Unit 4

Unit 4
Methods for Teaching EFL: Skills
Teaching Writing
Index
Scheme 3
Key Ideas 4
4.1. Introduction and Objectives 4
4.2. Difference between Spoken and Written Texts 5
4.3. Methodological Considerations 8
© Universidad Internacional de La Rioja (UNIR)
4.4. Text Types and Registers 10

4.5. Activities, Tasks and Resources in the EFL
Classroom 15
4.6. Bibliographic References 22
In Depth 24
Test 27
TEACHING WRITING
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN METHODOLOGICAL ACTIVITIES, TASKS,

TEXT TYPES AND REGISTERS
SPOKEN AND WRITTEN TEXTS CONSIDERATIONS AND RESOURCES
Data-driven learning Purpose for teaching writing Gunther Kress’s model of register Paul Nation’s principles to help
types students in the writing process
Production, goal, and social Orientations in teaching L2
context writing The four rhetorical modes Types of writing tasks
Written vs. Oral discourse: J. R. Martin’s model of genre, Parts of the writing process
Vocabulary, speed, audience register and language
Biber and Conrad’s situational Feedback

characteristics of registers and
genres
Scheme
Unit 4. Scheme
3
Key Ideas
4.1. Introduction and Objectives
This unit presents an overview of recent developments in FL writing and teaching

writing. The great variety of perspectives and theories on genre, text type, and
register reveal the complexity of the task of teaching writing in the EFL classroom.
The first section analyzes the differences between spoken and written discourse, as
a starting point of understanding the characteristics of writing. The second part
considers some general orientations of teaching writing and some definitions of
concepts of genre, text type, and register. The last part offers some ideas about the
practical application of these theoretical considerations in the classroom.
The objectives of this unit are as follows:
 To recognize the differences between written and spoken texts, in terms of

production, goal, and social context.
 To distinguish a number of models and perspectives which determine the
definition of concepts such as genre, text type, and register.
 To relate theoretical approaches to types of writing tasks and their application in
the EFL classroom.

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Unit 4. Key ideas
4.2. Difference between Spoken and Written Texts
Communication calls upon all the four macro skills and their integrated teaching in
context. One of the implications of the communicative approach when it was first
introduced into the FL classroom was giving priority to oral communication and
fluency, as a reaction to previous approaches that privileged reading, writing, and
grammatical accuracy. Current perspectives on FL teaching shift attention from the
teacher and the teaching method to the learner. This means that we have to be
aware of the great variety of learning needs and goals and adapt our approach to
these learning needs. Some learners may need to improve their writing skills in
professional settings, others may have to prepare for entrance exams, i.e. the key
learner variables should be central in the pursuit of language proficiency.
Corpus-based research has provided new insights into the use of written and oral
discourse by both native speakers and EFL learners and late 1990s saw a growing
interest in the convergence between corpus-based evidence and language teaching.
Data extracted from corpora was used for writing FL teaching materials, in particular
for substituting invented examples, which at times sounded unnatural, with grammar
structures and vocabulary employed by native speakers. For instance, corpus-based
research showed that near-native proficiency is marked by the use of prefabricated
expressions, such as ‘collocations’ and collocation patterns are also extracted from
corpora. A new concept emerged as a result of this corpus-based approach to
language learning—data-driven learning (DDL).
In addition to corpora produced by native speakers, learner corpora have received

much attention and have played an important role in understanding how language is
produced by FL learners. Learner corpora are compiled from both oral and written
discourse (all types of writing assignments are used to extract data, e.g.
compositions) and numerous publications have shown that both are reliable sources,
and “the only difference between written vs. spoken texts in the study of
interlanguage lies in the proportion or percentage of the observed phenomenon:

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Unit 4. Key ideas
some linguistic phenomena show a higher frequency in spoken than written
language, and vice versa” (Lozano & Mendikoetxea, 2013, p. 81). The starting point
of teaching writing in the EFL classroom is precisely this difference between written
and oral discourse.
Oral and written discourse differ from each other in many ways and depending on
the perspective from which these differences are examined, diverse dimensions can
be delineated. We can trace these differences on the basis of three key parameters:
production, goal, and social context.
Manner of production
 Channel (Means of transmission, such as electronic screens, printed books,

graffiti, etc.).
 Medium (The method of transmission. In face-to-face conversations, the medium
is the articulatory organ that takes part in the production of the sounds. Other
media are a film soundtrack, radio transmissions, etc.).
 Relative speed of production (Producing a written message is slower than
producing an oral message and a greater effort is needed).
Written communication receives less attention in FL classroom, which means that

learners are more exposed to oral discourse. In fact, young learners first develop oral
skills and later master writing skills. Written discourse displays more complex
morphological and syntactic structures, which young learners do not yet know. On
the other hand, spoken language tends to be more fragmented, presumably because
of the speed of production. Social context for oral discourse implies the presence of
a speaker and a listener and the message is transmitted immediately. The
participants in a conversation can also adjust the language they use to the reactions
of the listener. Oral discourse makes more use of context than strategies in writing,
as speakers often rely on non-verbal communication.

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Unit 4. Key ideas
In May 1987, Wallace Chafe and Jane Danielwicz published Technical Report 05.
Properties of Spoken and Written Language, which remains one of the most
influential studies into the difference between speech and writing. In the
introduction to their comparative report, Chafe and Danielwicz (1987) remind us of
what is probably the most important issue we should take into account in teaching
writing, i.e. that written and spoken style often overlap.
It has always been clear, however, that neither spoken language nor written
language is a unified phenomenon. Far from there being one single kind of
language that people speak and one other kind that they write, each of these
two modes itself allows a multiplicity of styles. (p. 5)
The table below presents a brief overview of Chafe and Danielwicz’s findings.
Written discourse vs. Spoken discourse

Writers have time to deliberate and to Speakers must make choices of vocabulary
revise their choices → has more varied very quickly → narrower range of lexical
vocabulary; with or without editing choices
Likely to contain new words and new senses
Likely to retain older words and senses of old words
Colloquial vocabulary is less frequent Freshness of vocabulary

Longer intonation units in clause Shorter intonation units in clause
construction construction
Social isolation (detachment from the Social interaction (involvement with the
audience) audience)
Table 1. Written and spoken discourse. Source: adapted from Chafe & Danielwicz, 1987.
In “Oral and Literate Strategies in Spoken and Written Narratives”, Tannen (1982)
examines the spoken and written versions of a narrative and concludes that “the
difference between features of language which distinguish discourse types reflect not
only—and not mainly—spoken vs. written mode, but rather genre and related
register, growing out of communicative goals and context” (p. 18). Tannen’s study
points to the importance of discussing text types and registers in the field of teaching
writing in the FL classroom.

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Unit 4. Key ideas
Think about it!
Research shows that teaching writing should combine with extensive reading and that
often a good reader is also a good writer. At what age should children start studying
writing? What will the first writing activities look like? Will you focus on vocabulary,
grammar, or content?
4.3. Methodological Considerations
The aim of teaching writing should always consider the range of abilities of the
learner and the communicative context. When assigned a writing task, students often
draw on their knowledge of similar texts, i.e. on knowledge acquired through reading.
Although accuracy and a focus on grammatical and syntactic structures is important
for correct use of English, writing instruction should not be limited to these aspects
of the text. Students should be able to understand how words and grammatical items
function at the level of the text and not only at the level of the sentence, i.e. how
they can transmit a message through a larger discourse structure (for further
information on integrating reading and writing skills, see “Relations between early
reading and writing skills” in the “In-Depth” section).
Although students often have to carry out a writing task on their own, the teacher
can create opportunities for group work in one of the stages of the writing process.
In the pre-writing stage students can work in group to generate ideas, e.g. they can
write the questions for a survey on a topic, carry out the survey and share the results
with the group and discuss them. Eventually they can write a report on the topic
individually. At the revision stage, texts can be revised by the teacher or by the other
members of the group.
It is important to remember that there should be a balance between teaching formal

aspects of the text and text organization, rigid patterns and generic features, and

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Unit 4. Key ideas
boosting students’ creativity and critical thinking through writing. Ken Hyland
identifies seven approaches in teaching L2 writing.
ORIENTATIONS IN TEACHING L2 WRITING AROUND A DIFFERENT FOCUS
Language structures
Learners pay attention to formal text units and the rules that determine them, e.g.
grammar, vocabulary, syntax, cohesion, etc. Writing is often limited to guided
compositions. This approach is suitable for lower proficiency levels. Assessment
focuses on accuracy.
Stages:
1. Familiarization (learners are taught grammar and vocabulary).
2. Controlled writing (learners manipulate fixed patterns).
3. Guided writing (learners imitate model texts).
4. Free writing (learners write essays, letters, etc., using the patterns).
Text functions
Students are taught to complete and organize paragraphs, following pre-taught
organizational structures, such as narration, description, exposition. They learn how
to present introduction and conclusion, cause and effect, comparison and contrast,
among other functions.
Creative expression
Creative writing activities organized around student’s personal experiences. Students
are given the opportunity to share their vision on a certain topic of their interest. This
approach should stimulate them to discover their creative potential.
Writing process
Students are made aware of the stages of the writing process, which are essentially:
pre-writing, writing, revising, proofreading and editing. Students should accept
revision and improve the text. Finally, they should analyze the difficulties they have
encountered at each stage and what strategies they have used to address these
difficulties.
Content
This approach requires a special attention to content or what students will write
about. For this purpose, they should first have knowledge on the topic and teachers
might have to help them learn to prioritize. In some courses, students are required to
collaborate in finding and organizing the information they need for the writing
assignment.
Genre of writing
Genre-based approach takes into account the genre, understood as a way of using
language for a particular purpose. Special attention is paid to the intentions of the
writer. Direct instruction is essential in the pre-writing stage.
Table 2. Orientations in L2 teaching around a different focus. Source: adapted from Hyland, 2003, pp. 3-21.

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Unit 4. Key ideas
Think about it!
Can you think of ways of combining two of the approaches mentioned above? Which
two will you combine and how?
4.4. Text Types and Registers
Written language plays an important role in the EFL classroom. Students read and
write different text types, such as news reports, e-mail messages, magazine articles,
or blogs.
These texts have their own linguistic characteristics and students need to be taught
to use them correctly. However, this is not an easy task and the first difficulty comes
from the fact that there is much confusion surrounding the terms genre, text type,
and register. In addition to these terms, the term style is often used in teaching
writing. One of the reasons for the wide array of definitions is that these concepts
are the focus of research of several fields of study, such as discourse analysis,
pragmatics, sociolinguistics, and conversation analysis, among others. Genre and the
difficulties associated to its definition have been discussed in previous chapters, but
it is interesting to consider the concept in relation to the concept of register. For Kress
(2012), for instance, genre-based approach that assumes that those factors that
make languages specific to particular cultures are more interesting than what is
common for them, “offers the possibility of understanding language-in-culture and
language-in-society” (p. 23).
Because of the major interest of genre work in meaning and function, the
emphasis is, therefore, on an understanding of what language is doing and

being made to do by people in specific situations in order to make particular
meanings. The latter tells us about the social needs and the cultural values
and meanings of its users. (Kress, 2012, p. 23)

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Unit 4. Key ideas
Kress examines the history of the term ‘genre’ in literary studies, and more recently, in
education, describing the complex factors compacted into the term. In his approach,
“‘genre’ is a term for only a part of textual structuring, namely the part which has to do
with […] social relations between consumers and producers of texts” (Kress, 2012, p. 33).
The following diagram illustrates his use of the terms ‘genre’, ‘text type’, and ‘register’.
In fact, he gives the label ‘register types’ to the different ‘text types.’
Figure 1. Elements of the composition text. Source: adapted from Kress, 2012, p. 35.
A detailed examination of the relation between the terms ‘genre’, ‘text type’, and
‘register’ will show just how problematic the definition of each of them is and how
they intersect and overlap. This complexity leads to a number of text typologies.
Different schools of thought align with different theories and adopt different
classifications. To say that text types are classified according to the social purpose of
the text and offer a list of text types, such as: letter, essay, notice, report, poem,
memo, article, book, review, shopping list, job application, etc. will be a rather
simplified view of the current state-of-the-art in the field.

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Unit 4. Key ideas
For instance, the four rhetorical 'modes' of discourse are traditionally described as:
narration, description, exposition, and argumentation/persuasion. They were
widely thought until the 1950s and can still provide a good starting point for teaching
practice. they are sometimes used meaning text types.
 The purpose of narration is to introduce some characters in a setting, develop a

plot through a series of events. Examples include short stories, novels, anecdotes,
etc. Depending on their proficiency level, students can be asked to write a short
story or flash fiction story. The teacher may wish to establish some of the
parameters of the narrative in advance.
 Descriptive writing describes the characteristics of a person, place, or object,
often in detail to help the reader imagine the action or event. Narration and
description frequently appear in the same text, i.e. students might have to write a
text that includes the two modes.
 Expository texts convey information and explain new ideas and concepts. Young
learners can be asked to write a short expository text on topics such as the human
body, animals, food, etc. It is essential to teach them where and how to search for
the information they need for the writing assignment.
 The main features of argumentative texts include the ability to present a case,
expand on a point and provide evidence, the ability to support one’s argument
with examples, clear and logical structure. Argumentative texts are essential in
academic writing. It is crucial to teach students how to write argumentative text
at university, but having adapted the requirements to the proficiency level of the
students, some basic features can be taught even in primary education.
Biber (1989) argues that “although there is wide agreement on the importance of
these four discourse types, there is less agreement on the particular parameters
distinguishing among them” (p. 4) and proposes eight clusters classified on the basis
of five linguistic dimensions, instead. He interprets clusters as text types: intimate
interpersonal interaction, informational interaction, scientific exposition, learned
exposition, imaginative narrative, general narrative exposition, situated reportage,
involved persuasion. For the purpose, he analyzes a number of texts from two

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Unit 4. Key ideas
corpora, representing 23 genres: written (e.g. academic prose, general fiction,
science fiction, personal letters, etc.) and spoken (e.g. telephone conversation,
broadcast, planned speeches, etc.).
Biber makes difference between genre and text type. For him, “genres are the text
categories readily distinguished by mature speakers of a language; for example, the
genres of English include novels, newspaper articles, editorials, academic articles,
[…]. These categories are defined primarily on the basis of external format” (Biber,
1989, pp. 5-6). Texts within a particular genre can differ greatly, e.g. newspaper
articles in broadsheets and tabloids, thus “linguistically distinct texts within a genre
represent different text types” (Biber, 1989, p. 6).
In J. R. Martin’s model, “texts are social processes and need to be analysed as

manifestations of the culture they in large measure construct” (Martin, 1992, p. 493).
In the interpretation of context he includes two communication planes: “Genre
(context of culture) and register (context of situation), with register functioning as
the expression form of genre, at the same time as language functions as the
expression form of register” (Martin, 1992, p. 495).
Figure 2. Martin’s three plane model. Source: adapted from Martin, 1992, p. 495.
It is important to bear in mind that “access to genre, register and language as semiotic
resources is mediated through discourses of ethnicity, class, gender, and generation”
(Martin, 1992, p. 495).
As noted above, genre, text type, and register are defined and analyzed from
different perspectives, which makes the task of compiling a list of genres, text types
and registers for EFL teachers extremely complex. In any case, there is not a unique

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Unit 4. Key ideas
valid list, but rather a number of lists, depending on the approach. Said that, it is still
necessary to be aware of some basic differences. For example, in academic writing,
the structure of a research article will vary depending on the discipline. On the other
hand, a specific domain such as law, will contain different registers. Biber and Conrad
(2009) identify seven situational characteristics of registers and genres:
participants, relations among participants, channel, production circumstances,
setting, communicative purposes, and topic (p. 40).
Think about it!

Biber and Conrad analyze the situational differences between textbooks and classroom
teaching. This approach can be applied to two texts, instead. Please find two texts on the
same topic (e.g. healthy food) and analyze the situational differences between them in
terms of the seven characteristics proposed by Biber and Conrad.
Biber and Conrad describe three spoken registers: everyday face-to-face

conversation, university office hour meetings between a student and faculty
member, and service encounters and a number of written registers. In written
registers, the writers focus rather on conveying information than on establishing
interpersonal relationship. The authors compare newspaper writing and academic
prose in terms of the seven situational characteristics. They also mention a recent
phenomena that has blurred the boundaries between written and spoken registers
and that is online communication. The authors observe that some “conversational
features can be found in interpersonal written registers (such as e-mail messages or
chat rooms)” (Biber & Conrad, 2009, p. 91). For instance, e-mail messages present
frequency of lexical verbs similar to conversation. Their analysis has showed that e-
mails are “intermediate in the use of pronouns, using many more pronouns than
academic prose, but not as many as in face-to-face conversation. Finally, they are
similar to academic prose in their overall use of nouns, which are much more
common than in conversation” (Biber & Conrad, 2009, p. 182). These and other
findings reveal the difficulties in drawing a line between written and oral discourse.

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Unit 4. Key ideas
4.5. Activities, Tasks and Resources in the EFL
Classroom
Apart from factors such as age, general and specific competences, and language
proficiency, we should also take into account students’ potential and preferences for
producing one text type or another. Students’ previous knowledge on grammar and
syntax is as important as their personality and motivation. Those students who have
difficulties in writing in their native language will presumably find it even more
difficult to write in English. One of the most common problems in teaching writing is
that students often feel they lack vocabulary to express their ideas. On the other
hand, students who are good at writing in their native language are not necessarily
as good in writing in English (for further information on how to develop writing skills,
especially in early stages, see “Developing Writing Skills” in the “In-Depth” section).
Nation (2009) argues that teachers should consider the following principles to help
their students in the writing process:
 Meaning-focused Input. This principle can be applied if students are prepared for
what they are going to write. The choice of topic is essential in this case, as well as
the possibility of relating it to their personal experience.
 Meaning-focused Output. Genres and text types have different features, so it is
important to provide useful practice with a wide variety of genres. Topics, genres,
and text types should be interesting for the students and; in this way, they can use
writing to improve their knowledge on the language. Teachers should make sure
they have a clear idea of students’ needs and expectations.
Language-focused Learning. Students should be provided with strategies they can
use in different phases of the writing process. Clarity, fluency, and spelling are
given special attention.
 Fluency Development. Students can improve fluency (writing speed) through
repetitive activities (pp. 93-95).

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Unit 4. Key ideas
Nation (2009) divides writing tasks into: experience tasks (the teacher thinks of a
familiar topic, stimulates previous knowledge, learners might discuss the topic
orally), shared tasks (students work in groups to produce a piece of writing), guided
tasks (composition based on a series of pictures and questions), and independent
tasks (the teacher chooses a topic and students work independently).
In experience tasks, we should make sure students have the necessary experience to
complete the task. One way to make sure they all have this experience is to organize
an event in the pre-writing stage of the process. In the pre-writing stage students can
be asked to draw a picture, to write a list of words or sentences relating to the event,
to speak about the event, ask and answer questions about the event and the writing
task itself.
Think about it!

Think of a point of interest and landmarks in your town, e.g. a museum. Prepare a visit
to the museum, including a great variety of tasks (written and oral) for the pre-writing
stage of the experience writing task. You can take an interdisciplinary approach to the
task and choose to collaborate with another teacher.
A shared task proposed when it is difficult for a student to complete it on their own.
A good example is writing a task in group. Classes are to an extent multilevel, so in
group work students can help one another. Alternatively, the group can have a
secretary and after a discussion session, the secretary can write a report or whatever
is required for the task. In some cases, the secretary can write a list of shared ideas
on a given topic and then the members of the group can write the paper on their
own. Another possibility is for the whole class to work together on a task and the
teacher can write the composition on the board.
Guided tasks are quite common in the EFL classroom. For example, picture
description is a guided task. In guided tasks learners receive a lot of support, such as
pre-taught grammar structures and vocabulary, as well as models of picture

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Unit 4. Key ideas
descriptions learners are expected to follow. The teacher can also ask questions
about the picture and ask students to write their answers. These types of task allow
working with lower proficiency levels. Guidance can also be provided by other
students if the class is organized in multilevel groups. The use of pictures should not
be limited to picture description. The teacher can show students a series of pictures
to help them imagine a story with its plot, characters, and setting.
Think about it!

Ask students to bring to class 5-7 pictures of themselves or pictures they took of friends,
family or places of interest. What guided writing task can you think of in which students
can work with these pictures? Choose age group and proficiency level and try to combine
teaching writing with teaching other skills.
Another advantage of guided tasks is that students can focus on a particular language
structure and master it. For instance, the teacher might wish to practice past simple
tense and past progressive tense. Students are then required to write a text, say a
blog post, using these two narrative tenses. Connecting words and expressions are
often taught through guided writing tasks. Students are sometimes asked to
complete sentences in a text with the missing words, provided in the instructions. If
these words have different forms, such as singular/plural, students are asked to fill in
the gaps with the correct word in the correct form. Another writing task can include
ordering the words in a sentence, sentences in a paragraph, or paragraphs in a text
or matching some of these units.
Independent tasks are suitable for students who have certain proficiency level and
experience in completing the previous three types of task. Although in some ways
independent tasks resemble experience tasks, the former requires less preparation
and control and learners should be equipped with a number of writing strategies so
they can successfully overcome the difficulties they might face while completing the
task. It might be interesting to try to combine tasks and skills to enrich learners’
writing experience.

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Unit 4. Key ideas
Creative writing is an example of independent task, in which students are asked to
write imaginatively and express their feelings and ideas creatively. It provides
students with the opportunity of self-expression through both fiction and creative
non-fiction, such as personal essays. Creative writing tasks can take the form of
writing workshops, writing projects, or only as writing assignments in EFL courses.
Artistic engagement with the language will enhance learners’ self-esteem. In the
context of Advanced English class, creative writing tasks can be used to reinforce
vocabulary and grammar structures, but also to develop critical thinking skills and
cultural literacy (for further information on how to use creative writing in the EFL
classroom, see “Creative writing for language learners” in the “In-Depth” section).
The parts of the writing process might slightly differ in different studies on the topic,
but most include the following sub-processes:
 Pre-writing: Plot, cue, cluster, brainstorm, generate ideas, explicit language

teaching can occur, etc.
 Writing: Title, focus, drafts, etc.
 Revising: Organization, coherence, cohesion, word choice, feedback (peers or the
teacher).
 Editing: Proofread, self-edit, peer-edit, punctuation, revision checklist, etc.
 Publishing: Read the paper aloud in class, blog post, school journal, etc.
Nation (2009) offers another possible division of the writing process:
 Considering the goals of the writer.

 Having a model of the reader.
 Gathering ideas.
 Organizing ideas.
 Turning ideas into written text.
 Reviewing what has been written.
 Editing (p. 114).

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Unit 4. Key ideas
Unlike text-type-based writing tasks, Nation (2009) suggests using topic types with
readers of at least intermediate proficiency. He argues that “although texts may differ
in the topic they deal with, they may be similar in that they are all based on the same
topic type”, e.g. a recipe, a set of instructions for using an appliance, a set of
directions to a place all belong to instruction topic type (p. 127) (for further
information on how to design writing activities, see “Writing skills lesson plans” in the
“In-Depth” section).
Assessment needs special attention in teaching writing. First, we should bear in mind
that feedback usually includes error correction but is not limited to it. Feedback is a
sensitive issue and there are a number of questions teachers should be able to
answer before giving feedback to their students: What we should correct (grammar,
vocabulary, cohesion, etc.), shall we comment on the content (taking into account
cultural differences), how can we use the CFRL descriptors? Peer review and
feedback can be even more problematic. Learners might not take their peers’
comments seriously. To avoid this problem, the teacher can provide a checklist in
peer feedback. Checklists are also suitable for self-assessment.
Think about it!

What are the advantages and disadvantages of peer reviews in a writing activity assigned
to a group of 16-17 year olds? In what cases are peer reviews useful and how will you
proceed? Should the student whose text is reviewed adapt it to the recommendations
of his peer or the review itself should be discussed in the group?
Ferris (2006) observes that the debate about error feedback “has ranged from calls
to correction of all student errors to prevent fossilization to a preference for selective
correction that focuses on patterns of error that can be addressed productively to
recommendations that all error correction be eliminated because it is unnecessary,

ineffective and even counterproductive” (p. 81). Ferris discusses different types of
error feedback and distinguishes broadly two: direct and indirect feedback.

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Unit 4. Key ideas
Direct and Indirect feedback
Direct feedback Indirect feedback
The provision of the correct linguistic form by When the teacher indicates in some way that
the teacher may include crossing out an an error has been made (e.g. underline,
unnecessary word, phrase or morpheme; circle), but does not provide the correct form,
writing the correct word or form near the leaving the student to solve the problem that
erroneous form has been called to his or her attention
Table 3. Direct and Indirect feedback. Source: adapted from Ferris, 2006, p. 83.
The effectiveness of one type or another is still under debate, but it is clear that lower
levels of FL proficiency might not have enough knowledge to solve the problem
themselves and might value direct feedback. The choice of direct or indirect feedback
will depend on a number of factors apart from learners’ proficiency level, such as
error types, time, learners’ age, and last but not least, the aims of the writing task.
Feedback also depends on the mode (written and spoken), the form (checklist,
comments), and the length of the text to be evaluated. For some writing tasks, a
feedback sheet might be helpful for both teachers and students. Positive feedback
can boost learners’ confidence and motivate them to improve their language skills.
The main goal of feedback and assessment is to detect students’ needs and improve
their writing skills.
Ken Hyland makes a case for the use of writing portfolios for the evaluation of
writing performance.
Portfolios are multiple-writing samples, written over time, purposefully

selected from various genres to best represent a student’s abilities, progress
and most successful texts in a particular context. They can include drafts,
reflections, readings and teacher or peer responses as well as a variety of

finished texts. (Hyland, 2009, p. 129)

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Unit 4. Key ideas
One of the main benefits of using writing portfolios is that they contain multiple
samples, which show the progress of the student over time and increase the validity
of the assessment. Most portfolios are assembled by students, which encourages
them to reflect on their progress. While early feedback can sometimes be
discouraging, having the opportunity to observe their own progress is potentially
stimulating for students. It is essential to include different genres and text types in
the portfolio to create a representative sample of students’ development of their
writing skills. It is important to recognize the assessment tool that best suits learners’
needs and the course goals.
Teacher Resources
Bloch, J. (2008). Technologies in the Second Language Composition Classroom. Ann

Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.
Casanave, C. (2004). Controversies in Second Language Writing. Ann Arbor, MI:

University of Michigan Press.
Ferris, D., & Hedgecock, J. S. (2007). Teaching ESL Composition: Purpose, Process and
Practice. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Hyland, K. (2003). Second Language Writing. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Hyland, K. (2004). Genre and Second Language Writing. Ann Arbor, MI: University of
Michigan Press.
Kroll, B. (Ed.) (2001). Exploring the Dynamics of Second Language Writing. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Silva, T., & Matsuda, P. K. (Eds.) (2001). On Second Language Writing. Mahwah, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum.

21
Unit 4. Key ideas
English for academic purposes.
Access to the video through the virtual campus
Creative writing in the EFL classroom.
Access to the video through the virtual campus
4.6. Bibliographic References
Biber, D. (1989). A Typology of English Texts. Linguistics, 27(1), 3-43.
Biber, D., & Conrad, S. (2009). Register, Genre, and Style. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.

22
Unit 4. Key ideas
Chafe, W., & Danielwicz, J. (1987, May). Technical Report No. 5. Properties of Spoken
and Written Language. Berkeley, CA / Pittsburgh, PA: National Center for the Study
of Writing, University of California / Carnegie Mellon University.
Ferris, D. (2006). Does error feedback help student writers? New evidence on the
short- and long-term effects of written error correction. In K. Hyland & F. Hyland
(Eds.), Feedback in Second Language Writing: Contexts and Issues (pp. 81-104). New
York: Cambridge University Press.
Hyland, K. (2003). Second Language Writing. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Hyland, K. (2009). Teaching and Researching Writing. Harlow, UK: Pearson Education.
Kress, G. (2012). Genre as Social Process. In B. Cope & M. Kalantzis (Eds.), The Powers
of Literacy: A Genre Approach to Teaching Writing (pp. 22-37). London & New York:
Routledge.
Lozano, C., & Mendikoetxea, A. (2013). Learner corpora and Second Language
Acquisition: The design and collection of CEDEL2. In A. Díaz-Negrillo, N. Ballier & P.
Thomson (Eds.), Automatic Treatment and Analysis of Learner Corpus Data (pp. 65-
100). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Martin, J. R. (1992). English Text: System and Structure. Philadelphia & Amsterdam:
John Benjamins.
Nation, I. S. P. (2009). Teaching ESL/EFL Reading and Writing. London & New York:
Routledge.
Tannen, D. (1982). Oral and Literate Strategies in Spoken and Written Narratives.
Language, 58(1): 1-21.

23
Unit 4. Key ideas
In Depth
Relations between early reading and writing skills among Spanish-speaking
language minority children
Goodrich, J. M., Farrington, A. L., & Lonigan, C. J. (2016). Relations between early reading
and writing skills among Spanish-speaking language minority children. Reading and
Writing, 29(2), 297-319. (Access to the article through UNIR online library).
The present article discusses the development of reading skills and writing skills of
Spanish-speaking language minority children. The authors carried out a study with
554 children. Results showed that participants’ print knowledge was related to their
Spanish and English invented spelling skills. What’s more, minority children may apply
information obtained from learning to read and write in L1 when learning to write in
L2.

24
Unit 4. In Depth
Developing Writing Skills
Johnson, D. [Cambridge University Press ELT]. (2013, January 14). Developing Writing
Skills [Video file]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=97VjvpAbLOk
In this video, Dennis Johnson discusses the importance of teaching writing skills and
the initial stages in developing writing skills in the EFL classroom. By comparing life
skills to work skills, he makes students aware of the complexity of the learning
process. Then students read a model for writing in the form of an email and argues
that at the beginning students need to follow models very closely.
Creative writing for language learners (and teachers)
Maley, A. (2019, August 10). Creative writing for language learners (and teachers).
Retrieved from https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/creative-writing-language-
learners-teachers
Alan Maley’s opening lines identify the differences between creative writing and
other types of writing in terms of purpose and engagement with language. He goes
on to describe the benefits of including creative writing tasks in the EFL classroom. It
is interesting to note that he distinguishes between benefits for the learners and
benefits for the teachers.

25
Unit 4. In Depth
Writing skills lesson plans
Writing skills lesson plans (n.d.). Retrieved from

http://www.onestopenglish.com/skills/writing/lesson-plans/
“Onestopenglish” website, part of Macmillan Education, provides a wide variety of

sources for teachers, among them, writing skills lesson plans and worksheets. Levels
vary from pre-intermediate to upper-intermediate, but topics and text types can be
adapted to different proficiency levels.

26
Unit 4. In Depth
Test
1. Data-driven learning is:
A. A new concept emerged as a result of this corpus-based approach to
language learning
B. The result of convergence between corpus-based evidence and language
teaching.
C. Provides new insights into the use of written and oral discourse by both
native speakers and EFL learners
D. A, B, and C are correct.
2. We can trace the difference between oral and written discourse on the basis of:
A. Vocabulary and grammar structures.
B. Channel of transmission.
C. Production, goal, and social context.
D. The relation between the person that produces the message and the person
that receives the message.
3. According to Chafe and Danielwicz:

A. Detachment from the audience is characteristic for written discourse.
B. Detachment from the audience is characteristic for oral discourse.
C. Detachment from the audience means that there is no social interaction.
D. Detachment from the audience does not allow for choice of vocabulary.
4. According to Ken Hyland, genre-based approach takes into account the genre:
A. Of fictional works.
B. Understood as the four rhetorical modes.

C. Understood as a way of using language for a particular purpose.
D. In terms of mode of production.

27
Unit 4. Test
5. Choose the correct answer:
A. Genre and text type is the same.
B. Text type and register is the same.
C. Despite differences in defining the concepts, researchers agree that genre,
text type, register, and style are different concepts in the language classroom.
D. A, B, and C are wrong.
6. The four rhetorical 'modes' of discourse are traditionally described as:

A. Reception, production, interaction, and mediation.
B. Reading, writing, listening, and speaking.
C. Narration, description, exposition, and argumentation/persuasion.
D. A, B, and C are correct.

A. The boundary between written and oral discourse is often blurred in academic
writing.
B. A specific domain such as linguistics, can contain different registers.
C. The structure of an academic paper is the same in all the disciplines.
D. None of the above.
8. Nation (2009) divides writing tasks into:

A. Individual and group work.
B. Tasks that combine writing with speaking, listening, and reading.
C. Pre-writing, writing, and post-writing.
D. Experience tasks, shared tasks, guided tasks, independent tasks.

A. Feedback can include error correction, but it is not obligatory.

B. Error correction should include peer feedback.
C. There has been a debate about giving or not students feedback.
D. All of the above.

28
Unit 4. Test
10. Which of the following can boost learners’ confidence:
A. Creative writing.
B. Independent writing tasks.
C. Writing portfolios.
D. All of the above.

29
Unit 4. Test

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Unit 4

Methods for Teaching EFL: Skills

4.4. Text Types and Registers 10

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN METHODOLOGICAL ACTIVITIES, TASKS,

Biber and Conrad’s situational Feedback

4.1. Introduction and Objectives

This unit presents an overview of recent developments in FL writing and teaching

The objectives of this unit are as follows:

 To recognize the differences between written and spoken texts, in terms of

Methods for Teaching EFL: Skills

In addition to corpora produced by native speakers, learner corpora have received

Methods for Teaching EFL: Skills

 Channel (Means of transmission, such as electronic screens, printed books,

Written communication receives less attention in FL classroom, which means that

Methods for Teaching EFL: Skills

Written discourse vs. Spoken discourse

Colloquial vocabulary is less frequent Freshness of vocabulary

Methods for Teaching EFL: Skills

4.3. Methodological Considerations

members of the group.

It is important to remember that there should be a balance between teaching formal

Methods for Teaching EFL: Skills

ORIENTATIONS IN TEACHING L2 WRITING AROUND A DIFFERENT FOCUS

Methods for Teaching EFL: Skills

4.4. Text Types and Registers

emphasis is, therefore, on an understanding of what language is doing and

Methods for Teaching EFL: Skills

Methods for Teaching EFL: Skills

 The purpose of narration is to introduce some characters in a setting, develop a

Methods for Teaching EFL: Skills

In J. R. Martin’s model, “texts are social processes and need to be analysed as

(Martin, 1992, p. 495).

Methods for Teaching EFL: Skills

Think about it!

Biber and Conrad describe three spoken registers: everyday face-to-face

Methods for Teaching EFL: Skills

Methods for Teaching EFL: Skills

Think about it!

Methods for Teaching EFL: Skills

Think about it!

Methods for Teaching EFL: Skills

 Pre-writing: Plot, cue, cluster, brainstorm, generate ideas, explicit language

Nation (2009) offers another possible division of the writing process:

 Considering the goals of the writer.

Methods for Teaching EFL: Skills

Think about it!

recommendations that all error correction be eliminated because it is unnecessary,

Methods for Teaching EFL: Skills

Direct feedback Indirect feedback

Portfolios are multiple-writing samples, written over time, purposefully

reflections, readings and teacher or peer responses as well as a variety of

Methods for Teaching EFL: Skills

Bloch, J. (2008). Technologies in the Second Language Composition Classroom. Ann

Casanave, C. (2004). Controversies in Second Language Writing. Ann Arbor, MI:

Hyland, K. (2003). Second Language Writing. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Cambridge University Press.

Methods for Teaching EFL: Skills

Access to the video through the virtual campus

Creative writing in the EFL classroom.

Access to the video through the virtual campus

4.6. Bibliographic References

Biber, D. (1989). A Typology of English Texts. Linguistics, 27(1), 3-43.