CHAPTER 1

CURRICULUM ESSENTIALS

Module 1 - The Teacher and the School Curriculum

Lesson 1: The Curricula in School

Desired Learning Outcomes:

 Discuss the different curricula that exist in the schools.

 Analyze the significance of curriculum and curriculum development in the teacher’s
classroom.
Different schools are established at different educational levels with corresponding
recommended curricula in our current Philippine educational system. The educational levels are:
TESDA take care of the technical-vocational education training
1. Basic Education
This level includes Kindergarten, Grade 1 to Grade 6 for elementary, and for secondary,
Grade 7 to Grade 10, for the Junior High School and Grade 11 and 12, and the Senior
High School. Each of the levels has its specific recommended curriculum. The new basic
education levels are provided in the K to 12 Enhanced Curriculum of 2013 of the
Department of Education.
2. Technical Vocational Education
It is a post-secondary technical vocational education and training. The TechVoc track in
SHS of Deped and TESDA work in close coordination.
3. Higher Education
It includes the Baccalaureate or Bachelor Degrees and the Graduate Degrees (Masterate
and Doctorate), which are under the Commission on Higher Education (CHED)
regulation.

Several curricula exist at different levels of schooling and various learning environments.
Let us find out how Allan Glatthorn (2000), as mentioned in Bilbao et (2008), classified these:

Types of Curricula Simultaneously Operating in the Schools

Are you aware that there are several types of curricula in every classroom at the same time?
Let us study each one.

1. Recommended Curriculum.Almost all of the curricula found in our schools are

recommended. For Basic Education, these are recommendedby the Department of
Education (DepED), for Higher Education by the Commission on Higher Education
(CHED), and Vocational Technical Education by Technical Education, Skills
Development Authority (TESDA); these three government agencies oversee and regulate
Philippine education. The recommendations come in memoranda or policy, standards
and guidelines. Other professional organizations or international bodies like UNESCO
also recommend curricula in schools.

2. Written Curriculum. It includes documents based on the recommended curriculum.

They come in the form of course of study, syllabi, modules, books, and instructional
guides. A packet of this written curriculum is the teacher's lesson plan. The most recent
written curriculum is the K to 12 for Philippine Basic Education.
 3. Taught Curriculum. The curriculum has to be implemented or taught from what has
been written or planned. The teacher and the learners will put life into the written
curriculum. The teacher's skill to facilitate learning based on the written curriculum with
the aid of instructional materials and facilities will be necessary. The taught curriculum
will depend largely on the teacher's teaching style and the learning style of the learners.
4. Supported Curriculum is described as support materials that the teacher needs to
make learning and teaching meaningful. These include print materials like books,
charts, posters, worksheets, or non-print materials like PowerPoint presentations,
movies, slides, models, realias, mock-ups, and other electronic illustrations. The
supported curriculum also includes facilities where learning occurs inside the four-walled
building. These include the playground, science laboratory, audio-visual rooms, zoo,
museum, market, or the plaza. These are the places where authentic learning through
direct experiences occurs.
5. Assessed Curriculum. Taught and supported curricula have to be evaluated to find out
if the teacher has succeeded or not in facilitating learning. In the teaching process and
end of every lesson or teaching episode, an assessment is learning or assessment of
learning. If the process is to find learning progress, then the assessed curriculum is for
learning. However, if it is to determine how much has been learned or mastered, it is an
assessment of learning. In either way, such a curriculum is the assessed curriculum.
6. Learned Curriculum. How do we know if the student has learned? We always believe
that if a student changes behavior, he/she has learned, for example, from a non-reader
to a reader or from not knowing to know or from being disobedient to being obedient.
The positive outcome of teaching is an indicator of learning. Tools measure these in
assessment, indicating the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor outcomes. A learned
curriculum will also demonstrate higher-order and critical thinking and lifelong skill.
7. Hidden/Implicit Curriculum. This curriculum is not deliberately planned but has a great
impact on the learner's behavior. Peer influence,school environment, media, parental
pressures, societal changes, cultural practices, natural calamities are some factors that
create the hidden curriculum. Teachers should be sensitive and aware of this hidden
curriculum. Teachers must have good foresight to include these in the written curriculum
to bring to the surface what is hidden.
However, in every teacher's classroom, not all of these curricula may be present at
one time. Many are deliberately planned, like the recommended, written, taught,
supported, assessed, and learned curricula. However, a hidden curriculum is implied, and
a teacher may or may not predict its influence on learning. All of these have a significant
part in the teacher's life as a facilitator of learning and have direct implications for the
lives of the learners.
Now that you are fully aware that there are seven types of curricula operating in every
teacher's classroom, it is then very necessary to learn deeper and broader about the role
of the teacher concerning the school curriculum.

Lesson 2: The Teacher As A Curricularist

Desired Learning Outcomes:
 Enhance understanding of the role of the teacher as a curricularist in the classroom and
school.
 Are you aware that the teacher's role in school is very complex? Teachers do a series of
interrelated actions about curriculum, instruction, assessment, evaluation, teaching, and
learning. A classroom teacher is involved with the curriculum continuously all day. However,
very seldom has a teacher been described as a curricularist.
Curricularists in the past are referred only to as those who developed curriculum theories.
According to the study conducted by Sandra Hayes (1991), the most influential curricularists in
America include John Dewey, Ralph Tyler, Hilda Taba, and Franklin Bobbit. You will learn more
about them in the latter part of the module.

In this lesson, we will start using the word curricular to describe a curriculum specialist
professional (Hayes, 1991; Ornstein & Hunkins, 2004; Hewitt, 2006). A person involved in
curriculum knowing, writing, planning, implementing, evaluating, innovating, and initiating may
be designated as a curricularist. A TEACHER’S role is broader and inclusive of other
functions, so a teacher is curricular.

So what does a TEACHER do to deserve the label curricularist? Let us look at the
different roles of the teacher in the classroom and the school. The classroom is the first place of
curricular engagement. The first school experience sets the tone to understand the meaning of
schooling through the interactions of learners and teachers that will lead to learning. Hence, the
curriculum is at the heart of schooling.

Let us describe the teacher as a curricular.

The Teacher as a curricular..

1. Knows the curriculum. Learning begins with knowing. The teacher as a learner starts
with knowing about the curriculum, the subject matter, or the content. As a teacher, one
must master what is included in the curriculum. It is acquiring academic knowledge,
both formal (disciplines, logic) or informal (derived from experiences, vicarious, and
unintended). It is the mastery of the subject matter. (Knower)

2. Writes the curriculum. A classroom teacher records knowledge concepts, subject

matter, or content. These need to be written or preserved. As a curriculum writer or
reviewer, the teacher writes books, modules, laboratory manuals, instructional guides,
and reference materials in paper or electronic media. (Writer)
3. Plans the curriculum. A good curriculum has to be planned. It is the role of the
teacher to make a yearly, monthly, or daily plan of the curriculum. It serves as a guide
in the implementation of the curriculum. The teacher takes into consideration several
factors in planning a curriculum. These factors include the learners, the support
material, time, subject matter or content, the desired outcomes, the context of the
learners, among others. By doing this, the teacher becomes a curriculum planner.
(Planner)
4. Initiates the curriculum.In cases where the curriculum is recommended to the schools
from DepEd, CHED, TESDA, UNESCO, UNICEF, or other educational agencies to
improve quality education, the teacher is obliged to implement it. Implementation of a
new curriculum requires the open-mindedness of the teacher and the full belief that the
curriculum will enhance learning. There will be many constraints and difficulties in doing
things first or leading. However, a transformative teacher will never hesitate to try
something novel and relevant. (Initiator)
5. Innovates the curriculum. Creativity and innovation are hallmarks of an excellent
teacher. A curriculum is always dynamic, hence keeps on changing. From the content,
strategies, ways of doing, blocks of time, ways of evaluating, kinds of students, and
 skills of teachers, one cannot find a single eternal curriculum that would perpetually fit.
Therefore, a good teacher innovates the curriculum and thus becomes a curriculum
innovator. (Innovator
6. Implements the curriculum. The curriculum that remains recommended or written will
never serve its purpose. Somebody has to implement it. As mentioned previously, at
the heart of schooling is the curriculum. It is in this role that the teacher becomes the
curriculum implementor. An implementor gives life to the curriculum plan. The teacher
is at the height of an engagement with the learners, with support materials to achieve
the desired outcome. It is where the teacher's teaching, guiding, and facilitating skills
are expected to the highest level. It is here were teaching as a science and art will be
observed. It is here where all the curriculum elements will come into play. The success
of a recommended, well-written, and planned curriculum depends on the
implementation. (Implementor)
7. Evaluate the curriculum. How can one determine if the desired learning outcomes
have been achieved? Is the curriculum working? Does it bring the desired results?
What do outcomes reveal? Are the learners achieving? Are there some practices that
should be modified? Should the curriculum be modified, terminated, or continued?
These are a few questions that need the help of a curriculum evaluator. That person is
the teacher. (Evaluator)
The seven different roles are those which a responsible teacher does in the classroom every
day! Doing this multi-faceted work qualifies a teacher to be curricular.
To be a teacher is to be a curricular, even if a teacher may not equal the likes of John
Dewey, Ralph Tyler, Hilda Taba, or Franklin Bobbit. However, as a curricular, a teacher will
know, write, implement, innovate, initiate, and evaluate the curriculum in the school and
classrooms just like the role models and advocates in curriculum and curriculum development
who have shown the way.

Module 2: The Teacher as a Knower of Curriculum

Lesson 1: The School Curriculum: Definition, Nature, and Scope

Desired Learning Outcomes:

 Define curriculum from different perspectives.
 Describe the nature and scope of the curriculum.

Some Definitions of Curriculum

1. A planned and guided set of learning experiences and intended outcomes, formulated
through the systematic reconstruction of knowledge and experiences under the auspices
of the school, for the learners’ continuous and willful growth in personal social
competence" (Daniel Tanner, 1980).

2. A written document systematically describes goals planned, objectives, content,

learning activities, evaluation procedures (Pratt, 1980).

3. The contents of a subject, concepts, and tasks to be acquired, planned activities, the
desired learning outcomes and experiences, a product of culture, and an agenda to
reform society make up a curriculum (Schubert,1987).

4. A curriculum includes "all of the experiences that individual learners have in a program of
education whose purpose is to achieve broad goals and related specific objectives,
 which is planned in terms of a framework of theory and research or past and present
professional practices" (Hass, 1987).

5. Program of activities (by teachers and pupils) is designed to attain possible educational,
and other schooling ends or objectives (Grundy, 1987).

6. A plan that consists of learning opportunities for a specific time frame and place, a tool
that aims to bring about behavior changes in students as a result of planned activities,
and includes all learning experiences received by students with the school's guidance
(Goodland & Su, 1992).

7. As answers to three questions: 1. What knowledge, skills, and values are most
worthwhile? 2. Why are the most worthwhile? 3. How should the young acquire them?
(Cronbeth, 1992)

Some Points of View of Other Curricularists

Since a person's point of view shapes the concept and meaning of curriculum, this has
added to fragmentation and some confusion. However, when put together, the different
definitions from confusion. However, when put together, the different definitions from diverse
points of view would describe the curriculum as dynamic and perhaps ever-changing.
The point of view about the curriculum can either be traditional or progressive according to
their philosophical, psychological, and even psychological orientations. This view can also
define what a curriculum is all about.

Curriculum from Traditional Points of View

The traditional points of view of the curriculum were advanced by Robert Hutchins, Arthur
Bestor, and Joseph Schwab.

 Robert M. Hutchins views curriculum as "permanent studies" where rules of grammar,

reading, rhetoric, logic, and mathematics for basic education are emphasized. The 3Rs
(Reading, Writing, 'rithmetic) should be emphasized in basic education, while liberal
education should be emphasized in college.

 As an essentialist, Arthur Bestor believes that the school's mission should be intellectual
training. Hence curriculum should focus on the fundamental intellectual disciplines of
grammar, literature, and writing. It should include mathematics, science, history, and
foreign language.

 Joseph Schwab thinks that the sole source of the curriculum is a discipline, thus the
subject areas such as Science, Mathematics, Social Studies, English, and many more. In
college, academic disciplines are labeled as humanities, sciences, languages, and
mathematics. He coined the word discipline as a ruling doctrine for curriculum
development.

 Phillip Phenixasserts that curriculum should consist entirely of knowledge from various
disciplines.
From the traditional view of the theorists like Hutchins, Schwab, Bestor, and Phenix, the
curriculum can be defined as a field of study. The curriculum is highly academic and is
concerned with broad historical, philosophical, psychological, and social issues. From a
traditional view, the curriculum is mostly written documents such as syllabus, course of study,
books, and references where knowledge is found but is used to accomplish intended goals.
Curriculum from Progressive Points of View
On the other hand, a listing of school subjects, syllabi, course of study, and a list of
specific disciplines do not make a curriculum. In its broadest terms, a progressive view of the
curriculum is the total learning experiences of the individual. Let us look into how the curriculum
is defined from a progressive point of view.

 John Dewey believes that education is experiencing. Reflective thinking is a means that
unifies curricular elements that are tested by application.

 Holin Caswell and Kenn Campbellviewed curriculum as all experiences children have
under the guidance of teachers.

 Nathaniel Smith, William Stanley, and Harlan Shore likewise defined curriculum as a
sequence of potential experiences set up in schools to discipline children and youth in
group ways of thinking and acting.

 Colin Marsh and George Willis also viewed curriculum as all the experiences in the
classroom which are planned and enacted by the teacher and learned by the students.

The nature of the Curriculum has given rise to many interpretations, depending on a
person's philosophical beliefs. Let us put all of these interpretations in summary.

CURRICULUM is what is taught in school, as a set of subjects, content, a program of

studies, a set of materials, a sequence of courses, a set of performance objectives, and
everything within the school. It is what is taught inside and outside of school directed by the
teacher, everything planned by school, a series of experiences undergone by learners in school,
or what individual learner experiences as a result of school. In short, Curriculum is the total
learning experiences of the learner under the teacher's guidance.

Lesson 2: Approaches About School Curriculum

Desired Learning Outcomes:

 Describe the different approaches to the school curriculum.
 Explain by examples how the approaches clarify the definition of curriculum.
 Reflect on how the three approaches interrelate with each other.

Three Ways of Approaching a Curriculum

Curriculum can be approached or seen in three ways. It can be defined as content, a
process, or an outcome. If you examine the definitions of experts in the field, there are three
ways of approaching a curriculum. The first is to approach it as content or a body of knowledge
to be transmitted. The second is to approach it as a product or the learning outcomes desired by
learners. The third is to approach it as a process or what happens when the curriculum is
practiced.

1. Curriculum as a Content or Body of Knowledge

It is quite common for traditionalists to equate a curriculum as a topic outline, subject matter,
or concepts in the syllabus or books. For example, a primary school mathematics curriculum
consists of addition, multiplication, subtraction, division, distance, weight, and many more.
Another example is in secondary school science that involves the study of biological science,
physical science, environmental science, and earth science. Textbooks tend to begin with
biological science, and such are plants and animals, physical science with the physical
elements, force, and motion, earth science with the layers of the earth, and environmental
science with the interaction of the biological and physical science and earth's phenomena,
climate, vegetation followed by economic activities such as agriculture, mining industries,
urbanization.
If a curriculum is equated as content, then the focus will be the body of knowledge to be
transmitted to students using appropriate teaching methods. There can be a likelihood that
teaching will be limited to acquiring facts, concepts, and principles of the subject matter.
However, the content or subject matter can also be taken as a means to an end.
All curricula have content regardless of their design or models. The fund of knowledge is
the repository of accumulated discoveries and inventions of man from the explorations of
the earth and as a product of research. The curriculum is anchored on a body of knowledge
or discipline in most educational settings.

There are four ways of presenting the content in the curriculum. These are:
1. Topical approach, where much content is based on knowledge and experience
are included;
2. Concept approach with fewer topics in clusters around major and sub-concepts
and their interaction, with relatedness, emphasized;
3. A thematic approach is a combination of concepts that develops conceptual
structures and
4. Modular approach that leads to complete units of instruction.

Criteria in the Selection of Content

There are some suggested criteria in the selection of knowledge or subject matter.
(Scheffer, 1970 in Bilbao, et al 2009)

1. Significance - Content should contribute to ideas, concepts, principles, and

generalizations that should attain the overall purpose of the curriculum. It is significant if
the content becomes the means of developing the learner's cognitive, affective, or
psychomotor skills. As education is a way of preserving culture, the content will be
significant when this addresses the learners' cultural context.
2. Validity - The authenticity of the subject matter forms is valid. Knowledge becomes
obsolete with the fast-changing times. Thus there is a need for validity check and
verification at a regular interval because the content which may be valid in its original
form may not continue to be valid in the current times.
3. Utility - Usefulness of the content in the curriculum is relative to the learners who are
going to use these. The utility can be relative to time. It may have been useful in the
past but may not be useful now or in the future. Questions like: Will I use this in my
future job? Will it add meaning to my life as a lifelong learner? Or will the subject matter
be useful in solving current concerns?
4. Learnability - The complexity of the content should be within the range of experience
of the learners. It is based on the psychological principles of learning. Appropriate
organization of content standards and sequencing of contents are two basic principles
that would influence learnability.
5. Feasibility- Can the subject content be learned within the time allowed, a resource
available, the expertise of the teachers, and the nature of the learners? Are there
contents of learning which can be learned beyond the formal teaching-learning
engagement? Are there opportunities provided to learn these?
6. Interest - Will the learners take an interest in the content? Why? Are the contents
meaningful? What value will the contents have in the present and future life of the
learners? Interest is one of the driving forces for students to learn better.
 The selection of the subject matter or content, aside from the seven criteria mentioned
earlier, may include the following guidelines in selecting the CONTENT.

Guide in the Selection of the Content in the Curriculum

1. Content is commonly used in daily life.
2. Content is appropriate to the maturity levels and abilities of the learners
3. Content is valuable in meeting the needs and competencies of the future career.
4. Content is related to other fields or disciplines for complementation and integration.
5. Content is important in the transfer of learning in other disciplines

BASICS: Fundamental Principles of Curriculum Contents

Palma 1952, proposed that the contents in the curriculum should be guided by Balance,
Articulation, Sequence, Integration, and Continuity. However, in designing a curriculum,
contents added an important element: Scope. Hence from BASIC and BASICSinitials of
Balance, Articulation, Sequence, Integration, and Continuity (Hunkins &Ornstein, 2018)

Balance - Content should be fairly distributed in-depth and breadth. It will guarantee that
significant contents should be covered to avoid too much or too little of the contents needed in
the time allocation.

Articulation - As the content complexity progresses with the educational levels, smooth
connections or bridging should be provided vertically or horizontally across the same discipline.
It will assure no gaps or overlaps in the content. Seamlessness is desired content and can be
assured if there is articulation in the curriculum. Thus, there is a need for a team among writers
and implementers of the curriculum.

Sequence - The logical arrangement of the content refers to sequence or order. It can be
done vertically to deepen the content or horizontally to broaden the same content. In both ways,
the pattern usually is from easy to complex, what is known to the unknown, what is current to
something in the future.

Integration - Content in the curriculum does not stand-alone or in isolation. It has some
ways of relatedness or connectedness to other contents. Contents should be infused in other
disciplines whenever possible. It will provide a holistic or unified view of the curriculum instead
of segmentation. Contents integrated into other disciplines acquire a higher premium than when
isolated.

Continuity- Content should continuously flow as it was before, to where it is now and
where it will be in the future. It should be perennial. It endures time. Content may not be in the
same form and substance as seen in the past since changes and developments in curriculum
occur. Constant repetition, reinforcement, and content enhancement are all elements of
continuity.

Scope – The breadth and depth of the curriculum content are vital in a curriculum. The
scope consists of all the contents, topics, learning experiences comprising the curriculum. In
layman's terms, scope refers to coverage. The scope shall consider the cognitive level, affective
domain, and psychomotor skills in identifying the contents. Other factors will be considered, but
caution is given to the overloading of contents. "More content is not always better.”
2. Curriculum as a Process
We have seen that the curriculum can be approached as content. On the other hand, it can
also be approached as a process. Here, a curriculum is not seen as a physical thing or a noun
but as a verb or an action. It is the interaction among the teachers, students, and content. As a
process, curriculum happens in the classroom as the question asked by the teacher and the
learning activities engaged in by the students. It is an active process emphasizing the context in
which the processes occur. Used in an analogy of the recipe in a cookbook, a recipe is content
while cooking is the process.

This section will not discuss the different teaching strategies from where learning
experiences are derived. Rather, it will describe how the process as a descriptor of the
curriculum is understood. The content is the substance of the curriculum; how the contents will
be communicated and learned will be addressed by the process.

To teachers, the process is very critical. The other side of the coin is instruction,
implementation, and teaching. These three words connote the process in the curriculum. When
do educators ask teachers: What curriculum are you using? Some of the answers will be 1.
Problem-based. 2. Hands-on, Mind On 3. Cooperative Learning 4. Blended Curriculum 5. On-
line 6.Case-based and many more. These responses approach curriculum as a Process. These
are the ways of teaching, managing the content, guiding learning, methods of teaching, and
learning strategies of teaching or delivery modes. In all of these, there are activities and actions
that every teacher and learner do together, or the teacher guides learners. Some strategies are
time-tested traditional methods, while others are emerging delivery modes.

When curriculum is approached as a PROCESS, guiding principles are presented.

1. The curriculum process in teaching methods or strategies is meant to achieve the end.
2. There is no single best process or method. Its effectiveness will depend on the desired
learning outcomes, the learners, support materials, and the teacher.
3. The curriculum process should stimulate the learners' desire to develop each individual's
cognitive, affective, psychomotor domains.
4. In the choice of methods, learning and teaching styles should be considered.
5. Every method or process should result in learning outcomes described as cognitive,
affective, and psychomotor.
6. Flexibility in the use of the process or methods should be considered. An effective
process will always result in learning outcomes.
7. Both teaching and learning are two important processes in implementing the curriculum.

3. Curriculum as a Product
Besides viewing curriculum as content that is to be transmitted, or process that gives action
using the content, it has also been viewed as a product. In other words, the product is what the
students desire to achieve as learning outcomes.

The product from the curriculum is a student equipped with the knowledge, skills, and
values to function effectively and efficiently Approach. The real purpose of education is to bring
about significant changes in student's behavior patterns. Any statement of objectives or
intended outcomes of the school must be a statement of changes in the students. Central to the
approach is formulating behavioral objectives stated as intended learning outcomes or desired
products so that content and teaching methods may be organized and the results evaluated. A
product of learning is operationalized as knowledge, skills, and values.
 Curriculum product is expressed in the form of outcomes referred to as the achieved
learning outcomes. There may be several desired learning outcomes, but no learning outcomes
will be achieved if the process is not successful. These learned or achieved learning outcomes
are demonstrated by the person who has meaningful experiences in the curriculum. All of these
result from planning, content, and processes in the curriculum.

Lesson 3: Curriculum Development: Processes and Models

Desired Learning Outcomes:

 Explain and summarize the curriculum development process and models.

Curriculum Development Process

Curriculum development is a dynamic process involving many different people and
procedures. Development connotes systematic changes. A change for the better means
alteration, modification, or improvement of an existing condition. Development should be
purposeful, planned, and progressive to produce positive changes. Usually, it is linear and
follows a logical step-by-step fashion involving the following phases: curriculum planning,
curriculum design, curriculum implementation, and curriculum evaluation. Generally, most
models involve four phases.

1. Curriculum planning considers the school's vision, mission, and goals. It also includes
the philosophy or strong education beliefs of the school. All of these will eventually be
translated to classroom desired learning outcomes for the learners.

2. Curriculum designing is how the curriculum is conceptualized to include the selection

and organization of content, the selection and organization of learning experiences or
activities, and the selection of the assessment procedure and tools to measure achieved
learning outcomes. A curriculum design will also include the resources to be utilized and
the statement of the intended learning outcomes.

3. Curriculum implementation in the classroom setting or the learning environment. The

teacher, who is the facilitator of learning, leads the plan into action, which is based on
the curriculum design. Together with the learners, the curriculum design guides what will
transpire in the classroom to achieve the intended learning outcomes. Implementing the
curriculum is where the action takes place. It involves the activities in every teacher's
classroom where learning becomes an active process.

4. Curriculum evaluation determines the extent to which the desired outcomes have been
achieved. This procedure is ongoing to find out the progress of learning (formative) or
the mastery of learning (summative). Along the way, the evaluation will determine the
factors that have hindered or supported the implementation. It will also pinpoint where
improvement can be made and corrective measures introduced. The evaluation result is
very important for the decision-making of curriculum planners and implementors.

Curriculum Development Process Models

1. Ralph Tyler Model: Four Basic Principles

The curriculum development model is, also known as Tyler's Rationale,
emphasizes the planning phase. It is presented in his book Basic Principles of Curriculum
 and Instruction. He posited four fundamental principles, which are illustrated as answers
to the following questions:
1. What educational purposes should the school seek to attain?
2. What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain these
purposes?
3. How can these educational experiences be effectively organized?
4. How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained or not?

Tyler’s model shows that in the curriculum development, the following considerations
should be made:
1. Purposes of the school
2. Educational experiences related to the purposes
3. Organization of the experiences
4. Evaluation of the experience

2. Hilda Taba Model: Grassroots Approach

Hilda Taba improved on Tyler's model. She believed that teachers should
participate in developing a curriculum. As a grassroots approach, Taba begins from the
bottom rather than from the top, as Tyler proposed. She presented seven major steps to
her linear model, which are the following:
1. Diagnosis of learners’ needs and expectations of the larger society
2. Formulation of learning objectives
3. Selection of learning contents
4. Organization of learning contents
5. Selection of learning experiences
6. Determination of what to evaluate and the means of doing it

3. Galen Saylor and William Alexander Curriculum Model

Galen Saylor and William Alexander (1974) viewed curriculum development as
four steps. The curriculum is "a plan for providing sets of learning opportunities to
achieve broad educational goals and related specific objectives for an identifiable
population served by a single school center.”

1. Goals, Objectives, and Domains: Curriculum planners begin by specifying the

major educational goals and specific objectives they wish to accomplish. Each
major goal represents a curriculum domain: personal development, human
relations, continued learning skills, and specialization. The goals, objectives, and
domains are identified and chosen based on research findings, accreditation
standards, views of the different stakeholders.

2. Curriculum Designing: The designing of a curriculum follows where

appropriate learning opportunities are determined and how each opportunity is
provided. According to student needs and interests, will the curriculum be
designed along with academic disciplines or themes? These are some of the
questions that need to be answered at this stage of the development process.

3. Curriculum Implementation: A designed curriculum is now ready for

implementation. Teachers then prepare instructional plans where instructional
objectives are specified, and appropriate teaching methods and strategies are
utilized to achieve the desired learning outcomes among students.
 4. Evaluation: The last step of the curriculum model is evaluation. A comprehensive
evaluation using a variety of evaluation techniques is recommended. It should
involve the school's total educational program and the curriculum plan, the
effectiveness of instruction, and the achievement of students. Through the
evaluation process, the curriculum planner and developers can determine
whether or not the goals of the school and the objectives of instruction.

All the models utilized the processes of (1) curriculum planning, (2) curriculum designing, (3)
curriculum implementing, and (4) curriculum evaluating.

Lesson 4: Foundations of Curriculum

Desired Learning Outcomes:

 Describe the foundations of curriculum development.
 Explain how each foundation influences curriculum development.

Foundations of Curriculum
1. Philosophical Foundations
Educators, teachers, educational planners, and policymakers must have a philosophy or
strong belief about education and schooling and the kind of curriculum in the teachers'
classrooms or learning environment. The philosophy of the curriculum answers questions
like What are Schools for? What subjects are important? How should a student learn? What
methods should be used? What outcomes should be achieved? Why?

The various activities in school are influenced in one way or another by a philosophy.
John Dewey influenced "learning by doing," he is a pragmatist. Alternatively, to an
essentialist, the focus on the fundamentals of reading, writing, and arithmetic are essential
subjects in the curriculum.

There are many philosophies in education but will only have a few to illustrate, as
presented by Ornstein and Hunkins in 2004.

A. Perennialism (Plato, Aristotle or Thomas Aquinas)

 Aim: To educate the rational person; cultivate intellect.
 Role: Teachers assist students to think with the reason (critical thinking: HOTS)
 Focus: Classical subject, literary analysis. The curriculum is enduring.
 Trends: Use of great books (Bible, Koran, Classics) Liberal Arts

B. Essentialism (William Bagley (1974-1946)

 Aim: To promote the intellectual growth of learners to become competent.
 Role: Teachers are sole authorities in the subject area.
 Focus: Essential skills of the 3Rs; Essential subjects
 Trends: Back to Basics. Excellence in Education. Cultural Literacy

C. Progressivism (John Dewey (1859-1952)

 Aim: Promote democratic social living.
 Role: Teacher leads for the growth and development of lifelong learners.
 Focus: Interdisciplinary subjects. Learner-centered.Outcome-based.
  Trends: Equal opportunities for all.Contextualized curriculum. Humanistic
education.

D. Reconstructionism (Theodore Brameld (1904-1987)

 Aim: To improve and reconstruct society. Education for change
 Role: The teacher acts as an agent of change and reforms.
 Focus: Present and future educational landscape.
 Trends: School and curricular reform. Global education. Collaboration and
Convergence.Standards and Competencies.

2. Historical Foundations
Where is curriculum development coming from? The historical foundations will show us
the chronological development along a timeline. Reading materials would tell us that
curriculum development started when Franklin Bobbit (1876-1956) wrote "The Curriculum."
Let us see how each one contributed to curriculum development during their own time. Here
are eight among the many we consider to have a great contribution.

Persons Contribution

 Started the curriculum development movement.

Franklin  Curriculum as a science that emphasizes students' needs.
Bobbit (1876-  The curriculum prepares learners for adult life.
1956)  Objectives and activities are grouped when tasks are clarified.

 Like Bobbit, the curriculum is science and emphasizes students' needs.

Werret  Objectives and activities should match. Subject matter or content relates
Charters to objectives.
(1875-1952)
 Curricula are purposeful activities that are child-centered.
William  The purpose of the curriculum is child development and growth. The
Kilpatrick project method was introduced by Kilpatrick, where teacher and student
(1875-1952) plan the activities.

 To Rugg, the curriculum should develop the whole child. It is child-

centered.
Harold Rugg  With objectives and related learning activities, the curriculum should
(1886-1960) produce outcomes.
 Harold Rugg emphasized social studies, and the teacher plans the
curriculum in advance.

 Sees curriculum as organized around social functions of themes,

Hollis organized knowledge, and learner's interest.
Caswell  Caswell believes that curriculum, instruction, and learning are interrelated.
(1901-1989)  A curriculum is a set of experiences. The subject matter is developed
around social functions and learners' interests.

 As one of the hallmarks of curriculum, Tyler believes that curriculum is a

science and an extension of the school's philosophy. It is based on
 Ralph Tyler students' needs and interests.
(1902-1994)  To Tyler, the curriculum is always related to instruction. The subject
matter is organized in knowledge, skills, and values.
 The process emphasizes problem-solving. The curriculum aims to
educate generalists and not specialists.

 Contributed to the theoretical and pedagogical foundations of concepts

Hilda Taba development and critical thinking in social studies curriculum.
(1902-1967)  Helped lay the foundation for a diverse student population.

 Described how curriculum change is a cooperative endeavor.

Peter Oliva  Teachers and curriculum specialists constitute the professional core of
(1992-2012) planners.
 Significant improvement through group activity.

3. Psychological Foundation of Curriculum

Psychology provides a basis to understand the teaching and learning process. It unifies
elements of the learning process. Questions that psychological foundations of education can
address are: How should curriculum be organized to enhance learning? What is the optimal
level of students' participation in learning the various contents of the curriculum? In this
module, we shall consider three learning theories: behaviorism or association theories,
cognitive-information processing theories, and humanistic theories (Ornstien&Hunkins,
2004).

Let us review some theories in learning related to these clusters of learning theories.

3.1 Association and Behaviorism

Persons Contribution

 Father of the Classical Conditioning Theory, the S-R Theory.

 The key to learning in the early years of life is to train them what
Ivan Pavlov you want them to become.
(1849-1936)  S-R Theory is a foundation of learning practice called
indoctrination.

 Championed the Connection Theory

 Proposed the three laws of learning
Edward - Law of readiness
Thorndike (1874- - Law of exercise
1949) - Law of effect
 The specific stimulus has a specific response.

 Proposed the Hierarchical Learning Theory. Learning follows a

Robert Gagne hierarchy.
(1916-2002)  Behavior is based on prerequisite conditions.
 Introduced tasking in the formulation of objectives
 Cognitive Information Processing Theory

Persons Contribution

 Theories of Jean Piaget

- Describes cognitive development in terms of stages from birth to
Jean Piaget maturity
(1896-1980) - Sensorimotor stage (0-2), preoperational stage (2-7), concrete
operation stage (7-11), and formal operations (11 - onwards)

 Key to learning
- Assimilation (incorporation of new experience)
- Accommodation (learning modification and adaptation)
- Equilibration (balance between previous and later learning)

 Theory of Lev Vygotsky

- Cultural transmission and development
- As a result of their interaction with society, children could perform
certain cognitive actions prior to arriving at the developmental
stage.
- Learning precedes development
Ley Vygotsky - Sociocultural development theory
(1896-1934)
 Key to learning
- Pedagogy creates learning processes that lead to the
development
- The child is an active agent in his or her educational process.

 Gardner’s multiple intelligences

- Humans have several different ways of processing information,
Howard Gardner and these ways are relatively independent of one another.
- Eight bits of intelligence: linguistic, logic mathematical, musical,
spatial, bodily/kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and
naturalistic.

 Emotion contains the power to affect the action

Daniel Goleman - Emotional Quotient

3.3 Humanistic Psychology

Persons/ Contribution
Symbols

 Gestalt Theory
- Learning is explained in terms of the "wholeness" of the problem.
- Human beings do not respond to isolated stimuli but an
 organization or pattern of stimuli.
 Key to learning
Gestalt - Learning is complex and abstract.
- Learners analyze the problem, discriminate between essential
and nonessential data, and perceive relationships.
- Learners will perceive something about the whole what/how they
perceive is related to their previous experiences.
 Self-actualization Theory
 The classic theory of human needs.
 A child whose basic needs are not met will not be interested in
Abraham acquiring knowledge of the world.
Maslow (1908-  Put importance on human emotions based on love and trust.
1970)
 Key to learning
- Produce a healthy and happy learner who can accomplish, grow
and actualize his or her human self.

 Nondirective and Therapeutic Learning

- Established counseling procedures and methods for facilitating
learning.
Carl Rogers - Children's highly individualistic perceptions influence their learning
(1902-1987) and behavior in class.

 The key to learning is

- The curriculum is concerned with the process, not the product;
personal needs, not subject matter, psychological meaning, not
the cognitive source.

4.0 Social Foundations of Curriculum

Persons/Symbols Contribution

 Society as a source of change

Schools and  Schools as agents of change
Society  Knowledge as an agent of change

 Influence of society and social context in education

 Things that surround individuals can change, develop their
Emile Durkheim behavior
(1858-1917)  Considered two fundamental elements, which are schools
and civil society

 Wrote the book Future Shock

 Believed that knowledge should prepare students for the
Alvin Toffler future
 Suggested that in the future, parents might have the
 resources to teach prescribed curriculum from home as a
result of technology, not despite it. (Home Schooling)
 Foresaw schools and students worked creatively,
collaboratively, and independently of their age.

Other Theorists

 Education is a means of shaping the person and society

through critical reflections and "conscientization."
 Teachers use questioning and problem-posing approaches to
Paolo Freire (1021- raise students' consciousness.
1997)  Emphasis on questioning problem posing and critical thinking
 Major book: Pedagogy of the Oppressed, 1968
 Curriculum organized around needs and society and the
students
 Reduce student conformity in the classroom
John Goodlad  The constant need for school improvement
(1920-2014)  Emphasis on active learning and critical thinking
 Involvement of students in planning curriculum content and
instructional activities
 Need to align content with standards
 Major book: A Place Called Schools, 1984; What Are Schools
For? 1989
 Broaden the conception of curriculum to enrich the practice
 Understand the nature of the educational experience
 The curriculum involves multiple disciplines
William Pinar (1947  The curriculum should be studied from historical, racial,
-) gendered, phenomenological, postmodern, theological, and
international perspectives.

The foundation upon which the curriculum is based is educational philosophies, historical
developments, psychological explanations, and societal influences. All of these foundations are
interrelated to each.

References:

Bilbao, P.B., Corpuz, B.B. & Dayagbil, F.T. (2020). The teacher and the school curriculum.
Lorimar Publishing, INC. QuezonCity, Metro Manila.

Bilbao, P.P., Dayagbil, F.T., & Corpuz, B.B. (2014). Curriculum development. Lorimar
Publishing, Inc. 776 Aurora Blvd., cor. Boston Street, Cubao, Quezon City,
Metro Manila