambda Mu Ratio section.
 This attribute shows distinct
anomalies whose intensity
correlates with the reservoir
thickness encountered in the
wells.
(Mandler and Stevens, 2004, CSEG Conv.)

24
 Reflection and Refraction

Seismic Gather and Wave Arrivals

(modified after Robinson and Coruh, 1988)

25
 Direct Wave

 The Direct Wave is the wave/raypath that travels directly from Source to Receiver.
 The direct wave represents a specific raypath of the primary wave pulse.
 Velocity = distance / time or v=x/t
 For near-offset receivers (close to source) the direct wave is normally the first arrival,
but because velocity increases with depth other waves may precede the direct wave
arrival for far-offset receivers.

Direct Wave

Primary Wave Pulse

Refracted Wave Pulse

Reflected Wave Pulse

(modified after http://web.utah.edu/thorne/movies/Two_Layer.mov)

Seismic Wave Propagation

Arbuckle Mountains, Oklahoma
1921

26
 Seismic Reflection Profile

(Domenico, 1991)

Reflected Wave—Echo

As a seismic wave impinges upon a contact between two media of different density
and/or velocity, some of the energy will be reflected.
 A reflection is in essence an echo.
 Sound bouncing off a canyon wall is a classic example of acoustic reflection.
 As source-receiver distance (offset) increases, the arrival time for successive receivers
is slightly longer than each prior receiver.

Direct Wave

Primary Wave Pulse

Refracted Wave Pulse

Reflected Wave Pulse

(modified after http://web.utah.edu/thorne/movies/Two_Layer.mov)

27
Recording Environment and System
Moving Shot Points over Seismic Profile

Shot 1

* Geophones

* Seismic Energy Source

Recording Environment and System

Moving Shot Points over Seismic Profile

Seismic Field Record – Shot 1

ΔX  ΔT is referred to as the
normal moveout time, which
represents the extra amount
of travel time to the reflector
due to the change in offset
ΔT from the normal incident
receiver.
 Normal moveout time
increases as offset increases
yielding a hyperbolic
geometry on successive
traces.
 The shape of the reflection
hyperbola is related to
velocity and depth.

28
 Reflection
Reflection—Horizontal Reflector

Depth Model Reflection Survey from Depth Model

Normal Moveout Corrections (NMO) are

applied during processing to account for the
extra travel time to reflector and back as
source-receiver distance (or offset) increases.

(Domenico, 1991)

Reflection
Reflection—Dipping Reflector

Depth Model Reflection Survey from Depth Model

Note shift in “peak” of reflection hyperbola due to dipping strata.

The zero-offset recorder (R7 here) does not record the shortest
travel time, but rather an offset recorder (R3 here) does due to a
shorter travel path from source to receiver. Fundamental aspect
of dip moveout corrections during processing.
(from Domenico, 1991)

29
 Refracted (Transmitted) Wave
v1 < v2

 As a seismic wave impinges upon a contact between two media

of different density and/or velocity, some of the energy will be
reflected, but some of the energy will be transmitted across the
boundary.
 The transmitted wave either speeds up or slows down
depending upon the velocity contrast across the layer boundary.
 The raypath bends as a result of the velocity shift, and is said to
be refracted.

Direct Wave

Primary Wave Pulse

Refracted Wave Pulse

Reflected Wave Pulse

(bottom, modified after http://web.utah.edu/thorne/movies/Two_Layer.mov; top, Robinson and Coruh, 1988)

Reflection, Refraction, and Mode

Conversion

In addition to reflection and refraction of initial incident acoustic waveforms (in this case P waves),
as incidence angle increases from zero, some of the energy mode converts to another seismic
energy form (e.g., from P to S wave).
 This mode conversion as incidence angle increases (or as S-R distance increases) is the
fundamental basis of amplitude vs. offset studies, which note the variations in seismic
amplitude for a given wave type due primarily to fluid changes.
 Modern multicomponent surveys record both P and S waves.
(Kearey et al., 1999)

30
 Refraction
Velocity Contrast—
Outward vs. Inward Refr.
 Depending upon the velocity
contrast at the acoustic interface,
throughgoing raypaths will bend
outward (shallow) or inward
(steepen).
 Outward refraction (top diagram)
occurs when V1 > V0. V1 > V0
 Inward refraction (bottom Outward Refraction
diagram) occurs when V1 < V0.
 Because average velocity
generally increases with depth, the
general downgoing raypath profiles
are characterized by overall
outward dominated refraction, and
general upgoing return raypath
profiles are characterized by overall
inward dominated refraction.
V1 < V0
Inward Refraction (Domenico, 1991)

Mode Conversion

 Mode conversion is dependent upon

the offset (source-receiver distance), as
well as the type of incident acoustic
energy.
 For non-orthogonal incident waves
impinging upon a horizontal interface:
 An incident P wave can mode convert
into a reflected SV and refracted SV
wave.
 An incident SV wave can mode
convert into a reflected P and refracted
P wave.
 An incident SH wave can only reflect
as an SH wave and refract as an SH
wave, because the vibration is
horizontal or parallel to the interface,
thus no vertical component of vibration
exists to convert to P or SV energy

(Robinson and Coruh, 1988)

31
Snell’s Law

 Snell’s Law describes the

geometrical relations of
incident waves versus reflected
and refracted waves.
 Incident angle and velocity
contrast are controlling factors
for the geometrical description.

(Domenico, 1991)

Recording Environment and System

Seismic Reflection Survey—Water (Ocean
Bottom Cable)

(http://www.statoil.com/no/TechnologyInnovation/OptimizingReservoirRecovery/Imaging
AndMonitoring/SeabedSeismic/PublishingImages/seafloor_seismic2_468.gif)

32
Energy Partitioning and Mode
Conversion

Partitioning of a unit-amplitude
incident P-wave energy into four
components: reflected and refracted
P- and S-waves (Richards, 1961).

(Yilmaz, 2001)

Critical Refraction
Angle of Refraction Equals 90°

 If V0 < V1, outward refraction occurs and Snell’s

Law reveals that for a given V0/V1 ratio there exists
an angle of incidence upon which the resultant
angle of refraction will be 90°.
 This component of the overall wave front transits
along the interface boundary (at the V1 velocity) and is
called the critical refracted wave.
Critical refraction represents a fundamental
aspect of refraction seismic profiling.
 Refraction profiling is commonly used in
geoenvironmental studies, such as water table
detection.
 Critical refraction also represents the fundamental
basis of wellbore sonic tools.
 Less commonly used in oil and gas seismic
surveying. Although inversion of critical refractions
from near-surface interfaces can improve static
corrections, overall critically refracted wave arrivals are
removed through processing.
(Domenico, 1991)

33
 Critical Refraction
and Wellbore Sonic Tools
 The transmitter (T) generates P-waves which propagate outward.
(S-waves may also be generated but cannot propagate through the
liquid mud, but may propagate along the tool itself, leading to major
issues especially with LWD devices in slow shear formations with
dipole excitation—overcome now with quadrupole excitation)
refraction
R  Obviously the shortest distance to the receivers (R) is along the
tool itself. We don’t want this so-called tool wave (or collar wave for
LWD instrumentation) so an “isolator” (I) is added to attenuate the
tool P-wave.
I
 Most raypaths cause refractions into the formation, which may
reflect back to the receivers yielding information about far-field
relations, which is the fundamental basis for fault (or salt) proximity
surveys.
 Because of the lower velocity of the mud relative to the formation,
there exists a raypath at which critical refraction occurs, such that
T
the refracted waveform transits along the mud/formation interface at
the formation velocity (our unknown). Eventually due to Huygen’s
Mode principle (every vibration acts as a source), waves reemerge into
Conversion the mud eventually reaching the receivers. Transit components
through the mud can be “removed”, allowing us to focus on the
Compressional waves are shown formational aspects, which of course is what we’re interested in.
as red, shear waves as blue and  Additionally, mode conversion occurs along non-perpendicular
Stoneley waves as green. interactions, and result in generation of shear and Stoneley waves.

P vs S Waves in
Critical Refraction Surveys
Water Table Identification

In this example a marked bend in the first arrival of the P wave energy is indicated around offset
position of 105.
 This transition from direct wave as first arrival to critical wave as first arrival corresponds to
the water table contact.
S wave propagation is insensitive to the fluid transition from the vadose (air) zone to the phreatic
(water) zone, thus the water table does not serve as a refractor/reflector of S waves and so only a
direct S wave is recorded.
(Kearey et al., 1999)

34
How Complex
Can it Get?
VERY!!

Two different illumi-

nations of salt flank by a
single source.

(a) Primary reflections

which yield salt flank
image in (b).

(c) Reflections that first

bounce off a deeper
layer boundary then off
salt interface, yielding
flank image in (d).

(from Yilmaz, 2001)

Acoustic Impedance

 Acoustic impedance of a rock = sonic velocity times density.

 AI = ρv (z is sometimes used as the variable for acoustic impedance)
 Seismic reflections come from surfaces with contrasting acoustic
impedance.
 The greater the acoustic impedance contrast, then the greater the reflection
strength.
 Rocks have variable acoustic impedance, but because on average density
and velocity increase with depth so to does average acoustic impedance.
 Sands and shales both vary in their acoustic impedance with compaction,
cementation, etc., but acoustic impedance generally values increase with depth.
 Limestones have much higher values of acoustic impedance; salt is even higher.
 Gas in a rock's pores greatly reduces acoustic impedance.
 Pressure depletion decreases acoustic impedance whereas pressure increases
cause an increase in acoustic impedance.
 Acoustic impedance can be determined from well log data (density and ΔT
logs) and from inversion of seismic data.

35
 Reflection Coefficient

Partitioning of Energy at an Interface

 For a normal-incidence (perpendicular raypath and reflector)
reflection, the reflection coefficient (recording reflection strength
and polarity) is determined by:
 Refl. Coef., RC = AR / AI = ( ρ2 v2 – ρ1 v1 ) / ( ρ2 v2 + ρ1 v1 )
layer 1
AI AR ρ1 , v1  Trans. Coef., TC = AT / AI =1 – RC = 2 ρ1 v1 / ( ρ2 v2 + ρ1 v1 )
 Recognize that around the world two different conventions exist
in the treatment/naming of amplitude responses:
– US Convention – Positive RC are called “peaks,” corresponding to
the positive side of the amplitude scale. Negative RC are “troughs.”
–European Convention is reversed – Positive RC are called “troughs,”
AT layer 2 corresponding to negative side of the amplitude scale.
ρ 2 , v2 – Check the polarity of your survey—water bottom, basement, key
markers, etc.
 As incidence angle changes (e.g., due to greater source-
receiver offset), the response changes (e.g., due to mode
conversion) and the equation becomes more complex.
AVO/AVA studies look at these changes to extract additional
details

Reflection Coefficient
Seismic Wave Amplification

 Loosely consolidated layers in particular pose major problems during earthquakes, as shown here in
the Cypress Freeway collapse in the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake. The Baseball World Series was
postponed because of this earthquake.
 Consider a waveform transiting from a high velocity zone (e.g., bedrock) to a low velocity zone. The
reflection coefficient is negative, thus the transmission coefficient, TC = 1 – RC, will be greater than one.
Thus amplitude increases in the low velocity zones. Energy does not increase, only amplitude because it
is easier to vibrate lower acoustic impedance materials.
(Tarbuck and Lutgens, 1999)

36
 Seismic Petrophysics
Bright Spots & Flat Spots

SH/GasSS
High Neg. ΔAI GasSS/OilSS
Low Pos. ΔAI
OilSS/Br.SS
Low Pos. ΔAI
SH/OilSS
Med. Neg. ΔAI
GasSS/SH
High Pos. ΔAI SH/Br.SS
Gas Sand Low Neg. ΔAI
 very low ρ & very low v
 very low AI
Oil Sand
 low ρ & low v
 low AI
Brine Sand
 med. ρ & med. v OilSS/SH
 med. AI Med. Pos. ΔAI
Shale
 med./high ρ & med./high v Br.SS/SH
 med./high acoustic impedence (ρ*v) Low Pos. ΔAI

Seismic Petrophysics
Bright Spots & Flat Spots

Increase in Seismic
Amplitude in HC zones
(esp. in Gas Zone)
 “Bright Spots”

On TIME surveys,
time thickness
will increase from
Brine to Oil to Gas
zone due to the
progressive
velocity decrease.

Fluid contacts may appear as “flat spots” but will

generally exhibit tilting on time surveys due to
hydrocarbon velocity push-down.

37
 Seismic Petrophysics
Dim Spots, Polarity Reversal, and Flat Spots

SH/GasDOL
Low Neg. ΔAI GasDOL/OilDOL
Low Pos. ΔAI
OilDOL/Br.DOL
Low Pos. ΔAI
SH/OilDOL
Low Pos. ΔAI
GasDOL/SH
Low Pos. ΔAI SH/Br.DOL
Gas DOL Med. Pos. ΔAI
 med. ρ & med. v
 med. AI
Oil DOL
 high ρ & high v
 high AI
Brine DOL
 very high ρ & very high v OilDOL/SH
 very high AI Low Neg. ΔAI
Shale
 med./high ρ & med./high v Br.DOL/SH
 med./high acoustic impedence (ρ*v) Med. Neg. ΔAI

Seismic Petrophysics
Dim Spots, Polarity Reversal, and Flat Spots

Acoustic Impedence
Contrast Between SH
and DOL Decreases in
Hydrocarbon Zone
Resulting in Amplitude
Dimming or Even
Polarity Reversal.
On TIME surveys,
time thickness
will increase from
Brine to Oil to Gas
zone due to the
progressive
velocity decrease.

Fluid contacts may appear as “flat spots” but will

generally exhibit tilting on time surveys due to
hydrocarbon velocity push-down.

38
Reflection Coefficient
Model of Anticlinal Gas Trap

Depth
Model

Time
Model

The low acoustic impedance gas

zone causes strong reflectors, but
in time model note low velocity
“push-down” of fluid contact and
basal sand contact, causing an
exaggerated formation thickness.

(Domenico, 1991)

Density and Velocity Relations with Depth

Tertiary sands and shales, Gulf of Mexico 
How does this affect seismic imaging?

Gas Trap modeled at: (a) 1.0 km, (b) 1.5

km, (c) 2.0 km, and (d) 3.0 km depths.

Although density and velocity increase with depth, the

density and velocity contrast decreases with depth,
thus acoustic impedance contrast likewise decreases
 harder to see boundaries.
(Domenico, 1991)

39
Seismic Petrophysics
Bright Spots & Flat Spots

Anticlinal
crest

Hydrocarbon/Water Contact

(Brown, 2004)

Reservoir Continuity?
Siliciclastic Reservoirs, Genesis Field,
Deepwater Gulf of Mexico

Neb. 1 Neb. 3

40
 Reservoir Continuity?
In this Case Study, relationships are OPPOSITE
of what one would think >> Integrate all data!!

Neb. 1 Neb. 3

Though seismic and well-log correlation Though seismic and well-log correlation
suggest reservoir continuity, this unit exhibits suggest reservoir compartmentalization,
major compartmentalization! this unit behaves as a single reservoir!

Seismic Petrophysics
Bright Spots, Polarity Reversals, and Dim
Spots as a Function of Depth

(Brown, 2010, AAPG S&D 40519 )

41
 Seismic Petrophysics
Polarity Reversal

CAUTION!! Careful mapping is

often needed to distinguish true
polarity reversals from small
faults.

(Brown, 1999)

Reflection Coefficient
Amplitude vs. Offset (or Angle)  AVO or
AVA Analysis
 The basic reflection coefficient
equation is valid only for normal
incident raypaths.
 It provides a useful “first look” analysis
and understanding of reflection strengths.
 However most raypaths are not normal
incident and some energy is lost due to
energy partitioning and mode conversion.
 More complex equations are used to
R(θ)

describe reflection coefficients as

incidence angle θ increases.
 Variations of amplitude with offset (or
angle of incidence) provide useful
information, especially regarding fluids.
 Understanding such variations are the
fundamental basis of AVO (or AVA)
analysis, from simple comparison of near
vs. far stacks to advanced high-order
θ polynomial expressions.
(Graul and Hilterman, 1999)

42
 Reflection Coefficient
Amplitude vs. Offset (or Angle)  AVO or
AVA Analysis

(http://www.apexgeophysical.com/avaavoanlys.html)

Diffraction

• A diffraction is a special wave

interaction that occurs at a
discontinuous boundary.
• Discontinuous boundaries occur at
faults (i.e., strata terminations against
faults), angular unconformities,
salt/sediment interface, stratigraphic
pinch-outs and lens, etc. Depth
• Diffracted waves result due to Model
Huygen’s principle which states that
every point on a wavefront (i.e., a
vibration) acts as a new source of
waves that vibrate in all directions from
that point.
• Diffractions result in hyperbolae on
reflection surveys, and can be used to
locate and map various discontinuous
boundaries.
• Migration removes diffraction
hyperbolae, thus unmigrated surveys Time
are used for discontinuity mapping using Oops! This half of the

diffractions. Model diffraction hyperbola

should technically be a
trough. (Robinson and Coruh, 1988)

43
Diffraction

Unmigrated Migrated

(Mussett and Khan, 2000)

Diffraction
Unmigrated surveys aren’t always bad.

Uninterpreted Interpreted
Salt/sediment interface mapped
by diffractions

(Sheriff, 1978)

44
Thank You

45